☒ Introduction:

it abundant in
Hydrogen is universe
→
→
most .

3rd abundant surface

of globe
→
most on .

→
10th most abundant in earth 's crust .

→ It is visualised as
major source
of energy in future .

consist
→ structure
of hydrogen atom is simplest ,
it
of
only one protonand one electron .

→ H→ smallest atom
Ht → smallest cation
H
-

→ not smallest anion ( smallest anion → F- I

→ It exists as diatomic
gas Hzc dihydrogen ) ,
in elemental

form at room
temperature .

→ It
forms compounds with almost
every
element
in table
periodic .
#
Posilionofhydrogeninperiodictableii
Position
of hydrogen is not fixed in periodic table ,

as properties of hydrogen similar to alkali metals are

and
halogens both .

similaritieswithAlkalimetals.it
Hydrogen may gain loose I e- to noble
gas electronic
like alkali metal
configuration .

Hydrogen : H → '
nt
°
Is Is Noble has E. C-

Is
Alkali metal :
mins
M

1) 5 (
'
Ch -
h -

1) p
'

Noble has E. c.

ii) Alike alkali metals

hydrogen shows electropositive nature
,

with non -

metals and forms compounds with 05=+1

,
.

→ Tice
Hydrogen Hz uz : +

Alkali Metals
v1
M t Uz → I've :
/
Both show
reducing nature

) obtained
iii
Hydrogen may
be at cathode
during electrolysis ,
as

Mt is reduced to Hz alike alkali metal .

at cathode : Ht + e- → Hz
at cathode : Mt + e- → M

similaritieswithtlalogens.it
halogen Hydrogen
Alike ,
has one e- short than noble
gas ,

may accept
hence it to noble electronic
an e-
gain gas
configuration .

→
Hydrogen HIS
: H
'
152

Halogen ✗ →
ns2Ñp
-

: ✗

ns2np5 Noble has E. c.

f-
→ f- /
2522ps 2522ps
ii) Alike
halogens , hydrogen reacts with metals to
form
compounds with C- 1) oxidation state .

'

Nati
Hydrogen → Na t
Hz
→

'

Na Nail
Halogen
→ + →

Both show oxidising nature

)
iii
Hydrogen be obtained at anode
during electrolysis
may ,

H is oxidised to Hz alike
halogens
-

as
-

Natl Cat anode) Hat

-

: H →

NaCl Cat anode) : a- → Azt

Iv )
Hydrogen forms diatomic molecule bonded
by single covalent
bond , like halogens .

Hydrogen Hz
-

f-
Halogen Uz Brie I
-

2 , , , ,

v1
Hydrogen has
high ionisation
energy
like
halogens .

IE -13.6 ev
of H =

IE F -18 ev
of
=
,

Vi) bonded bonds other

Hydrogen is
by covalent with
non metals like
halogens
-

PH ]
Hydrogen →
H2o , Cha ,
etc

f- PF etc
Halogens →
20 , Cfy , ,
.

Conclusion :
Hydrogen has resemblance with alkali metal and
halogens both to a certain extent .

Although it
also
differs in properties from both .

Ys.itisuuiqieinbehauiourandis.tn|
erefore
table

ingroulp.IT#
,
, place
that is
separately
neither in
in

group
periodic
1 nor
#
Isotopesoftlydrogen :

Hydrogen has isotopes ① Protium ② Deuterium ③ Tritium

→
three :

IH or H M or D 3,11 or T

→
Most abundant isotope is protium .

Relative abundance : H > D > T -

→
Tritium is radioactive and emits low B- particles
energy
-

Isotopes of hydrogen have electronic

configuration
→
,
some

have almost chemical properties

so ,
they same .

Although they have different rate of reactions as

they have
different bond dissociation enthalpy .

Atomic (h)
properties of deuterium (D), ( T)
→
protium tritium
, .

Property H D T

no
of protons I I I
= =
.

electrons
no
of 1
- I =
I
=

no neutrons 0 < i < 2

of
-

(
Relative atomic mass
glmol ) 1.008 < 2.014 < 3.016

Relative abundance ( %) 99.985 > 0.0156 > 10-15

Physical properties of Hz and I

→

, Dz :

Properties Hz Dz Te
Molecular
Weight Cglmol ) 2.016 <
<
4.028 < 6-032

Melting Point ( K ) 13.96 18.73 < 20.62

Point ( 4 23.67 C 25.00

Boiling K ) 20.3g

Density ( g / L ) 0.09 C 0.18 < 0.27

Volatile Nature > >

-
- -

Bond
length ( pm ) 74.14 74.14 74.14
= =

Bond Energy ( KJ /mot ) 435-88 < 443.35 C 446.9

#
DÉÉydgm
-

)
i on the basis
of charge :

H+ and
-

Hydrogen can exist as ,

H Hut as ions .

Removal electron forms Ht is bare

proton
of 1$
,
which a .

→
Ht is not stable in solid state but it is stable in
,

aqueous solution .

→ Ht
forms bond with H2o ,
NH
,
etc .
to form Hoot Nhut etc
,

which are well known in solid and solution both .

Addition to orbital H
of electron
-

an Is
of H , forms
which is known as
hydride .

helium
H electronic
configuration but
-

→
has same as

it is much less stable because the positive

, single
charge on
proton must now control 2 electrons .

since 2*
of proton
→
1 less is
-

2 e- so H
on
very ,

is
highly polarizable .

ii ) on the basis
of reactivity :

Hydrogen is classified as ,
Nascent
hydrogen ,
Atomic

hydrogen and occuled hydrogen .

" "

NAIM : Nascent
for newly born
stands
,
.

so
,hydrogen formed during reaction
intermediate called Nascent
as is
hydrogen It be .
can

generated even at room

temp and can never be isolated .

Zu t H U
2mHz I Hz
-

↳ zuft + 2 [ n ] + 2 Ñ
Nascent H .
 Atog: is produced when molecular hydrogen
is passed through elect
-

arc .

It is obtained at elevated temperatures and can be

isolated at high temp

very
.

µ electrical 2M - atomic H
, > 2000
.

