एकाई एक

सामाजिक तथा िीवनोपयोगी शिक्षा: एक अवधारणा

(Social study and life skill education: A perspective)
१. सामाजिक अध्ययन
• सामाजिक अध्ययनले मानविकी तथा सामाजिक विज्ञानका विभिन्न विधिहरुको उपयोग गरि मानि
समािका िेिै पक्ष ि तत्िहरुको अध्ययन गननल
ु ाई िनाउछ ।
• समद
न ाय ि मानिीय िीिनमा बिद्याथीले सामाना गनप
नु ने नैततक तथा ब्यिहारिक सिालहरुमा संलग्न
गिाई िनझाईको स्तिलाई क्रमस िढाउदै लैिान सहयोग गदु छ ।
• सामाजिक अध्ययन आफैंमा सामाजिक विज्ञानका विभिन्न क्षेत्र तथा मानविकीका इततहास, िूगोल,
िािनीततशास्त्र, आददलाई एकीकृत रुपले अध्ययन गने बिषय हो ।
• यो सामाजिक विज्ञानको शाखा हो ।
• सामाजिक अध्ययनले प्रमख
न ततन पक्षहरुलाई िोड ददएको हनन्छ
१. सनचना ि विषयिस्तन (Information/Content)
२. प्रक्रक्रया िा भसकाई िणनीततहरु (Process/Learning strategies)
३. मूल्य िा आस्था ि प्रिजृ त्त (Value/Belief and attitude)

१.१ सामाजिक अध्ययनको पररभाषा (Definition of Social studies)

• सामाजिक अध्ययन सामाजिक विज्ञानहरुको एकीकृत अध्ययन हो ।
• सामाजिक अध्ययन िालिाभलकाहरुलाई असल, सक्षम, भसिुनभसल ि दे शप्रेमी नागरिक िनाउने विषय
हो ।
• सामाजिक अध्ययन समाि ि मानि िािे को अध्ययन हो ।
• सामाजिक अध्ययन विभिन्न बिषयहरुको मन्च हो िसले मानिीय अननििहरु िोि गिाउन
बिद्याथीहरुलाई सिल िनाउछ ।
• सामाजिक अध्ययन सामाजिक विज्ञान तथा मानविकीको अन्तिवििागत एकीकृत अििािणा हो िसले
िदिल सामाजिक सिालहरुमा नागरिक भसपको विकाशका लाधग तनणुय गने तथा समस्या समािान
गने अभ्यास गिाउछ ।
• सामाजिक अध्ययन यस्तो अध्ययन हो िसले यनिालाई व्यजततगत ि समनदायसंग सम्िजन्ित समस्या
समािान गनु आिश्यक उपकिणहरु प्रदान गदु छ ।
• नागरिक सक्षमता विकास गनुका लाधग गरिने सामाजिक विज्ञानहरुको एकीकृत अध्ययन हो ।
• समािशास्त्र, मानिशास्त्र, िािनीततशास्त्र, मनोविज्ञान, आदद यस सामाजिक अध्ययन भित्र पदु छन ।
• अन्तिसम्िजन्ित बिश्िमा सािुितनक िलाईका लाधग सांस्कृततक विवििता एिं प्रिाताजन्त्रक समािका
िािे मा सनसनधचत गिाउनन ि तकुपूणु तनणुय भलने ।

१.२ ;fdflhs cWoogsf] dxTj -Importance of Social Studies_

 afnaflnsf tyf JolQmsf] ;fdflhsLs/0f -Socialization_ ug{ .
 ;dfhdf pTkGg x'g] laleGg ;d:ofx?sf] ;dfwfg ug]{ ;Lkx? -Problem solving skills_ sf] lasf;
ug{ .
 ;dfhsf laleGg If]qx?sf] ultljlwx?sf] hfgsf/L kZrft\ tfls{s s'zntf -Logical efficiency_
a9fpg .
 b]zsf] cy{tGqsf] ;d]t hfgsf/L x'g] x'bfF o;af6 cfly{s ;fdflhs sNof0f -Socio economic
welfare_ sf nflu ;xof]u k'U5 .
 b]zleq / b]zaflx/ 36]sf ;d;fdlos ljifoa:t'x?sf] hfgsf/L -Knowledge about contemporary
affairs_ u/fO{ cGt/fli6«o efjgfsf] -International Felling_ lasf; u/fpg .
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  tfls{s s'zntf;Fu} ljBfyL{ / kf7sx?df g]t[Tj;Lk -Leadership Skill_ sf] lasf; ug{
 ;fdflhs lj1fgsf] lzIf0f -Teaching Social Science_ ug{ ;fdflhs cWoogsf] hfgsf/L x'g'
clgjfo{ /x]sfn] o; ;DaGwdf ;an agfpF5 .
 ;fdflhs d"NodfGotf -Social Values_ tyf gfu/Lstf lzIffsf] -Citizenship Education_ af/]df
;r]t agfpF5 .
२. िीवनोपयोगी शिक्षा (Life skill Education)
• मानि िीिनमा उपयोग हनने विभिन्न भसपहरु भसकाउने भशक्षा नै िीिनोपयोगी भशक्षा हो ।
• आिश्यक सीपहरु िसले हाम्रो िीिनलाई सिल, सहि ि सफल िनाउछ, ततनलाई िीिनोपयोगी भसप
ितनन्छ ।
• िीिनोपयोगी भसप िीिनका कौशल, भसप कसिी एक ब्यिहारिक ि िणनैततक स्तिमा विकभशत
िईिहे को छ िन्ने संग सम्िजन्ित िहे को हनन्छ ।
• संचाि (communication),
सहयोग/सहकायु
(Coordination/collaboration), सहयोग
(Collaboration), भसिुनात्मक सोच
(Creative Thinking), समस्या
समािान (Problem Solving), तनणुय
तनमाुण (Decision Making) तनाि
ब्यिस्थापन (Stress Management),
अन्तििैयजततक सम्िंि (Interpersonal
Relation ), नेतत्ृ ि (Leadership),
सहानि
न तू त/समानि
न त
न ी
(Sympathy/Empathy), आत्मिोि (self-awareness), आत्मालोचना (Self-criticism), आदद िीिनोपयोगी
भसप हनन ् ।
• िीिनोपयोगी भसप भसकाउने प्रक्रक्रया नै िीिनोपयोगी भशक्षा हो ।

