Research Methods

Session 6b – Data Collection and Sampling

Lecturers: Prof. Richard Boateng & Dr. Abeeku Sam Edu, UGBS
Contact Information: richboateng@ug.edu.gh/asedu@ug.edu.gh

2013/2014 – 2016/2017
 Reading List

Chapter Six

Boateng, R. (2020)
Research Made Easy
https://amzn.to/39gMMXh

Slide 2
Topic Three

TECHNIQUES FOR ACQUIRING DATA

Slide 3
 Forms of Qualitative Data
1. Observation (non-participant – participant)
2. Interviews (close – open)
3. Documents and Text (private – public)
4. Audio-visual (audio, pictures, mobile phone text,
social media, video et cetera)

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Slide 5
 Fieldwork – Establish Context

• Fieldwork – the particular context in which data collection occurs.

• Collection occurs simultaneously with analysis and interpretation and occurs
throughout the study.
• The final product is a rich description or narrative with quotations typically used to illustrate
the voice and understandings of the participants. The focus is to use language to paint a rich
picture of the setting and its participants.

Selecting the Fieldwork

1. Justify: Determine why a particular site should be selected.
2. Access: How will permission be obtained for accessing the site?
3. Activity: What will be done at the site?
4. Interference: How will the researcher avoid disrupting the normal routine? Or How
participative will the researcher be?
5. Time: What will be the duration and frequency of observations?
Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,
http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 6
 Interviews
• Interviewing is used to gather information in the subjects own
words from which insights on their interpretations can be
obtained.
• Subjects are encouraged to talk about experiences, feelings,
beliefs

Types of Interviews
• Unstructured - exploratory, on a topic – open, flexible, no structured format, and
impromptu questions
• Partially Structured – Topic is chosen and questions are formulated, but order is up
to the interviewer. Open-ended Questions & responses are recorded nearly verbatim,
possibly taped.
• Semi-Structured - - questions and order of presentation are determined. Questions
are open-ended, interviewer records the essence of each response.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,

http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 7
 Interviews
Types of Interviews
• Structured - questions and order are pre-determined, responses are
coded by interviewer as they are given.
• Totally structured - - questions, order, and coding are predetermined
and the respondent is presented with alternatives for each question so
that phrasing of responses is structured. Questions are self-coding in that
each choice is pre-assigned a code.

• Qualitative Study Interview – primarily focus on open-

ended questions, flexible and purposively selected
samples
• Quantitative Study Interview – fixed choice questions,
usually on random samples

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,

http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 8
 Interviews
Guidelines
1. Listen more, talk less. Be Patient, Don’t interrupt. Tolerate
silence.
2. Follow up on what participants say and ask questions when
you don’t understand.
3. Don’t be judgmental about participants’ beliefs or views. You
are there to learn about their perspectives whether you agree
or not.
4. Keep participants focused and ask for concrete details.
5. Avoid leading questions, ask open ended questions.
6. Don’t debate with participants over their responses.
You are a recorder, not a debater.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,

http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 9
 Focus Groups
Focus groups is a type of interview where multiple participants are involved
and responses can build on one another. A focus group is particularly useful
in obtaining a variety of views or opinions about a topic or issue.

Focus groups are used to obtain information of qualitative nature from a

predetermined and limited number of people.

• A semi-structured group session, moderated by a group

leader, held in an informal setting, with the purpose of
collecting information on a selected topic. A carefully
planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a
defined area of interest in a permissive non-
threatening environment.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,

http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 10
 Focus Groups
Useful When -
1. Insights are needed in exploratory studies
2. There is an understanding gap between groups
3. The purpose is to uncover factors relating to complex behaviors
4. The is a desire for ideas to emerge from the group
5. Need for additional information to prepare for a larger study

Not Useful When -

1. The environment is emotionally charged
2. Statistical projections are needed
3. Other methodologies can produce better quality
information
4. Confidentiality cannot be ensured

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,

http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 11
 Focus Groups
Procedures
• Duration 1-2 hours. General rule is to plan for less time than you tell
participants.
• Number Groups 3-6 different groups should be used.
• Size 4-12 with certain characteristics in common (IDEAL size 6-8)
• Composition participants alike in some way (not in opinions). General rule is
to keep groups homogenous in terms of prestige or status.