Absorption of any gas

on metal
is known occlusion
surface as .

When molecular hydrogen is absorbed on metal

surface ,

occluded
than this
hydrogen is known as
hydrogen .

Pt (s ) + Hz Ig )
④④④④
④#É Occluded
→

H .

Order
of reactivity : Atomic H > Nascent H > Occluded H .

iiil On the basis

of Nuclear Spin :

All homonu clear diatomic molecules nuclides with

having
non -

zero spin are expected to show nuclear spin

isomers .

( Mz , Dz , Tz ,
Nz , Oz etc ) .

When the two nuclear spins are

parallel and the resistant nuclear

spin is 1- and the state is three fold degenerated .

when the two nuclear skins are

antiparallel and the resulant nuclear

spin is
zero and the state is non -

degenerated .

Ortho
Hydrogen Para
Hydrogen
-

-
 → The amount
of ortho and para É :

hydrogen varies with temperature ;

✓
as :

Templin K) % ortho % para ratio 6 :p )

0 0% 100%
-

77 50% 50% lil 25

Room Temp 754 .

25% 3 : I

> 250 75% 25% 3 :| Émp

link)

→
As temperature 9 %
of ortho 4 and %
of para tr upto
later ratio
250 k
,
of ortho :
para =3 :L .

☒ Natureofn-cidso.oxidisingornon-oxidis.cn#
oxidisiugacidsi
species which acts as
oxidising agents as well as

Acids are
oxidising acids .

They give stronger oxidising anion with respect to Ht

(at pH=o ) ,
in solution .

lone Hzsoy conc HNO 04

eg=
: HMM HU Oy HU HU
,
.

] , , , Ong , Oz
all
oxyacids of halogens etc .

acids
In
oxidising anions acts
oxidising agents as
→
as
,

oxidising nature of anion > oxidising nature of Ht .

In atom has +5 oxidation state it

F- tenors N -

so
, ,

its instead
accept of HI
can e- on own so
,

NOI acts as
oxidising agent .

Non-oxidisingn-cidsi.tt
non
oxidising
-
acid is an acid in which there is
oxidant than Ht Cat )
no
stronger pm = 0 .

chloride ( 6- )
eg
In

reduced
tea
,
the ion is
already fully
,
ie .

,
it has lowest oxidation state ,
so

only Ht can act as

oxidising agent
.ee#HU,HBr,HzS ,
HI
,
did Hzsoy , Hzpoy etc .
?⃝
 concentration
→ As
of H+ T
,
oxidising Nature ( O.N.IT .

die
±É÷ "dilnno_
come V. V.

eg :
oxidising nature
of : > >
-

µwo
,

oxidising non
oxidising
-

9 electron
Electronegativity of central atom
→

of anion

oxidising acids

t.ee#- of nature
accepting tendency 9 so

oxidising Hzsoy
nature >
of Hnoz
> :
Hspoy
EN " ON t
B (on Oxidising Nature )
-

__

2nd period →

cone 170%1
] oxidising
HN9§dÉiie?
.

ic→ HzBg Halos

,
non -

oxidising Non -

] non -

oxidising v. v. dilys ) .

oxidising
Ous→ 112404 HNOZ

Reducing reducing
or
oxidising
> e- N' 0N "
3rd period → sips
cone
oxidising
.

Hzsoy
ie →
Hysioy Hzpoy Hf0y( did
Non Non
Hzsoy
-

oxidising
.

oxidising non -

oxidising
Ohs →
Hzpoz / Hzpoz 11£03
reducing oxidising
or
reducing
All
oxyacids of Halogen oxidising that is
→
are :
,

Cl HUO
-

→ HUO Hceoz ,H 60
y , ] ,
.

Bns Hebron HBRO] H Bro

Oxidising
, .

,
I →
Htoy ,
HIO] ,
HIO .

f- → HOF .
-

→ Reaction
of acid with Metals :

Metaloxidising
Non sabouetemetalsbelowfoxidisingn-a.cl/V/VCAu.P#-/
- Acid ✓
✗

@ here ,
✓ =
gives reaction ,
✗ = donat
gives rxn )
*
preprationofdihydwgenlnzt.IO
Laboratory preparation of Hz :

a) from rxn
of Metal with water :

M 1-
Hz → M ( OU ) n t HZT
M Metal reactive than
Hydrogen
→ =
more .

Na t
Hzo → NaOH t
Hzth

f- +1+5%5 e)
+

2 [ H ] →
HzT
→
As
reactivity of metal (M) to temp required for
.
rxnt .

→
hi cold water
Na K La Sr
gives Hz with
→
, ,
Ba .

, , ,

water
Mg ,
Cr
,
Mm
,
2m →
gives Hz with war m .

Fe Cd Ni with steam
, , ,
Sir
,
→
gives tlz .

Be Al Pb do not react with water

after
→
→ some
, ,

time ,
due
formation of protective layer
their stable oxide
of more .

b) from Metal with

rxn
of acids :

M + non -

oxidising acid → salt + HzT

→ M = Metal more reactive than H .

em + Hce → zu Uz + Hat
cut Hu → ✗

2m t did Hzsoy.
→ 2h
Soy 1- that
Cee t die .

thou → ✗

2h t come .

Hzsoy
→ zn soy t sozt
 c) Reaction
of Metals with alkali :

Naz [M Matz]
M + NaOH → +
typ
excess
NaIM( Only +1
]

→
where ,
M =
Amphoteric Metal ,
ie .
Be , Zu
,
Al ,
Sn ,
Pb
Al 1- NaOH →
Na[Allon / y ) +
Hat .

Excess
or Na Aeoz ( sodium Meta Aluminate )
In 1- NaOH →
Nazczn @ 4) y ] +
1129
Excess or Naz 2h02 ( sodium Zincate )
Be t NaOH → NarcBelong ] 1-
HZT
Excess or Naz Be 02

Pb t NaOH →
Nazcpb @ 4) y ] + Hat
Excess or
Nazpboz
Sn t NaOH → Naslsn @ 4) y ] + Hzt
Excess or
Nazsnoz
→
NaOH is used to dissolve amphoteric metals .

d) from hydrolysis of Metal

hydrides :

Metal Hydride + tezo → Metal

hydroxide + that
→
It is used for small -
scale preparation of Hz .