२.२ hLjgf]kof]uL lzIffsf] :j?k -Nature of Life Skill education_

 hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff ;Lkdf cfwfl/t b[li6sf]0fn] ljBfyL{x?nfO{ ;xh u'0f:t/sf] lasf; ug{ c;n
t/Lsfn] :yfkgf ul/Psf] dfu{ lgb]{zg k|ljlwsf] cg';/0f ub{5 . -Skill based approach in life skill
education follows well established mentoring techniques to develop students innate quality_
 hLjgf]kof]uL lzIffsf] d'Vo p2]Zo eg]sf] l;sf?nfO{ of]Uo / dof{bfo'Qm JolQmsf] ?kdf cfkm\gf]
cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; ug{ ;Ifd kfg'{ xf] . -The main objectives of life education is to develop a
concept of oneself as a person of worth and dignity _
 hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff ;a} JolQmx?sf] nflu cfwf/e"t l;sfO{ cfjZostf xf] . -Life skill education is a
basic learning need for all individual_
 hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff Ps d"No clea[l4 sfo{qmd xf] h;n] ljBfyL{sf] nlIft hLjgnfO{ :j:Yok" 0f{
5gf}6x? ug{ / cy{k"0f{ agfpg of]ubfg k'¥ofpg] /0fgLltx? k|bfg ug]{ nIo /fVb5 . -Life skill
education is a value added program which aims to provide students with strategies to make
healthy choices that contribute to a meaningful life_

२.३ hLjgf]kof]uL lzIffsf] dxTj -Importance of Life skill based Education_

 Jojxfl/s / ;fdflhs ;d:ofx? tyf :jljgfzsf/L -Self-destructive_ Jojxf/ 36fpg / zf/Ll/s
tyf dfgl;s :jf:Yo tyf ;dfhf]Gd'v Jojxf/ a9fFpg .

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  ;fdflhs lasf;, efjgfTds ;fdflhs ;dfof]hgdf ;'wf/ ug{ afnaflnsf / hg:jf:Yosf]
cg's'ntfsf] a[l4sf nflu o;n] ;sf/fTds k|efj kfg]{ ;'emfj k|bfg ub{5 .
 o;n] ljz]if u/L aRrfx?sf] cfjZostfnfO{ ;Daf]wg u5{, pTk|]l/t ug{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpF5 .
 hLjg ;dfof]hgsf nflu Jojxfl/s, ;+ª\1fgfTds, efjgfTds, ;fdflhs / cfTdJoj:yfkg sf}zn
k|bfg ub{5 .
 hLjgnfO{ kl/jt{g ug]{ r'gf}ltx?sf] ;fdgf ug{ cem cg's'lnt ;Lkn] afnaflnsfx?nfO{ ;';lHht
kfb{5 .
 ;DalGwt ;dfhsf nflu ljz]iftM ;fdfGo ?kdf ljZj el/ g} k"0f{ ?kn] sfo{ ug]{ of]ubfg stf{ aGgsf
nflu jfnjflnsfx?nfO{ ;zQm agfpF5 .
 o;n] ljz]if u/L aRrfx?sf] cfjZostfnfO{ ;Daf]wg ug'{sf ;fy} Jojxfl/s, ;+1fgfTds, efjgfTds,
;fdflhs / cfTdJoj:yfkg ;Lk k|bfg u/L hLjg ;dfof]hgsf nflu pTk|l/t ub{5 .
 o'jf cj:yfsf dflg;x?nfO{ hLjgf]kof]uL ;Lk l;sfpFbf cJoj:yfsf] -Maladjustment_ /f]syfd ub{5
/ JolQmut Ifdtfx? kQf nufpg] dfgj ;DefJotf a9fpF5 .
 hLjgf]kof]uL ;Lk sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sgdf cfwfl/t cWoogn] lzIfs / ljBfyL{ ;DaGw ;'wf/ ug{
;'emfj k|bfg ub{5 .
 ljBfnodf pkl:yltsf] :t/ ;'wf/, sd abdf;L -Less bulling_, ljz]if1 cfjZos kg]{ ;]jfx?df sd
k|if]0f / pgLx?sf cleefjsx? lar /fd|f] ;DaGwsf] lgdf{0fdf ;xof]uL x'G5 .

#= ;fdflhs lzIff, ;fdflhs lj1fg / ;fdflhs cWoog aLrsf ;dfgtfx?

-Similarities among the Social Education, Social Science and Social Studies_
 ;fdflhs lj1fg / ;fdflhs cWoog ;dfg ;d"x jf hflt / sf]i7s leqsf -Parenthesis_
ljifox?sf] :j?k xf] eg] k|foM ;fdflhs lzIffnfO{ ;fdflhs cWoog lzIffsf] ;d:t/ jf a/fa/Lsf]
?kdf x]g]{ ul/G5 .
 ltg} ljifox?n] ;femf kf7\oqmdsf ljifo ;fdu|Lx? ;d]6\b5g\ .
 ltg} ljBfsf] dfdnfdf x]g]{ xf], eg] s]lGb|s[t Wofg dlxnf / k'?ifx?sf] jftfj/0f;Fusf] ;DaGwaf/]
cWoog ug'{df /x]sf] x'G5 .
 dfgj ;DaGw g} ;fdflhs lj1fg, ;fdflhs lzIff / ;fdflhs cWoogsf] ;femf kIf xf] .
 oL ltg} ljifox?sf] s]Gb| eg]sf] dlxnf÷k'?ifn] pgLx?sf cfwf/e"t cfjZostfx? k"/f ug]{ p2]Zosf
;fy ljleGg ultljlwx?df ;+nUg eO/x]sf], ljrf/x? tyf efjgfx?nfO{ cleJoQm / ;+rf/ ub}{,
hLjgsf cfjZostfx? pTkfbg / pkef]u ug]{ tyf dfgj / k|fs[lts ;|f]tx?sf] art ug]{ s'/fx?
/x]sf x'G5g\ .

$ ;fdflhs lzIff, ;fdflhs lj1fg / ;fdflhs cWoog aLrsf leGgtfx?