• Sample systematically selected (purposive sampling). In

organizations, include groups with different roles.
• Method - non-directive, nurture different points of view,
identify trends and patterns in perceptions.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,

http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 12
 Focus Groups
• Introductory
– Round robin question that everyone answers
– Background - to locate people in relation to other people
• Transition
– Move the conversation into the key questions
– Experience/behavior - to elicit descriptions of behaviors, actions, activities
– Knowledge - to find out what respondents consider factual information
• Key Questions
– Opinion/value - to find out what people think
– Feeling - to understand emotional response of people to an experience
• Ending - Bring closure to discussion
Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,
http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 13
 Observation
• Participant Observer - engages fully in the activities
being studied but is known to the participants as a
researcher. Example: a researcher gets permission
from a teacher to sit in a class and make
observations over a semester.
• Goal is to immerse researcher in the setting so
he/she can see, hear, feel, experience, subject’s’
daily life.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,

http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 14
 Observation
• Unobtrusive or Non-participant Observer - researcher watches but does not
participate in group activities. Example: researcher conducts a number of interviews with
teachers in a school.
• Naturalistic observation - observing individuals in their natural settings, making no
effort to manipulate variables or control activities, but simply to observe and record.
Example: observation of students at an athletic event.
• Covert Observer - researcher disguises identity from other participants (ethical issues).
Example: conducting the research in disguise
• Simulations - asking subjects to act out certain situations or roles. May be individual or
group role playing.

Sorensen, C. (2000)CICI 502 Survey of Research in Curriculum, Northern Illinois University,

http://www.cedu.niu.edu/~sorensen/502/powerpoint/topicD/qlnotes.htm [accessed Feburary, 2012]
Slide 15
QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES
TO RESEARCH

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 SURVEY
Questionnaire to record answers from a sample

Kerlinger (1973) defined survey research as a study on large and

small populations by selecting samples chosen from the desired
population and to discover relative incidence, distribution and
interrelations.
The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn about a large
SURVEY
population by surveying a sample of the population;

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education – ISBN ISBN-10: 0205484379 | ISBN-13: 9780205484379

Slide 17
 SURVEY
1. Mail and Self-Administered Questionnaire
• Cheap, slow, lowest response rate
2. Web Surveys
• Cheapest, fastest, moderate response rate
3. Telephone Interviews
• Moderate cost, fast, moderate response rate
SURVEY TECHNIQUES
4. Face-to-face Interviews
• Expensive, slow, highest response rate
Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

Slide 18
Topic Four

SAMPLING

Slide 19
 Sampling
• Sampling is a process of selecting
samples from a group or population
to become the foundation for
estimating and predicting the
outcome of the population as well
as to detect the unknown piece of
information.
OUM (2010) Topic 10 Sampling, Course Hand out CMRM6103 Research Methodology/GMRM5103 Research Methods, AIT Open University of Malaysia, Ghana

Slide 20
 Sampling Terminology
• Sample is a subset of a larger population
– We make conclusions on a population by studying or
investigating a sample

• Population: Any complete group of entities within which

we want to explore, understand or predict a social
phenomena
– People
– Cars

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

Slide 21
 Sampling Frame
• A list of elements from which the sample may be drawn
– Working population
– Mailing lists - database marketers
– List of students in Year 2

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

Slide 22
Two Major Categories of Sampling
• Probability sampling
• Known, nonzero probability for
every element
• Nonprobability sampling
• Probability of selecting any
particular member is unknown

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

Slide 23
 Primary Goal
• Quantitative
– To obtain a representative sample from the population
– Generalize/predict findings on a population

• Qualitative
– Not about representativeness, more focused on samples
which enhance understanding
– Collect cases, events, or actions that clarify and deepen
understanding in a specific context

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches,
2/E, Pearson Education

Slide 24
 Non-Probability Sampling
• This sampling technique is not based on random selection.
• Sample size is not determined in advance and the researcher has limited
knowledge about the population from which the sample is being drawn.
– Haphazard/Convenience sampling
– Snowballing
– Purposive sampling
– Deviant Sampling

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

Slide 25
 Convenience/Haphazard Sampling
• The sampling procedure of obtaining the people or units that are
most conveniently available
• Cases are obtained in any manner which is convenient but high
possibility of being ineffective
• Can produce highly unrepresentative samples
– Person on street interviewed for TV
– Cut-out a newspaper questionnaire and mail it in

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

Slide 26
 Judgment/Purposive Sampling
• An experienced individual selects the sample based on his or her
judgment about some appropriate characteristics required of the
sample. Often used in a exploratory research
• Selecting particular cases for in-depth investigation
• Selecting members difficult to reach
– Research on prostitutes
• Selecting unique cases which are informative
– Studying failed development project
– Selecting the popular trend setting women magazine for a content
analysis study

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

Slide 27
 Snowball Sampling
• Network, chain referral or reputational sampling
• Identifying samples in a network
– multistage – beginning with a few people and grow through referral
• Initial respondents are selected by other methods like
purposive sampling or random sampling
• Additional respondents are obtained from information provided
by the initial respondents

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

Slide 28
 Deviant Sampling
• Searching cases that differ from the dominant pattern
• Use various techniques to identify cases with specific
characteristics that differ from the dominant
– School dropouts who seem not to have no record of illegal activities
and who are stable from two-parent, upper-middle income families

Neuman, W.L. (2011) Basics of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2/E, Pearson Education

Zikmund W G. (2003) Business Research Methods, 7th edition, Thomson/South-Western.