It
generates twice the
of hydrogen
→
amount

as contained in hydride .

Catz + tlzo → Ca ( on )z + 2112T

Hydrolith
② Industrial Preparation of Hz :

a) Electrolysis of acidified water

using Pt electrodes :

É2
2
Hzo (e) traces acid / base Hz (g) 1- Oz (g)
of

b) High purity ( > 99-9%7 of dihydrogen is produced by

electrolysis of solution
warm
aqueous of Ba Hk ,

between Ni electrodes .
 c) It is obtained as
byproduct during manufacture
of NaOH and Az by electrolysis of Brine solution .

at anode
-

: Lce
caq )
→
clz (g) 1- 2 e-

at cathode :
2h20 Ill → Hz (g) + 20h
-

Caq )

2NaUt2HzOl)→UzqtHzcy)tNa0M(#

d) from reaction with

hydrocarbon / coke
of steam :

from
hydrocarbon :

> COT
Cn Hantz -1 Hzo (g) Ni
1-
Hat

> LOT
CH
y
t
H2O (g) Ni
+ 3 Hztn

from coke :

C is) + tho (g) ÷?s COT t that

" "
This is coal
gasification
→
rxn .

Mixture
of dotted
wate-tsynlh-digaslsyngas.lv
→ →

used for synthesis of methanol

The production of Ted

Hz can be
by furthur reacting
carbon co ) with
monoxide ( of syn gas more steam
in the presence of iron chromate
673K
as
catalyst .

CO
(g)
+
H2O (g) ¥37 Cozy ] +
Hz (g)
" "
→
This called water -

gas shift oxn .

%É↳¥"
# "

"
petro -
chemicals > coal >
Electrolysis of aq
.
so / > others

u" "
☒
physicalpropertiesofdihydrogeno.is
Colourless ,
odourless ,
tasteless
gas .

"
and sound
"

Higby inflammable with

→
burns pop .

soluble
polar but
sparingly water
→
Non -
in .

→
Lighter than air .

☒
chemicalpropertiescefdihydrogen.ci
) Reaction with
halogen :

Hz Ig) + ✗
z (g) → 2 HX
(g) [✗ =
F. U
,
B2 ,
I]

with
Reactivity of fz 42 Brz
→ >
Hz : > >
✗z
Iz .

→
fz reacts with in dark while reaction
Hz even , of Hz
with Iz require catalyst or
sunlight .

ii ) Reaction with
grp
-
16 element (E) :

E t Hz →
Hz E ⇐ = 0
,
S
,
se
,
Te )
Released :
Energy they
>
tyse>thTe_
→

exo endo

iii ) Reaction with

grp
-
15 element (E) :

E t
Hz → EH } (E = N ,
P
,
As
,
Sb )
Released
Energy
N÷¥PH]>ALaH}>sbH3_
→ :

Enthalpy of formation of hydrides :

.÷÷÷÷;÷ →
" ""
AH = -0 we
PH]
Hzs
a.÷
AH ④ Ve SBH
=

]
" "" "

Ld ? ??*"→
"

-1
M +
Hz > Metal
hydride M=s -
block metal or Al

Natl

canzaydn.mg#ea6Hz+HztNatHz
→

v1
Reducing nature
of Hz :

Hz (g) Mx
Oy Cs) M ( Hill)
1- → s) +

"
Pd ) 2Mt (aq )
Hz (g) t (aq ) → Pd ( s +

→
Hz reduces some metal ions in solution
aqueous
and oxides
of metals ( less active then Fe ) into metal .

vi ) Reaction with organic compounds :

Hydrogenation Rxn
→
:

Alkene / td Alkane
Alkyne Hz

→
Hydroformylation Rxn :

Hz -1 Cot RHc=CHz →
RCHz-c.tl 2- CHO
Hz t
Renz -

Chichi →
Roth -

CHI CHIH

☒ Usesofdihydrogeni
→
Manufacture of : Ammonia
,
methanol ,
metal
hydrides ,

vanaspati ghee ,
HU etc .

Process Reduces
Metallurgical heavy oxides
→
: Metal .

cutting and
welding hydrogen torch
→
:
oxy
-
.

Rocket fuel and

fuel cell
→
.
☒ Hydridesi
Binary compounds of Hydrogen with
different elements
are called hydrides .

→
It can be expressed as E- the leg .

, Ntlz , H2O ele) or

etc ) where E
Em His leg .

, Bang , ,
is element .

→
Hydrides are
classified into three
categories :

17 Ionic or saline or salt -

like
hydride
ii ) covalent or molecular hydride .

Iii) stoichiometric
Metallic or non -

hydrides .

9) Ioniclsaltlikelsalinehydoidei
Hydrides of block )
→
( except Be ionic
s
Mg are in
-

nature ,
so
they are called ionic
hydrides .

called like
Ionic
hydrides also saline
→
are or salt

hydride ,
because their lattice is similar to NaCl -

Down the sized MP BP

stability
→
group ,
LE tr I I d.

→
In solid state →
Crystalline ,
non - volatile
,
non -

conducting .

molten state and

In conducts
electricity electro
→ on -

lysis liberates Hz at anode -

at anode 2h (e) →
Hat + 2 e-
-

uoilent reaction with water

Ionic
hydrides produce Hz during
→
,
.

Natl ( s ) +
tlzol)
→ NaOH (
aq )
+ Hz T

him donot react with and at moderate temp

→
Oz Uz ,

used to & which

so ,
it form Li Alley Li Buy are
very
good reducing agents .

→
Lill 1- Alzclg Li Al t Lill
Hy ,

Litt BZHG
→
hi B.
t
My
→
Li & Metal
Alley Li B. Hy are
complete Hydrides .
 iilcovalentormoleculavhydn.cl#
( non metals )
Hydrides of most of the p block elements
→ -
-

are covalent or molecular hydrides .