-Difference among the Social Education, Social Sciences and Social Studies_
kIfx? :fdflhs lzIff
-Aspects_ -Social Education_
Jo'Tklt ;fdflhs lj1fg / ;fdflhs
-Derivation_ cWoogsf] ljifo ;fdflhs
lzIffsf] dfWodaf6 l;sfO{G5
Dfldnfsf] If]q ;}4flGts / Jojxf/Ls b'a}
-Area of Affair_ dfldnf;Fu ;DalGwt /xG5g\ .
;fdflhs lzIffn] cWofkg
lj1fgsf] pkof]lutfnfO{ x]b{5
cWoogsf] b[li6sf]0f / r/0f JolQm / ;fdflhs b'a}
-Approach and stage of kIfnfO{ hf]8 lbG5 .
Study_ cgf}krfl/s, czQm / jo:s
txsf] lzIff xf] .
;fdflhs lj1fg ;fdflhs cWoog
-Social Science_ -Social Studies_
;fdflhs cWoogsf] hggL ;fdflhs lj1fgsf] kl/0ffd
jf cleefjs ljwf xf] . jf pTkfbg xf] .
dfgjLo dfldnfsf] ;}4flGts Dffgljo dfldnfsf] Jojxfl/s
kIf;Fu ;/f]sf/ /fVb5 . kIf;Fu ;/f]sf/ /fVb5 .
;fdflhs lj1fgn] ;fdflhs ;fdflhs cWoogn] z}Ifl0fs
pkof]lutfnfO{ x]b{5 . pkof]lutfnfO{ x]b{5 .
jo:s b[li6sf]0fsf] k|ltlglwTj afnaflnsfsf] b[li6sf]0fsf]
ub{5 / cfb{zjfbL b[li6sf]0f k|ltlglwTj ub{5 / k|of]ufTds
af6 cWofkg u/fO{G5 . pRr b[li6sf]0faf6 cWookg
ljBfno / ljZjljBfno u/fO{G5 . ;fdfGotof
txdf k9fOG5 . ljBfno jf tNnf]txsf
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 ljBfnodf l;sfO{G5 .
nIo ;dfnf]rgfTds cWofkg
1fg tyf al9/x]sf] ;dfhsf ljleGg Jojxfl/s
-Aim_ lj1fgsf] vf]lhsf] nIo /fVb5
af}l4stfsf] lIflthdf of]ubfg ;d:ofx?sf] ;dfwfgsf nflu
. ug]{ nIo /fVb5 . 1fg k|fKt ug'{ xf] .
bfo/f o;sf] bfof/f jf If]q d /of] cfkm\g} If]q leq l;ldt Dfgj ;fdflhs hLjgsf] ;a}
-Scope_ xfdL lardf ;+3if{ x'g] /xG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu kIfx?nfO{ ldl>t ?kdf
;fdflhs e]6df ;d]l6g] x'G5
cfly{s If]q;Fu ;DalGwt ;d]6\5 .
. ljifo cy{zf:qsf] ultljlw
x'G5 .
hl6ntf / kf7s ;}4flGts ;fy;fy} ;fdflhs ;fdflhs 36gfx?sf] hl6n ljBfno jf tNnf] txsf
-Complexity and dfldnfsf] Jojxfl/s kIfx? cWoog xf] / o;sf kf7sx? ljBfyL{x?nfO{ l;sfOg]
Reader_ /xG5g\ . To:tf JolQmx? dflyNnf] sIffsf yf]/} x'G5g\ . ;fdflhs lj1fgsf] ;/nLs[t
h:n] ;fdflhs dfldnfdf kIf xf] . c;n gfu/Lssf]
l;sfpg rfxG5g\ ltlgx?nfO{ tof/L d'Vo p2]Zo xf] To;}n]
kf7ssf] ?kdf lnOG5 . ;a}n] o;sf] cWoog ub{5g\ .

%= ;fdflhs cWoogsf l;k / hLjgf]kof]uL l;ksf] cjwf/0ff

%=! cjwf/0ff
 ;fdflhs cWoog tyf hLjgf]kof]uL lzIff ljifosf] d"n p2]Zo afnaflnsfnfO{ c;n, b]zeSt,
rl/qjfg\, ;Ifd / l;h{gzLn gful/s tof/ kfg'{ xf] .
 o;sf nflu ljBfyL{df ljleGg k|sf/sf hLjgf]kof]uL l;k, l;h{gzLn l;k / s]xL ljifout l;kx¿
xfl;n x'g'kb{5 .
 o:tf l;kx?n] JolStnfO{ hLjge/ ;dfhdf ;xh ¿kdf lhpg ;xof]u ub{5g\ .

%=@ ;fdflhs cWoog l;k

;fdflhs cWoog ljifo e"uf]n, Oltxf;, cy{zf:q nufotsf ljifoj:t' k9]/ s07 ug]{ / k/LIff kf; ug]{ dfq
ljifo xf]Og . ;fdflhs cWoog ljifosf ljleGg ljwfx¿ cg'¿k ljifoj:t'df cfwfl/t l;kx¿ klg l;sfpg'
kb{5 . o:tf l;k tTsfn cWoog ug{ / To;sf cfwf/df eljio;Dd Jofjxfl/s l;k ljsf; ug{ ;xof]uL
x'G5g\ .

;fdflhs cWoog ljifo cGtu{tsf l;kx¿ o;k|sf/ /x]sf 5g\ M

 gS;f cWoog ug]{ / gS;f ptfg]{ l;k .
 ljleGg ljwfsf dfWodaf6 cleJoSt ug]{ uLt, sljtf, lrq, lgaGw, ;+jfb, gf6s, lr7L cflb
l;h{gfTds l;k .
 ;dfrf/, ;DkfbsLo, ;DkfbsnfO{ lr7L, ;fdflhs ;~hfndf sd]G6 / kf]:6 ug]{ h:tf ;dfrf/
;ª\sng, n]vg / k|:t'tLs/0f l;k .
 5nkmn, ;xof]u, ;xsfo{, d]nldnfk, ;dfg'e"lt cflb ;fdflhs l;k .
 :tDelrq, /]vflrq, rj|mlrq, u|fkm lgdf{0f h:tf tYofª\s k|:t'lt l;k .
 ;do /]vf, j+zfjnL jf j+z j[If, JolSt j[Q cflb P]ltxfl;s 36gfnfO{ k|:t'tLs/0f ug]{ l;k .
 ;j]{If0f, If]qe|d0f, cGtjf{tf{, cjnf]sgsf] of]hgf agfpg], sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug]{ / k|ltj]bg agfpg] h:tf
vf]h÷cg';Gwfg l;k .
 k|bz{g, k|jrg, jSt[Tjsnf, sfo{kq n]vg tyf k|:t'tLs/0f l;k .
@= hLjgf]kfof]uL l;k
 Jojxf/df k|of]u x'g] s]xL l;k >ddf cfwfl/t x'G5g\ .
 s]xL l;kx¿ aflx/ b]lvFb}gg\ t/ JolStTj ljsf; tyf hLjgofkgdf k|efj kfg]{ vfnsf x'G5g\ .
 o:tf l;knfO{ PSsfO;f}F ztfAbLsf l;k, g/d l;k -soft skills), Jofks l;k -transversal skill) sf
¿kdf klg JofVof ug]{ ul/G5 .