Slide 29
 Probability Sampling
• Random Sampling
• Systematic Sampling
• Stratified Sampling
• Cluster Sampling

Slide 30
Topic Five

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Slide 31
 Questionnaire Design Process
The design of questionnaires involves a process with several general stages:
1. Preliminary design work on the areas to be explored in the interview.
2. Question wording and sequencing.
3. Physical design or layout.

• Pilot testing may be part of any, or all, of these stages of design.

Read More: http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/1985qdesign.html

Slide 32
 Pilot Survey
• A pilot survey is generally a small-scale run through
of the survey and can also be used to check
questionnaire coding and method of analysis.

Curwin, J. and Slater, J. (2008) Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions , 6th Edition. Cengage Brain

Slide 33
 Question Structure
Five possible objectives of a question
a) To find if the respondent is aware of the issue
– Do you know of any plans to build a school in this community?
b) To get general feelings on an issue
– Do you think a school should be built?
▪ A rating scale can be used for this type of question
c) To get answers on specific parts of the issue
▪ Do you think a school will affect the local environment?
d) To get reasons for a respondents views
▪ Why are you against the motorway being built? Curwin, J. and Slater, J. (2008) Quantitative
Methods for Business Decisions , 6th Edition.
e) To find how strongly these views are held Cengage Brain

▪ How important is the tourist center that would be demolished if the school is built?

Slide 34
 Question Coding
• Precoded questions give the respondent a series of possible
answers from which one may be chosen or an alternative
specified.
– How many children do you have?
• 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
• Sometimes codes are developed from the answers.
– Where do you live?
• An open question will allow the respondent to say whatever he or
she wishes:
– Why do you choose to live in Kumasi?

Curwin, J. and Slater, J. (2008) Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions , 6th Edition. Cengage Brain

Slide 35
 Question wording - bias
• Two or more questions presented as one
– Do you use self-service garages because they are easy to use
and clean?
– YES/NO

• Questions that contain difficult or unfamiliar words

– Where do you usually shop?
– How often is usual? Shopping also vary in terms of type of product, day of
week and time of the year

Curwin, J. and Slater, J. (2008) Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions , 6th Edition. Cengage Brain

Slide 36
 Question wording bias
• Questions which start with words meant to soften hardness or directness
– I hope you don’t mind me asking this, but are you a virgin?
– YES/NO

• Questions which contain conditional or hypothetical clauses

– How do you think your life would change if you had nine children?
– This is a situation that few people will have considered….

• Questions which contain one or more instructions to respondents

– If you take your weekly income, after tax, and when you have made allowances for all of the regular bills,
how much do you have left to spend or save?

Curwin, J. and Slater, J. (2008) Quantitative Methods for Business Decisions , 6th Edition. Cengage Brain
Slide 37
 Structuring the Questionnaire
• Field Notes
– Record Time, Date and Description of Natural Settings
• Introduction of research
– Aimed at the interviewee May differ –
– Definition of selected key terms (appendix or beginning) Qualitative and
Quantitative
• Demographics
– Demographic data of respondent
– Demographic data of the company/household
• Main Questions
– Key sections may stem from themes/concepts/variables from the research framework
– Key sections may stem from concepts/variables from the hypothesis
• Other Questions
– Impromptu or emerging questions
– Observations
• Conclusion
– Review of answers, Future Review of transcription and Thanks
Slide 38
 Design Online Survey
• Tool: www.surveymonkey.com

• Basic Learning Tutorial

• http://tinyurl.com/onlinesurveyeasy

Slide 39
 References
1. Boateng, R. (2020). Research Made Easy - Second Edition. Seattle, USA: Kindle Independent Publishing
(an Amazon Company). ISBN-13: 979-8611307182: Available on Amazon: https://amzn.to/39gMMXh
2. Photo Illustrations from Getty Images – www.gettyimages.com and www.cartoonstock.com
3. 2012 InfosmART by Learning Resources, Glasgow School of Art

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