Covalent
hydrides
deficient
,

rich
e-
precise e- e-

no .

of valence e- < 8 no .

of valence e- = 8 no .

of valence e- > 8

vacant orbital octet complete lone pair is

present
grp
- 13
hydrides grp -14
hydrides grp
-15
, 16,17 hydrides
eg tins HE
BH Al H etc
eg
:
, , , ,
eg
:C
Hy , silly etc :
, Mio :
,
:

) www.tialoruou-stoichiometrichydsid#
iii

→ d- block and f- block elements

forms interstitial
hydrides .

Elements
of do not
form hydride In
→
7
8,9 -6
grp grp
-

,
.

, ,

Cr H
only is known .

→
small H atom
-

occupies interstitial sites or voids in

between metallic atoms

arranged in a metallic lattice .

interstitial

-0*8*0%0 000
sites

→ these
hydrides are non stoichiometric in nature .

La H Pd H
eg
:
2.8 > , YBHz.gs , V40.56 ,
Ni Ho -
s -
o .

> , o.o -
o.se
etc .

→
some metals ( Pd ,
Pt ) can accommodate a
very large volume

of Hydrogen and therefore ,

can be used as
hydrogen storage .

Density hardness M P Metal

hydride > Metal
→ .
:
,
.

Metal < Metal

Malleability Ductility ,
:
hydride .

Metal Metal
Electrical
conductivity hydride
=
: .

Metal and
Reactivity of hydride lower hence inertness
→
is

to Metal
is
higher ,
as
compared .
* wate
made water
A
major of all living organisms is
of
→
part up .

Plants
Human
body 65% : :
upto 95%

→
water is known as universal solvent .

→ % World water
subtly : oceans > saline > Glaciers > Ground > Rivers
lakes water

It colourless tasteless odorless liquid

→
is ,
.

structure water
of
!
0 ⑧

28
}
bent

¥Pm§
sp ,
:
0

B. A 104.5°
/ \H
=

sty
,
BL = 957 pm H

structure ice
of :

→
It has open cage like structure
with wide holes due to
,

molecular
inter H
bonding
- - .

→ Ice is
crystalline form of water .

At atmospheric pressure Hexagonal

-

At
very
low temperature cubic
-

These holes hold other molecules

of
→
can some

appropriate
size interstitially
-
"
Uatha rates
"
.

Temperature and density of Hzo :

at Oc due voids in structure volume

high
→
→ is
cage ,

and water
density of ice is lower than .

→ 0° to 4°C → Due to increase in

temperature ,
a
few H -
bonds
break and hence some
of water molecules become
and
free ,
they occupy voids hence
density &
.
 further temperature thermal
→
after 4°C → Due to increase in ,

water molecule effectiveness

energy of
increase ,
so

and volume
of bonding density d.
H -
decreases 4 so

Hence ,
Density of Hao is maximum at 4°C =
lgmlml .

☒
chemiealpropertiesofwaterianmphot
May
ericnatur.ee# act as acid ,
as well as base .

acid tho (e) Nhs Cag ) OH +

NHI ( aq )
-

Cag )
As : +
acid acid
base
conjugate base
conjugate
base Hzotlaq )
-

as :
tho (e) t Hzs Cag ) + HS (
aq )
acid acid
base
conjugate conjugate base

Self ionization / Auto proteolysis of water

→ :

Hill +
H2O (e) tlzot lag )
-

OH
(
ag ) +
acid acid
base
conjugate conjugate base

b) Rxnwithmetals:
Metal Hat
d
+
H2o → Metal
hydroxide +

( Reactivity more than

Hydrogen)
( see pg.no .
10 :
preparation of Hz)
 Reacliomwithnon-metals.IT
c)

/
"?µ:#
Mdt
"
B (
C
Nz 0
Fz
3- D
network
reacts with ""

structure
Si Py Sg
↳ more than one

ft do not react with H2O

HzOI@tatR.T do not react with

-
with
,

warm
but reacts at
water .

Reactivity of halogens Fa>U2>Br2>aq :

+ Gone to ⑦ me )

① Fz gives redox with H2O ,

produces HF and Oz ( with small
amount
of Oz ,
known as
ozonide oxygen ) .

Hzɥ
"
+ HÉ t 82+
0g (minor)
(ozonide oxygen )
side / Ozfz
rxn :
Ogt Fz Ofz
→

Mechanism i
Fzttezo → Hoff HF
Hof →
Hf 1- [ 03

É→ ozonide oxygen
.

Fz 1-
H2o → HF 1- Oz -1oz ( Traces )

Ofz / Ozfz
② Uz and Brz gives disproportionation rxn with tho ,

and produces HX and HOX .

disp
"
0 -2 -1
+1
Uz -1 +
H2O → tell How

° "
+1
-2
disp I
-

Brz +
H2O
→ H Br + HOBR

Mechanism i + -

✗ → ✗ + ✗

✗ -1%20 → text OH
-

X<tH
 ③ I
Act
for rxn
of Iz with H2O at room
temp slightly
positive ,
so run is non spontaneous at Room
Temp .

Éz 11252 É HÉ
'
+ + HOÉ ( Ah -_ tone )

spontaneous ) ( TT )
To make ( du = -0W :
supply Heat

In acidic Medm : rxn movies backwards .

"
Med
In Basic : rxn moves
forwards .

d)
ReactionwithIoniccompoundsi.AM+A"Én)n
B- Y + Hzo
→
+
ÑyBY
(Htoñ )

Metal
Metal oxide +
Hzo →
hydroxide .

Fact +
yo
→
Eaton )z
lduick time ) ( slaked lime )

Metal sulphide Metal

hydroxide to Hast
→
+ Hao +

I soluble) (insoluble)

ѧ5 't tezo

→
Myton 12 I +
His 't

Metal Nitride + Hzo → Metal

Hydroxide
1-
NHZT .

M+§zÑ} + Hao
→
ÑEGCOH)z I +
ÑHzT .

Metal Phosphide Hzo → Metal

Hydroxide Past
+ +

Ñp→ + H2o → Exton ) ,

I + Ñtlztn .

Metal Metal
Hydride 1-120 Hydroxide +
Hot
+ →
.