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  o:tf l;kn] JolStnfO{ ;dfhdf ;dfof]hg x'g ;xof]u u5{g\ .
 logn] cfkm\gf] sfddf ;kmntf xl;n ug{ ;xof]u u5{g\ .
 JolStsf] Ifdtf ljsf; u/L ;Ifd gful/s agfpg klg logn] ;xof]u u5{g\ .
 of] l;kn] JolStnfO{ cg'zfl;t agfpFb} ;dfh, /fi6« / ljZj ;d'bfosf] enfOsf nflu sfo{ ug{ k|]l/t
u5{g\ .

hLjgf]kof]uL l;kcGtu{t lgDgfg';f/sf l;kx¿ kb{5g\ .

 ;d:of ;dfwfg l;k (Problem Solving Skill)
 ;~rf/ l;k (Communication Skill)
 ;"rgf k|ljlw l;k (Information Technology Skill)
 ;xsfo{ l;k (Cooperation Skill)
 ;dfnf]rgfTds ;f]rfO l;k (Critical Thinking Skill)
 cWoog l;k (Study Skill)
 ;xefulutf / 5nkmn (Participation and Discussion)
 l;h{gfTdstf (Creativity)
 cGt/j}olSts l;k (Interpersonal Skill)
 tgfj Joj:yfkg (Stress Management)
 ;+j]u Joj:yfkg (Momentum/Passion Management)
 lg0f{o lgdf{0f l;k (Decision Making Skill)
 g]t[Tj l;k (Leadership Skill)

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 PsfO{ @
hLjgf]kof]uL l;ksf ¿kdf l8lh6n l;kx¿ tyf ;fdfGo cg';Gwfg l;kx¿
(Digital and general research skills under the Life skill)

!= l8lh6n ;fIf/tf (Digital Literacy)

 PSsfO;f}F ztfAbLnfO{ lj1fg / k|ljlwsf] o'u dflgG5 .
 lj1fgsf] ljsf; w]/} klxnfb]lv g} eP tfklg ;g\ !(^) sf] bzsdf OG6/g]6sf] ljsf; ePkl5 ;"rgf
tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlw ;a}eGbf l56f] ljsf; x'Fb} cfPsf] 5 .
 ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlwsf If]qdf ePsf gjLgtd ljsf; / ltgsf] k|of]un] ;a} If]qnfO{ k|efljt
kf/]sf] 5 .
 lzIff, pBf]u, Jofkf/, ko{6g, s[lif, lrlsT;f, OlGhlgol/ª nufotsf x/]s If]qdf klg ;"rgf tyf
;~rf/ k|ljlwsf] k|of]un] dflg;sf] hLjgnfO{ ;/n agfPsf] 5 .
 g]kfndf ;g\ !(&@ -lj=;+= @)@*_ df klxnf] k6s hgu0fgfsf] tYofª\s k|zf]wgsf nflu IMB 1401
Mainframe sDKo'6/sf] k|j]z ePsf] ePtfklg ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlwsf] b|'t ljsf; eg] ;g\
!(() -lj=;+= @)$^_ df k|hftGqsf] k'g:yf{kgf ePkl5 dfq ePsf] kfOG5 .
 xfn g]kfndf ;fdfGo s'/fsfgL ug{, cgnfOg tyf er{'cn sIff (Virtual Class) ;~rfng ug{,
lx;falstfa /fVgb]lv la/fdLsf] pkrf/ ug{;d]t ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlwsf] k|of]u eO/x]sf] 5 .
 sDKo'6/, OG6/g]6 tyf cGo dfWodsf] k|of]u u/]/ tYofª\s ;ª\sng ug]{, ;ª\slnt tYofª\snfO{
k|zf]wg u/L ;"rgfdf kl/jt{g ug{], k|zf]lwt ;"rgfnfO{ e08f/g ug]{ / pSt ;"rgf k|of]ustf{nfO{
pknAw u/fpg] sfo{ g} ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlw xf] . o;nfO{ 5f]6s/Ldf ;"rgf k|ljlw -cfO6L_ klg
eGg] ul/G5 .
 ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlw k|of]u u/L s'g} klg ;"rgf k|fKt ug{], d"Nofª\sg ug{], l;h{gf ug{] / ;~rf/
ug{] IfdtfnfO{ l8lh6n ;fIf/tf elgG5 .

k|f]= lxn/ :kfO;{ (Hiller Spires) sf cg';f/ l8lh6n ;fIf/tfsf tLg kIfx¿ x'G5g\ M
-s_ l8lh6n ;fdu|L k|fKt / pkof]u ug{] .
-v_ l8lh6n ;fdu|L l;h{gf ug{] .
-u_ l8lh6n ;fdu|L ;~rf/ jf ljt/0f ug{] .
 o;}n] l8lh6n ;fIf/tf leq ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlw ;DaGwL k|fljlws 1fg / l;k b'j} kb{5g\ .
 cfhsf] j}1flgs o'udf hLjgsf x/]s If]qdf ;"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlwsf] k|of]u eO/x]sf] 5 . xfn
s'g} klg If]qdf ;kmn x'g l8lh6n ;fIf/tf geO{ gx'g] cj:yf cfPsf] 5 . To;}n] x/]s JolStn] oL
1fg / l;kx¿ k|fKt ug{}kg{] ePsf] 5 .

@=sDKo'6/ tyf lk|G6/sf] k|of]u (Use of Computer and Printer)

-s_ sDKo'6/sf] kl/ro
• OGk'6 pks/0f
• k|zf]wg pks/0f
• cfp6k'6 pks/0f
• e08f/0f pks/0f
• sDKo'6/sf] k|of]u
dfOj|mf];km\6 j8{df sfuhft tof/ ug{] tl/sf -dfOj|mf];km\6 j8{ vf]Ng], gofF Document nfO{ ;]e ug{],
8s'd]G6 6fOk ug{], sfuhft lk|G6 ug{] tl/sf_

-v_ sDKo'6/ k|0ffnL (Computer System)

 Combined structure of hardware and software of the computer is called computer
system

6
१. हाडुिेयि (Hardware)
• Physical devices of the computer run by electricity
• Monitor, Processer/CPU, Mouse, Keyboard, Printer, Hard disk, Sound Box, Scanner,
etc.
२. सफ्ििेयि (Software):
• The entire set of programs, procedures, and routines associated with the operation
of a computer system.
• Window 2007, window 2013, Window 2016, Antivirus program, driver installation
•
#= ;~rf/ PlKns];gx¿sf] k|of]u
• OG6/g]6 Pp6f ljB'tLo ;~hfn xf] .
• n]v, /rgf, k':ts tyf tYofª\sx¿ k|fKt ug{, ljB'tLo dfWodaf6 lsga]r ug{, Od]n, Rof6
tyf lel8of] Rof6 cflbaf6 ;~rf/ sfo{ ug{, uLt, ;ª\uLt, snfs[lt, ;flxlTos s[lt cflbsf]
k|;f/0f ug{ jf k|fKt ug{, v'nf l;sfO (Open Learning) jf ljB'tLo l;sfO (E-learning) ug{
;lsG5 .
• a|fph/ / OG6/g]6;Fu ;Dks{ :yfkgf
• Od]nsf] k|of]u
• lhd]n (Gmail) vftf vf]Ng] tl/sf
• ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf] ;'/lIft k|of]u -km];a's Facebook, 6\lj6/ (Twitter),
• OG:6«fu|fd (Instagram), o'6'a (You tube) / l6s6s (Tik Tok),d];]Gh/, efO{j/, Xjf6;]k, cflb_

$= ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf kmfObfx¿

!= lgMz'Ns ¿kdf JolStut / ;fd"lxs s'/fsfgL ug{ ;lsG5
@= ljZjJofkL kx'Fr ePsfn] ljZje/ ;~rf/ ;DaGw /fVg ;lsG5
#= tTsfn lgMz'Ns ¿kdf ;dfrf/ / ;"rgf ;Dk|]/0f ug{ ;lsG5
$= Jofkf/sf nflu ahf/ k|jw{gdf 7'nf] ;xof]u x'G5
%= ;fdflhs tyf /fhgLlts ;r]tgf u/fpg ;xh x'G5
^= ljrf/ cfbfgk|bfg / ;xsfo{ ug{ ;xh x'G5
&= ;fdflhs tyf /fhgLlts bafa lbg ;lsG5 .

;fdflhs ;~hfnsf a]kmfObf tyf r'gf}tLx¿

!= ;ffdflhs ;~hfnsf] s'nt nfUg ;S5 .
@= dfgl;s /f]u nfUg ;S5 .
#= wf]s]afh / ck/fwL k|s[ltsf dflg;nfO{ ;xh x'G5 .
$= unt ;"rgf k|jfx eO{ JolStsf] k|lti7fdf cfFr cfpg] tyf ;dfhdf cftª\s km}ng ;S5 .
%= 8/, qf; / wDsL lbP/ zf/Ll/s, dfgl;s jf cGo zf]if0f x'g ;S5 .
^= uf]Ko ;"rgf x\oflsª x'g ;S5 .
&= JolStsf] cfgLafgL kQf nufO{ unt kmfObf p7fpg ;S5 .

%= Od]nsf] k|of]u
• ljB'tLo x'nfs (Electronic Mail) sf] 5f]6s/L ¿k Od]n xf] .
• o;n] k/Dk/fut x'nfsaf6 x'g] kqfrf/sf] ;6\6f OG6/g]6dfkm{t kqfrf/ ug]{ sfo{ u5{ .
• ofx' (Yahoo), lhd]n (G-mail), x6d]n (Hot Mail) cflb h:tf Od]n ;]jf k|bfos (e-mail Service
Provider) dWo] s'g} Psdf PsfpG6 vf]Ng ;lsG5 .
kmfObfx¿
!= lgMz'Ns kqfrf/ ug{ ;lsG5
7
@= Ps} k6s w]/} hgfnfO{ kqfrf/ ug{ ;lsG5
#= l56f], ;lhnf] / ljZj;gLo ¿kdf kqfrf/ ug{ ;lsG5
$= Ps} k6s w]/} cf]6f 8s'd]G6, kmf]6f] cflbnfO{ k7fpg ;lsG5
%= kqfrf/ ul/Psf 8s'd]G6x¿ ;'/lIft e08f/ ug{ ;lsG5
^= lrq, kmf]6f], lel8of] jf cGo cf/sfOe ul/Psf 8s'd]G6 ;'/lIft ug{ ;lsG5 .

^= OG6/g]6af6 ;"rgf tyf cWoog ;fdu|Lsf] vf]hL / k|of]u (Internet Search/Search engine)
• A search engine is a software system that is designed to carry out web searches (Internet
searches), which means to search the World Wide Web in a systematic way for particular
information specified in a textual web search query.
• For Example:

 ;r{ OlGhgx¿ dfkm{t OG6/g]6df /flvPsf ljleGg ;"rgfnfO{ ;xh ¿kdf vf]hL ug{ ;lsG5 .
 j]a;fO6sf] ;r{ ug]{ aS;df vf]hL ug]{ ljifo 6fOk u/]df To;sf af/]df ljleGg ;"rgf k|fKt x'G5 .
 OG6/g]6 vf]h ug{] / k9\g] ljBfyL{sf nflu cToGt} pkof]uL x'G5 .
 g]kfndf u'un ;r{ OlGhg ;a}eGbf a9L k|rlnt 5 .

^=! ;r{ OlGhg -Search Engine_ k|of]u ug{] tl/sf

 rflxPsf] ;"rgf;Fu ;DalGwt d"n zAb (Keyword) klxrfg ug{]
 pSt d"n zAb (Keyword) nfO{ ;r{ aS; (Search box) df 6fOk ug{] / E' nter key lyRg]
 ;r{ OlGhgx¿ (Search Engines) df plrt Tab k|of]u ug{], h:t} M kmf]6f] vf]hL ug{ 'Images' Tab,
lel8of] vf]Hg 'Videos Tab'
 cfPsf] glthfdf :j|mf]n (Scroll) u/]/ x]g{]
 ;"rgf e/kbf{] xf] ls xf]Og d"Nofª\sg ug{]
 cfkm"nfO{ rflxPsf] ;"rgfdf lSns ug{]
 Truncation sf] k|of]u ug{] -h:t}M quali* k|of]u ubf{ qualify, qualification, qualified cflb ;a}
zAbx¿ vf]hL x'G5g\ ._
 s'g} zAbnfO{ vf]hLaf6 x6fpg lrGx k|of]u ug{]
 lglZrt zAbfjnL rflxPdf p4/0f lrGx æ Æ k|of]u ug]{
 cfkm"nfO{ rflxPsf] ;"rgf gb]lvPdf d"n zAb (Keyword) x¿ kl/jt{g u/]/ x]g{]
 d"n zAb (Keyword) sf kof{ojfrL zAbx¿ jf To;;Fu ;DalGwt zAbx¿ /fv]/ x]g{]
 cfjZos eP cGo ;r{ OlGhgx¿ k|of]u ug{]

8
&=OG6/g]6 / ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf] pQ/bfoL k|of]u (Accountable application of internet and social
network)

cawf/0ff (Concept)

• OG6/g]6 / ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf] ;b'kof]u / b'?kof]u b'j} x'g ;S5g\ .