Tati ,
+ He "ÉEa@Ñz + the
Metal Peroxide + H2O -s Metal
Hydroxide t
Hzoz

¥0s Metal Hydroxide + 02T

% 1120
(1102 +
1-202)
Naz 02 +
H2O 1¥07 Na OH 1-
11202

> NaOH +
02

Metal Ids Metal Hzozt 02

superoxide hydroxide
+
+
H2o
É
Default

Oates 05 0<-2 Metal Hydroxide 1- Oz

% 1120
( 02 + 02-2 →
02-1 (1102 +
1-202)

Koz 1-
Hzo 1¥07 KOH t
11202 1-
Oz
> KOH +
02

Metal carbide + H2O → Metal

Hydroxide 1- Chu / GHz / ↳ Hy

(d) T
Metal
Hydroxide
→
Methanoid + H2O +
city

Acetyloid ( GE) +
H2o
→ Metal
Hydroxide + ↳ Hat

Alyeoidlpropanoid KIT +
Hao → Metal
Hydroxide
+
↳ Hyt

Bezc
+ H2O →
CHU T + Be H )z

4
Ca Ca t
Hzo →
Catty + Ca Utz

↳ Hut +
→
Mgacz 1- Hzo Mg 10h12
9 Al @ nlz
Aly ↳ t
1120
→
city t
e) Reactionwithcoualentcornpoundsltlydrolysisa
It nucleophilic reaction which water
is
type of in molecule

acts as nucleophile ,
and attacks on less
electronegative
atom
of covalent
compound .

S
A-
-

s+
B.
A
☐ +
" "
as -

→ If É
-
+ 95 -8m
s " "
Ena >
ENB H
Lewis Acid Lewis Base
Ouyacid

# Products
of complete hydrolysis :

①
Generally compound consist of
covalent metals non -

less
electronegative atom ( with vacant orbital ) forms
bond with on hence
of the products of complete
,
one

hydrolysis is
oxyacid of less EN atom with same 0 is .

HjBoz St 112+503
"
13+3 → →

d- HzÉoz StG
4
HzÉ0y
→ →

Nts → tent 02 at
'
Htéo

}
→

+5
→ HÑo, a
-13
→ Hito
} for
same
situ →
the04/112%03 ce
-15 → µ
Br & I
pt3 →
HzÑOz 6+1 →
Hilly
pts →
nzÉ0y
② If atom odd ) and
grp.no (
to
less EN
belongs 13 .

, 15,17
has ( +2
6) ( 14 ) and
+4 ,
grp.no 16
even 0s + or even
, .

has odd 0s (1-1,1-3,1-5) ,

than it
gives disproportionation
reaction ,
and products formed are
oxyacids with

4- 1) and ( Mtl ) where less EN atom

0s n 0s
of
= .

}
N' -4
→ unto ,
+ HÑo, a
-12
→ HÉO +
Hiioz
Sts →
His"o , +
Hztsou AM →
Hiioz + HEÉO ,
same for
ptk →
Hztpoz +
HjÑo, 6+6 → HELO ,
+
Htioy Br & I

4- 3 > u > +
5)

③ If theoretical 0s > Maximum OS (

for less EN atom ) , than one

product of complete hydrolysis

is acid of
'
ii
parent
of the

less EN atom and other product is tlzoz .

112%5 →
112¥04 t Hzoz

HÑOY → HÑSO] + Hzoz

E- Write down the
complete hydrolysed products for : -

BU
]
+
H2O →
tlzB.org + HU

B. 203 +
H2O →
tlzB.org
HyBz0g +
H2O →
HzBO3
HYBZOG
+
H2O →
↳ Boz +
11202
HBOZ +
H2O →
Hz Borg
Bztlo +
H2O →
HzB0z
co +
Hao → ✗ ( co is neutral)

coz +
H2O →
Hzcoz
Cay +
H2O → ✗
(novacantorbilalon C)
NO +
H2O → ✗
( NO is neutral )

Nao +
H2O → ✗ ( Nao is neutral )

Nyong +
H2O →
HNOZ +

Noz +
H2O →
HNOZ + HNO
,

Nzoq +
H2O →
HNO2 +
HNOZ
Nzos +
H2O →
HNOZ
Nf , +
H2O → ✗ ( no vacant orbital on )
N

Naz +
H2O → HOU + NH
}

silly +
H2O →
Hysioy +
Hz
siozlquartz ) +
H2O → ✗ ( sioz - 3D network)

siozcsilicagd) +
H2O →
Hzsioz meta form )
silly +
H2O →
tension + HU

tlssizo , +
H2O →
tlysioy
Paz
+
H2O →
Hzpoz + HU

pug +
H2O →
Hzpoy
+
HU
POU
,
+
H2O →
Hzpoy +
HU

pyOG +
H2O → 4 Hzpoz
Pyo > +
H2O → 3
Hzpoz + I
Hzpoy
Pyog +
H2O → 2
tlzpoz + 2 Hzpoy
Pyog +
H2O → I
tlzpoz + 3 Hz Poy
Pyo H2O 4
,o
+ →
Hzpoy
Pus ,o +
H2O →
Hzpoy +
Has
Hzpzos +
H2O →
Hzpoz + Hzpoy
Hypos +
H2O →
Hzpoz +
HzD0y
HyPz0z
+
H2O →
Hzpoy
Hypzog +
H2O →
Hzpoy +
1h02

Hypos
+
H2O →
Hzpoy +
Hzoz
502 +
H2O →
Hzsoz
(so, %
SO ] +
H2O Hzsoy 1-
Hasty → Hsiao > Hzsoy )
8062 +
H2O →
Hzsoz + HU

50262 +
H2O →
Hzsoy + HCl

Sfy +
H2O →
Hzsoz + HF

Sfs +
H2O → ✗ ( steric repulsion of six F- atom)

sofa +
H2O →
Hzsoy + HF

Hzsos +
H2O →
Hzsoy + Hzoz

11240g +
H2O →
Hzsoz
1125206 +
H2O →
Hzsoy + Hzsoz
Hzszo , +
H2O →
Hzsoy
1125208 +
H2O →
Hzsoy + Hzoz
IF > +
H2O →
HIOY + HF