• logLx¿sf] b'?kof]un] ;dfhdf JolStsf] dof{bfdf cfFr cfpg'sf ;fy} slxn]sfxLF uDeL/ cfk/flws
36gfx¿;d]t 36\g ;S5g\ .
• s'g} sDKo'6/ k|of]u u/]/ jf sDKo'6/nfO{ nlIft u/]/ ul/g] s'g} klg k|sf/sf u}/sfg'gL, cg}lts jf
c;fdflhs sfo{nfO{ ;fOa/ ck/fw elgG5 .
• uf]Ko ;"rgf rf]/L ug{', OG6/g]6 7uL ug'{, x\oflsª ug'{, sDKo'6/ efO/;sf] cfj|md0f, 8/–qf; lbg] cflb
sfo{ ;fOa/ ck/fw (Cyber Crime) x'g\ .
• OG6/g]6 / ;fdflhs ;~hfndf ul/g] c;n Jojxf/nfO{ ;fOa/ g}ltstf jf -Cyber Ethics_ elgG5 .

;fOa/ g}ltstf (Cyber Ethics)

• sDKo'6/ / OG6/g]6sf] k|of]u ubf{ o;;DaGwL gLlt lgodx¿sf] kfngf ug]{ .
• s;}nfO{ wf]sf x'g], gf]S;fg kg{] jf k|lti7fdf cfFr cfpg] sfd gug{] .
• sDKo'6/ / OG6/g]6sf] k|of]u ubf{ k|of]ustf{, k|f]u|fd/, ck/]6/ jf cGo hf];'s}n] sDKo'6/
g}ltstfsf] kfngf ug]{ .
• sDKo'6/, :df6{kmf]g, 6\ofan]6 cflbsf] k|of]u u/L ;"rgf, ;km\6j]o/ jf s'g} klg JolStut jf
;fd"lxs /]s8{x¿ rf]/L ug{', laufl/lbg' jf sDKo'6/ efO/;sf] k|of]u gug]{ .
;fOa/ g}ltstf cg';f/ ug{' gx'g] sfo{x¿
• c¿sf kmfOn jf /]s8{x¿ vf]Hg', x]g'{, laufg'{, x6fpg', skL ug'{, k|of]u ug'{ .
• c¿sf] sDKo'6/ kf;j8{ rf]g'{ / k|of]u ug'{ .
• u|fxsx¿sf] JolStut a}ª\s vftf x]g'{, rf]g'{, laufg'{, l8lh6n ;xL rf]g'{ / k|of]u ug'{ .
• efO/; agfP/ k|of]u ug'{ .
• sDKo'6/sf] uf]kgLotf eª\u ug'{ .
• em'6f Joxf]/fsf ;"rgf lbg‘ .
• ljB'tLo :j¿kdf u}/sfg'gL s'/f k|sfzg ug'{ .
• s'g} klg If]q jf ;ª\3;+:yfdf /x]sf JolStut jf ;fd"lxs /]s8{x¿ lagf cg'dlt x]g{', ;Rofpg',
rf]g'{ / laufg'{ .
• ljBfno jf SofDk;sf ljBfyL{x¿sf] /]s8{ jf dfs{ n]h/ rf]g{', x6fpg', ;Rofpg' jf s'g}
• lsl;dn] gf]S;fgL k'¥ofpg' cflb .
ljB'tLo -On]S6«f]lgs_ sf/f]af/ P]g, @)^#
(Electronic Transaction Act, ETA)
lgif]w ul/Psf] sfo{ ;hfo
sDKo'6/ ;|f]tsf] ;ª\s]t -;f];{ sf]8_ rf]/L u/]df, gi6 u/]df, tLg jif{;Dd s}b jf b'O{ nfv ?lkofF;Dd
kl/jt{g u/]df jf To:tf] sfd ug{ nufPdf . hl/jfgf jf b'j} ;hfo .
lagf clVtof/L s'g} sfo{j|md, ;"rgf jf tYofªsdf kx'Fr b'O{ nfv ?lkofF;Dd hl/jfgf jf tLg jif{;Dd
k|fKt ug]{ p2]Zon] s'g} sfo{ u/]df . s}b jf b'j} ;hfo .
sDKo'6/ k|0ffnLdf /x]sf s'g} ;"rgfnfO{ s'g} klg Joxf]/faf6 b'O{ nfv ?lkofF;Dd hl/jfgf jf tLg jif{;Dd
gi6 u/]df, Iflt k'¥ofPdf, d]6fPdf, x]/km]/ u/]df, sfd s}b jf b'j} ;hfo
gnfUg] agfPdf jf To:tf ;"rgfsf] d"No / k|of]usf]
dxTjnfO{ x|f; u/fPdf jf xflgsf/s k|efj kf/]df jf
s;}nfO{ To:tf] sfd ug{ nufPdf .

9
 lgif]w ul/Psf] sfo{ ;hfo

sDKo'6/, OG6/g]6 nufotsf ljB'tLo ;~rf/ dfWodx¿df • Ps nfv ?lkofF;Dd hl/jfgf jf kfFr
u}/sfg'gL ;fdu|Lx¿ jf ;fj{hlgs g}ltstf, lzi6frf/ lj?4sf jif{;Dd s}b jf b'j} ;hfo .
;fdu|L jf s;}k|lt 3[0ff jf å]if km}nfpg] jf ljleGg hfthflt / • bf]xf]¥ofPdf !=% u'0ffn] a9\b} hfg] .
;Dk|bfo larsf] ;'dw'/ ;DaGwnfO{ vnn kfg]{ lsl;dsf
;fdu|Lx¿ k|sfzg jf k|bz{g ug]{, dlxnfnfO{ lh:Sofpg],
x}/fgL ug]{, ckdfg ug]{ jf o:t} cGo s'g} lsl;dsf cdof{lbt
sfo{ ug]{ jf ug{ nufpg] .
cflwsfl/s ¿kdf kx'Fr k|fKt u/]sf s'g} JolStn] s'g} Ps nfv ?lkofF;Dd hl/jfgf jf b'O{
cglws[t JolStnfO{ ljB'tLo clen]v, lstfa, /lh:6/, jif{;Dd s}b jf b'j} ;hfo .
kq Jojxf/, ;"rgf, sfuhft jf ;fdu|Lsf] uf]kgLotf
eª\u u/]df jf eª\u ug{ nufPdf .
s'g} ljB'tLo ;"rgf hfgL hfgL n'sfPdf jf 9fF6]df jf Ps nfv ?lkofF;Dd hl/jfgf jf b'O{
hfgfhfgL em'6\6f Joxf]/f k]; jf bflvnf u/]df . jif{;Dd s}b jf b'j} ;hfo
em'6\6f Ohfhtkq jf k|df0fkq k]; u/]df jf b]vfPdf . krf; xhf/ ?lkofF;Dd hl/jfgf
gSsnL l8lh6n x:tfIf/ k|df0fkq l;h{gf u/]df, k|sfzg lauf] sfod u/L ;DalGwt kIfnfO{ s;'/
u/]df jf cGo Joxf]/fn] pknAw u/fPdf jf s'g} lansf] ug]{af6 e/kfO{ To:tf s;'/bf/nfO{ Ps
e'StfgL /sd, s;}sf] vftfsf] afFsL /sd, jf P=6L=Pd=sf8{df nfv ?lkofF;Dd hl/jfgf jf b'O{ jif{;Dd
ldnf]dtf] u/L jf cGo s'g} tl/sfn] hfn;fhL u/L nfe s}b jf b'j} ;hfo .
p7fPdf .
sDKo'6/;DaGwL] s'g} s;'/ ug{ s;}nfO{ b'?T;fxg u/]df jf krf; xhf/ ?lkofF;Dd hl/jfgf jf 5
To:tf] s;'/ ug{ pBf]u u/]df jf if8\oGqdf ;fd]n ePdf . dlxgf;Dd s}b jf b'j} ;hfo .
g]kfn /fHoaflx/ sDKo'6/;DaGwL] s;'/ u/]df To:tf] s;'/ g]kfndf eP;/x ;hfo .
ul/Psf] sDKo'6/, sDKo'6/ k|0ffnL jf sDKo'6/ g]6js{ k|0ffnL
g]kfndf cjl:yt ePdf .