Ufs +
H2O →
Huong + HF

Brfs +
H2O →
HBt0z +
HF

Ifs +
H2O → HIO
]
+ HF

Clfz +
H2O →
HUOZ + HE

IU +
H2O → HOI + HU

IF +
H2O → HOI + HF

IBR +
H2O → HOI + HBR

HE +
H2O →
HOU + HF

Bra +
H2O → HOBR + HU
Brf +
H2O → H0Br + Hf

420 +
H2O → HOU

Bozo +
H2O →
Horsy

I20 +
H2O → HOI

clog +
H2O → HUO
,
+
HUOY
Uzo > +
H2O →
Huon
Izos +
H2O → HIO ]
 speciaHydrolysis
lcaseso.IO
#

Borax ( Naz By 0
>
) :

of
Naz By 07 +
H2O → 2 NaOH + 4 Hz Boz
2 NaOH 1- 2
Hz Boz → 2 Na[ Bl only ]

ÉtH→2zB2NBHy]
WA + Salt
of (SB + WA )

solution and acts

Aqueous of Borax is alkaline
→
,

as acidic
buffer .

②
Hydrolysis of group - is chloride :

µyo
/
→ NH + HOU
] .

Ño →
typos t.HU .
complete Hydrolysis

AFM →
Hz As Oz + HU .

shoot.ci

}
Sls Uz →
+
Hzo +
Hzo
Antimony oxychloride
( white
Partial
turbidity )
Hydrolysis
Big.ee
-

→
Bias + Hzo +
ago
Bismuth
oxychloride
( white
turbidity )
Mechanism : Bills + Hzo → Biton )z + HU
t
Bito OH HU - Biot a-
.

tho - + .

base acid salt

On down the Metallic nature increases

moving
→

group ,
so

of hydroxide
basic nature increases Hence Bice
,
and
,

and Sobel
gives partial hydrolysed product Bion } &
, as
,

stolon } reacts with HU to form salt , Biotite Sboii resp .

 ③ Hydrolysis of Trihalides
of Boron : -

4 Bfz -131120 ←
tlz Boz + 3H[Bfu ] -
No
Hydrolysis
BF do not
undergo hydrolysis
→
as
, ,

rate
of feud < rxn rate
of bwdrxn .

Baz +
31120 →
Hz Boz t 3 HU -

BBrz 1- 3
Uzo →
Hz Boz 1- 3 H Br
Complete
hydrolysis
r

BIS + 3420 →
Hg Borg + z µ I
-

But Bus B. Br
undergoes complete hydrolysis due
→
BI,
, , ,

to
large size of surrounding ,
rxn ② is non -

spontaneous .

⑨
Hydrolysis of calcium
cyanamide Ccac Nz ) :

initialing ,

Cacz 1-
Nz → Ca CN z t c
calcium
calcium carbide
cyanamide
Cacnz +
H2O → Ca Hk + coz 1-
NHS

Mechanism :[can ][Ñ%c=% ] →

[cast] [Ñ - E- ÑT Ca Hk +

in H2
thot coz Hzcog 1-
Nhs ← Hzn -
É -

Nnz Hzn
-

c -

o
-
it
'

"
area
÷:& :

→
Calcium carbide reacts with Nz to
give Nitro tins ( Caen { + c) ,

which transition state

on
hydrolysis gives area as a
.

Caen )z -1 H2o
→ Ca @ 472 -1 Urea
limited
Ca @ NK t H2O → Ca coz 1-
NHZ
Exess

Urea 1-
Hzo →
NBT +
coat → (
NHy)2C0g
?⃝
 )
⑤ Hydrolysis of tetrahalides
of silicon lsixy :

Sifu undergo partial hydrolysis 14s ) amount

of
→
,
as

HF to Hzsifo
Sifu reacts with
form .

Sify +
41120
→
Hysioy + 4 HF

2siFy+4H→2HzSÉ
3 Sify t 4 H2O
→
Hysioy + 2
Hzsi Fs

Sian Si Bru Sita undergoes complete hydrolysis

→
as
, , ,

l due
Sind ✗
) unstable to
large
-

= ce Br , I are
, ,

size of surrounding atom .

Silly t
1h0 →
Hysioy +
HU
Si Bry Hy sioy HBR
+
tho → +

Se Iq
'

+
tho →
Hysioy + HI

# Products
of partial hydrolysis :

→
pas É
U
Hzpoy + 5 Hee
H2O
¥ pou
¥0
Partial ,
1- 2 HU

→
If
Htnoy
→
1- 7nF
, 41120

⇐ Iofg Igf, # Iogf

¥
-
Partial

→
My P2 0g >2HzP0y
2h20
+ Hzoz

tÉ typos ^
Partial
+
Hzpoy
 →
cefg 3h20
HUO ] 1- 5nF

¥ #
>
Uofz # ozf
-
Partial

Hydrolysisofxenonfluoridesi
steric
crowding
→
Fluorides
of ✗e →
Xefz , Xefy ,
XEFG , ✗e☒8
→
Oxides
of Xe →
¥0 -
, ¥02 ,
✗ Éoz , ✗É☒y
4 dit Pit
charge
due to small ④ we ✗
-

T bond to
size stability of a- -

1- 2
→
Xefz + Hzo → ✗ eo t HF
unstable

→ t
2- Oz
✗e t 1- Hf

1-6
→
✗e Fg + 3h20 31120 Xeoz t 6 HF

+4
→
Xefy t Oz -1 HF t ✗
eoz In 1)
✗e
:y
→ =
2 :

a
y

# Reaction with Dao gives similar products as

H2O . But
Rate of rxn with tho > Dzo .

Alzcz t
Hzo → Al
Hlz +
city

Alzcz t Dzo → At @ D)z t

CDY
 Mechanism
of Hydrolysis
i.it
Non -
Redox Redox
& odd
If
0 s
grp no even
= =
-

odd & 0s
grpno
=
or =
even
.