;fdflhs ;~hfnsf ;'/lIft k|of]u ug{] pkfox¿

• cfkm\gf] ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf] k|fOe];L ;]l6ª (Privacy settings) ldnfpg]
• s'g} :6f6; jf sd]G6 kf]:6 ug{' klxn] o;n] kl5 s'g} c;/ kfnf{ ls eGg]af/]df /fd|/L ;f]rljrf/
ug{] .
• ;~hfndf /fd|f] k|lti7f k|fKt ug{ k|oTg ug{], g/fd|f] efiff jf ljifoj:t'n] cfkm}FnfO{ xfgL k'¥ofpg]
ePsfn] o:tf sfo{df ;r]t /xg] .
• cfkm\gf] uf]Ko s'/f uf]Ko g} /fVg], ;~hfndf kf]:6 gug{] .
• cfkm\gf] sDKo'6/nfO{ PlG6efO/;, OG6/g]6 ;'/Iff cflb Install u/L ;'lIft /fVg] .
• s;}n] tkfO{FnfO{ s'g} g/fd|f] Jojxf/ u/]df tTsfn cfkm\gf] cleefjs, lzIfs jf k|x/Lsf] ;xof]u
lng] .
• alnof] kf;j8{ k|of]u ug{] / a]nf a]nfdf kl/jt{g ul//xg], Capital letter, Small letter, ;ª\s]t /
;ª\Vof ld;fP/ kf;j8{ /fVg] .
• s'g} zª\sf:kb ;Gb]z jf Od]n cfPdf To;nfO{ gvf]Ng] .

10
cgnfOg e'StfgL (Online payment)
• OG6/g]6 / ljB'tLo pks/0f k|of]u u/L cfkm\gf] a}ª\s vftfaf6 c¿ s;}sf] a}ª\s vftfdf
/sdfGt/ ug{] k|lj|mof .
• a}ª\sdf guO{ h'g;'s} 7fpFaf6 ;fdfg jf ;]jfsf] lan ltg]{ tyf df]afOn, OG6/g]6, vfg]kfgL,
ljB't\sf] dx;'n ltg{] h:tf sfo{x¿ .
• 8]la6÷j|m]l86 sf8{sf] dfWoodaf6 cgnfOg k]d]G6 ;]]jf lng] .
• OG6/g]6 a}ª\lsª dfkm{t klg o:tf] ;]jf lng] .
• a}ª\s dfkm{t OG6/g]6 a}ª\lsª ;]jf lngsf nflu a}ª\sdf uP/ cfj]bg lbg] .
• Pkx¿af6 cgnfOg e'StfgL ;]jf lngsf nflu To:tf] Pk 8fpgnf]8 u/L PlS6e]6 ug{] .

cgnfOg e'StfgLsf kmfObfx¿

!= JolStn] cfkm}F k]d]G6 ug{] ePsfn] hgzlStdf nfUg] vr{ s6f}tL x'G5 .
@= ljleGg lan ltg{ ;do vr{ ug{' / nfOgdf a:g' kb}{g .
#= cgnfOgaf6 ;fdfg / ;]jf lsGg tyf a]Rg ;xh x'G5 .
$= l56f], 5l/tf] / ljZj;gLo ¿kdf /sdfGt/ ug{ ;lsG5 .
%= gub af]Sg' jf 3/df /fVg‘ gkg{] ePsfn] rf]/Lsf] 8/ xF'b}g .
^= gub /lxt sf/f]af/ x'g] ePsfn] b]zsf] gf]6sf] cfo' a9\g uO{ art x'G5 .
&= sf/f]af/sf] /]s8{ :jtM /xg] ePsfn] JolSt, ;+:yf / ;/sf/nfO{ lx;fa /fVg ;lhnf] x'G5 .

cgnfOg e'StfgLsf a]kmfObf tyf r'gf}tLx¿

!= cgnfOg ;]jf afkt z'Ns ltg{'k5{
@= ckmnfOg sf/f]af/df sfd nfUb}g
#= ;fOa/ ck/fwLx¿n] x\ofs u/]/ /sd b'?kof]u ug{ ;S5g\
$= slxn]sfxLF OG6/g]6 jf ;e{/ 8fpg eP/ sf/f]af/ ug{ ;lsFb}g
%= l8lh6n ;fIf/tf gePsf JolStx¿n] k|of]u ug{ ;Sb}gg\
^= g]kfnsf] ;a} 7fpFdf o;sf] kx'Fr gk'u]sfn] k|of]u ug{ ;lsFb}g .