-1%04 # HÑOZ -1 HÑo

,

Nucleophilic Addition Rxn Substitution Rxn

leauingggrpispresenty
is
If leaving grp absent If
coz 1- H2O →
Hzcoz

If
#
bydr lysis may If hydrolysis
SN ,

does not
take place to RT .
takes place to R.T.
,
But at
at
takes place high Temp .

Cay +
H2O # couz + 2 HU

E. ✗
SN z SNAE

É÷u+§
If bonds If bonds & bonds
only
r -
r -
IT -

,
,

are present .
both are present .

PO Uz Hzpoy
Past 4h20 →
Hzpoy -15 HU -131120 → 1-3 HU

i f. Hai :

I :$ ÷÷¥
÷÷f?¥É
* .
U U
→
tea
ee

ce
-

t 0
-

i÷¥¥T→u÷
-
U U -
.
☒ Hardandsoftwat Water

hard wÉte water

soluble soluble salts
free from
"
salts Cat and
of Mg
→ →
.

do not
give lather with
soap gives lather with
easily
→ →

soap
"
2 Nat ( C , > Hzs It Not
-

C
,> Hssc 00 t M → COO
)zM 2

soap @ /Mg )
a scum

Temporary
maÉent
hardness hardness
→ due to soluble Hcoj →
due to soluble a- and
" "
&
Mg
"
Coit
mg soup of
-

Ca
of &

removed can't removed

by boiling by boiling
→
→
can be be

# Removal Hardness water

of of :

Remoualafternporaryfdness.l
During boiling i/BEg:
to insoluble
soluble bicarbonates

compounds ,
which are
are

removed
converted

by simple filtration .

¥ Lacoste +
Ca ( Hcog )zlaq ) (
029
# Mg Hkd
Mg( Hcozlzlaq ) coz 4
+

Ksp of Mg uh <
Mg cos

cii , É Calculated amount lime added

of is

to hard water
,
to obtain precipitate of
Caco
]
and
Mg (0h12 ,
which can be
filtered .

Ca ( Hcog )z + Ca @ Hk → 2 Lacoste t Hz 0

Mgltlcozlzt 2 Caton 12 →
2 Caco, I +
Mg Hkd + ✗
Hzo

Removal Permanent hardness

of
lil Treatment with soda ( sodium carbonate )
washing :

ItreaÉmdÑrlo rides and

sulphate to form insoluble carbonates .

Mclz 1- Naz Coy

→
Mcorg I + 2 NaCl
M
soy +
Naz cog → M
log d
+
Nazsoy
(M =
Mg ,
Ca )
Iii )
HE .
Sodium Metaphosphate ( Nas Poo is
)
,
also known

as
calgon ( calcium gone ) , when added to
-

" "
water separates I from self by forming
Mg ca a- &
-

and " & Ca "

more stable soluble
complex of Mg .

"
M t Naz [ Nay PGO is
] →

Naz [ Naz MPs 0 , g) + Nat

Galyon ) ( soluble)

Liii) Ion -

Exchange Method / Zeolite / Per mutite method :

wÉÉYÉihg2+
and Cat and are absorbed Nat are released .

Mltcaq) + Nazis ) → M Zz ( s ) + 2 Not laq)

→
Exhausted permutite / zeolite is regenerated by treating
solution
it with an
aqueous of NaCl .

NaCl 2 Naz Cs )
M 221s ) + 2
lag) → 1- M
Uzlaq )
(M =
Mgf'T cat )
(Iu)
synlh-IEdisgnthel-icres.ms are more

zeolite
effecient than , for
→
ion -

exchange rxn .

cation-exchangeri.IE
large organic
contains molecules with so> H ,
that are

insoluble in water
,
and exchange all cations
by Ht .

nRtFcs7tMnTagg-sRnMlsI-nHt@q1LM-Nat.ca "

, Mg
"
etc )

Anion
Exchanger
→
:

TEEN organic compounds with MHz ,

which

exchange all the anions with on

-
.

R High )
-

RM Hz ( s ) t
H2O (e)
N l s

Nisou (R NMs%×
"
-
-

n R ( s ) + ✗ @ g) Is ) + non
Caq)
(✗ a- 05 soil )
-

=
He etc
, ,

obtained from cation is Acidic water

water
exchanger
→
.
→
water obtained from anion exchanger ( after passing through
cation
exchanger ) is demineralize / de ionized water
-
-

→
Exhausted cation and anion resin beds
exchange are

regenerated by treatment with dilute acid and alkali

solution
respectively .

.÷;÷r
"" Demineralized.
water
or

Exchanger Pure water

sojtt ) ( RNHJOH )
-

(R
¥i
-

water

☒ Heauywater(Dz
It
→
can be prepared by exhaustive electrolysis of water
or as
byproduct in some
fertilizer industries .

Reaction with Dao similar products H2O But

gives
→
as .

Rate of rxn with tho > Dzo .

→
It is used as moderator ( slows down the neutrons produced
during fission ) in nuclear reactors .

used to reaction
It also
study mechanism
of exchange
→
rxn .

→
Nearly allphysical properties of H2O <
Dzo , except polarity ,

dielectric constant self ionation

,
tendendency , tho > Dao .

Property H2O Dao

Molecular Mass 18.01 glmol < 20.02 gm / mid
Point )
Melting 273K ( 0°C) L 276K ( 3°C

K( 100K) 374K ( 101°C )

Boiling Point 373 <

Enthalpy of formation -285.9 latino < -294.6 ( KJ / meee )

Temp of Max Density
. .
4°C C 11.2°C

Density lgmlml < 1. I

gmlrnl
Viscosity 0.9 centipoise < 1. I eentipose

Polarity >
Dielectric constant 78.39 77 78.06

Self ionisation tendency D

☒ HydrogenPeroxide(Hz0
# Preparations
①
Hydrolysis of superoxide and peroxides :

peroxide ( OE ) +
Hzo → Hzoz
Superoxide 5) +
Hzo →
Hzoz 1-
02

② By electrolytic oxidation
followed by hydrolysis of Hzsoy :

Hzsoy = Ht t ttsoy

at anode : 211505 ←#
HzS< 08 Ho -
É -
o -
o -
É -
on
current
high to 8
density
1125208 ¥7 2 Ht 1- 2 11505 t 11202

→
this method is used for laboratory preparation of Dzoz .

←É
1<25208 t 2
Dzo (e)
hydrolysis
2K
Dsoy (
aq )
1-
Dzoz (e)

③ From Barium Peroxide ( Ba

02.8420 ) :

Evaporation
Bao 2- 8h20 (s ) + Hzsoylaq) reduced Bason is ) +
Hzozlaq )
pressure

Ñ
Bao 2- 8h20 (s ) +
Hzpoylaq) reduced Bag @ 0412 's ) +
Hzozlaq )
pressure

④ Industrial preparation of Hzoz from 2-

ethyl-anthraqui.net :

"
0
f
"

"" "
s

I ☒ 11
OH 0
H2
2-
Ethyl anthraquinone
-
2-
Ethyl anthraquinone
-

Pd
→ In this case 1%11202 is formed .
It is extracted
along -

with water and concentrated to dislilation under

by
30%

reduced pressure .
 physicalp-G-per.FI
#

÷÷ g. 0pm

gas phase
µ g. Gpm

liquid phase
( odorless ,
Pure 11202 colourless blue) ,
liquid
→

very pale
is .

→
It is non -

planar and polar due to restricted rotation

along (0-0) o - bond due to lp -

lp repulsion .

→
It is soluble in H2O ,
alchohol and ether .

It forms hydrate Cmp )

→
a
tlzoz tho = 221 K
.
.

"

solution called !
30%
of Perhydrol
→
Hzoz is

→
11202 decompose at room temp hence its
boiling point .

is found method and distillation is

by extrapolation its

done at reduced pressure and lower temperature .

Property Hzoz tho

Molecular mass ( grnlmol ) 34.02 > 18-01

Aug bond in pure

No
of H
form 4 4
. -
=
.

bond ¢
Entent
of H -

Melting point -0.6°C K 0°C

>
Boiling point 150°C 100°C

Density ( ) lgmlml
) R T -

1.44 > 1.00

viscosity (centipoise ) 1.25 > 0.893

Polarity 2. 2D > 1.85 D

Dielectric constant ( CYN .MY 70.7 € 78.39

Electrical
conductivity Gilani ) 5.1×10-8 5.8×10-8
'
€
#
Cheniicalpropertiesoftkozi
→
It is dibasic weak acid .

→
Aqueous solution
of 112oz is acidic ( pH < 7) .

Mg Hk + Hzoz →
Mgoz +
tho .

It well
oxidising reducing property in both acidic
→
has as

as well as basic medium .

strength of oxidising character .

Pboz / Bi 05 152082 K Mnoy / Ht >

-

>
F-2 > Oz > caoclz >

Hzoz / Ht or
Hzoz ( neutral) > Mrs Oz > Kzcrzo > / Ht > Up

Hzsoy > Brz > HNOZ > Fest > >

Hzoz / OH
-

conc.tl NO, > Cone .

Iz .

① action acidic medium

Oxidising in :

Fe
"
t
Hzoz fest +
tho

Pbs + 112oz Pbsoy t

tho

action in acidic medium

②
Reducing :

Mm
Oy
-

t Hzoz tht t
Hzo +
Oz

Hou +
Hzoz Hzot + a- t Oz

③ action medium
Oxidising in basic :

Fe
"
t
Hzoz fest

Mm
"
t Hzoz
→ µn4+
 ⑨ action in Medium
Reducing Basic :

Iz +
Hzoz
% I
-

t tho + 0
,

Mrs Oj 1- Hzoz Mn Oz 1- tho t Oz

4202 / Ht

Fefe2t
Hzoz / OH
-

storage of Hzoz :

Hzoz undergoes decomposition at temp this

→
room .

,
is

catalysed by sunlight presence of or alkali metal or

dust particles .

Hence 112oz is stored in

glass vessels with
lining
→
wax

this
on inner
surface ,
vessel is further kept in dark
avoid
vessel to
sunlight .

→
plastic vessels also used instead tinned
vessel .
are
of wax
glass
mixed
Urea is
stabilizer
→
as .

Dihydrogen
It
as Fuel :
combustion
release large amount
of heat on .

Energy released on 112cg ) the ) LPG Cteulg ] Octane A)

combustion ( KJ / woe)

per not 286 285 2220 880 5511

143 142 50 53 47
per gun
per litre 12 9968 25590 35 34005
£ : -

Compete the reactions : -

① NaN Oz +
Hzoz → Na Nong 1-
Hzo

② Naz 50g + Hzoz →

Nazsoy t
H2O

③ LKI 1-
Hzoz → 2 KOH t
Iz

⑥ Hzs +
Hzoz → St +
Hzo

⑤ tlzsoy + 2
Fesoy +
Hzoz →
Feacsoy } 1-
H2O

⑥ Kyffeccn)g ] 1- Hzoz 1-
Hzsoy →
kgtfec.NL] +
kzsoy 1-
Hzo

⑦ Agzot Hzoz
Ag
+
→
tho +
Oz

⑧ Org 1-
Hzoz →
Hzo + 202

⑨ Mrs Oz 1-
1h02 1-
Hzsoy → Mm soy 1- 2h20 1-
02

④ Pboz -1 112oz → Pbo +

tho 1-
Oz

④ Pbzoy t 4 Hmong → 2 Pb @ g) z t Pboz +

21h0 .

Pboz -1
Hzoz → Pbo +
Hzo 1- Oz

Pbo + 211 NO → Pb ( Nos} -1

Hao
,

PbgOytHs0ztbHN0g→3PbCN0z)zt4HzO#
④ ✗
z
t Hzoz → 211 ✗ +
Oz (✗ = Cl
,
Br )

] "
④ [ Fe (CN ) , ] 2(fe¢N7g ]
- -
-

2 +2 On + tf Oz → t
Hao + Oz

④ NaOH + Hzoz → NaCl + Hzoz + Oz

④ Na Ion 1- Hzoz →
Nails + tho + Oz