;'/lIft cgnfOg e'StfgLsf nflu Wofg lbg'kg{] s'/fx¿

 s'g} klg ;fdfg jf ;]jf cgnfOg vl/b ug{'cl3 OG6/g]6df ;r{ u/]/ To:tf j:t' jf ;]jfaf/]
hfgsf/L lng'k5{ .
 s'g} klg ;fdfg jf ;]jf cgnfOg vl/b ubf{ ljZj;gLo sDkgLaf6 dfq vl/b ug'{k5{ .
 sf/f]af/ ubf{ ljj/0fx¿, kf;j8{ / /sd cfkm}F 6fOk ug'{k5{ .
 cfkm\g} sDKo'6/ jf :df6{kmf]gaf6 dfq sf/f]af/ ug'{k5{ . c¿sf]af6 sf/f]af/ ubf{ ljj/0f /]s8{ eO{
b'?kof]u x'g ;S5 .
 cgnfOg e'StfgLsf nflu 5'6\6} Od]n vftf k|of]u ubf{ a9L ;'/lIft x'G5 .
 cfkm\gf] kf;j8{ clt uf]Ko /fVg'k5{ . w]/}cf]6f kf;j8{x¿ n]v]/ /fVg'eGbf kf;j8{ Dofg]h/ k|of]u ubf{
a9L ;'/lIft x'G5 .
11
  ;fj{hlgs Wi-Fi k|of]u ubf{ ljj/0fx¿ ;]o/ x'g] ePsfn] To:tf] Wi-Fi k|of]u ug'{ x'Fb}g .
 ljZj;gLo Pk dfq k|of]u ug'{k5{ .

l8lh6n PlKns];g -Digital Application_ sf] pkof]lutf

• sDKo'6/ / OG6/g]6sf] ljsf;;Fu} 3/, sfof{no, c:ktfn, oftfoft cflbdf klg l8lh6n PlKns];gsf]
k|of]u al9/x]sf] 5 .
• sDKo'6/, :df6{ 6]lnlehg, jfOkmfO{ /fp6/, dfOj|mf]cf]eg, n'uf w'g] d]l;g, l8lh6n s's/ cflb
sDKo'6/ k|f]u|fddf cfwfl/t PlKns];gx¿ 3/fo;L k|of]udf cfO/x]sf 5g\ .
• l8lh6n tfNrfx¿ (Locks), cg'xf/ tyf cfjfh lrGg ;Sg] PlKns];gx¿sf] k|of]u klg g]kfndf ;'?
eO;s]sf] 5 .
• l8lh6n xflh/L, sf8{af6 tfNrf vf]Ng], sf8{af6} ef8f tyf lan ltg{] h:tf sfo{x¿ sfof{no,
c:ktfn, oftfoft, a}ª\s cflbdf k|of]u eO/x]sf 5g\ .
l8lh6n PlKns];gsf] k|of]u u/L ;]jf lnbf Wofg lbg'kg{] s'/fx¿
 3/df s'g} gofF l8lh6n pks/0f (Appliance) NofPkl5 To;sf] k|of]u lgb{]lzsf (User Mannual)
/fd|/L k9]/ dfq To;nfO{ ljB't\ nfOgdf hf]8\g] .
 3/sf ;a} ;b:ox¿nfO{ gofF pks/0f (Appliance) sf] k|of]uaf/] hfgsf/L lbg] .
 tfk jf cfuf] lgsfNg] pks/0f (Appliance) ;fgf afnaflnsfx¿nfO{ rnfpg glbg] .
 ;fgf afnaflnsfx¿nfO{ l8lh6n nt nfUg] u/L o:tf pks/0fx¿ rnfpg glbg] .
 sfof{no, oftfoft, a}ª\s, c:ktfn cflbdf /x]sf] l8lh6n pks/0f (Appliance) x¿ cfkm"n]
rnfpg}kg{] eP dfq rnfpg] .
 o;/L rnfpg'kbf{ ToxfF lbOPsf lgb{]zg k9]/ jf To:tf] Joj:yf gePdf ToxfFsf
 sd{rf/Lx¿nfO{ ;f]w]/ dfq rnfpg] .

12
 PsfO{ #
hLjgf]kof]uL ;Lk
!= lg0f{o k|lqmof (Decision Making Process)
-s_ lg0f{osf] kl/ro (Introduction of Decision)
 s'g} sfd ug{'k"j{ Tof] sfd ug]{ jf gug]{ egL ljrf/k"j{s ul/Psf] lgisif{ g} lg0f{o xf] .
 s] ug]{ (What to do?), lsg ug]{ (Why to do?), s;/L ug]{ (How to do?), sxfF ug]{ (Where to do?),
slxn] ug]{ (When to do?) / s:n] ug]{ (Who to do?) eGg] k|Zgsf] ;dfwfg ub}{ lgisif{df k'Ug' g} lg0f{o
xf] . (Answer of the 5W1H is called decision)
 Ps ljj]sk'0f{ 5gf]6 g} lg0f{o xf] .
 ;f]r (Thought) / sfo{ (Action) ljrsf] k'n (Bridge) g} lg0f{o xf] .
 s'g} sfd ug]{ jf gug]{, ;Lk l;Sg] jf gl;Sg], ljBfno hfg] jf ghfg] cflb h:tf sfo{x? ug{ lnOg]
lgwf] g} lg0f{o xf] .
 dflg;n] b}lgs sfo{x? ;+~rfng ug]{ cfwf/ g} lg0f{o xf] .
 ljleGg ljsNkx? dWojf6 ;jf]{Qd ljsNk 5gf]6 ug'{nfO{ lg0f{o elgG5 .
 s'g} ;f]rnfO{ ug]{ jf gug]{ elg tfls{s lgisif{df k'¥ofpg' g} lg0f{o xf] .

-v_ lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmof (Decision Making Process)

 s'g} ;d:of jf ljifoj:t';Fu ;DalGwt sfg'gL, tYout / Jojxfl/s kIfx?sf] ljleGg sf]0faf6 ljrf/
ljdz{ / ljZn]if0f ul/ Pp6f lgisif{df k'Ug] k|lqmof g} lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmof xf] .
 ljleGg r/0fx? kf/ ul/ s'g} ;f]rsf] lgwf] ul/G5 eg] To;nfO{ lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmof elgG5 .
 ljlzi7 ;d:ofx? ;dfwfg ug]{ sfo{sf] qmd jf ky klxrfg / rog ug]{ k|lqmof g} lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmof
xf] .
 s'g} klg sfdsf] lg0f{o ubf{ Pp6f lglZrt k|lqmofsf] kfngf ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . o;sf] nflu JolQm jf
;d'xnfO{ dxTjk'0f{ snf jf ;Lksf] vfFrf] kb{5, To:tf] hLjgkof]uL ;Lk ePsf] dflg;n] dfq lg0f{o
lng ;Sb5 .
 s'g} vf; p2]Zo k|flKt jf ;d:of ;dfwfgsf nflu ljleGg ;Defjgf jf ljsNkx¿sf] klxrfg jf
vf]hL u/L ;"rL tof/ ug]{, To:tf x/]s ;Defjgf jf ljsNkx¿sf ;DaGwdf ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug]{,
ltgLx¿sf] k|efj ljZn]if0f ug]{ / pko'St ljsNkx¿ dWo]af6 tYo jf k|df0fsf cfwf/df pQd
ljsNksf] 5gf]6 ug]{ sfo{ nfO{ g} lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmof elgG5 .

-u_ lg0f{o ug]{ (Decision Making)

 lg0f{o ug]{ sfo{ Pp6f uxg tyf ;+j]bgzLn sfo{ xf] .
 lg0f{osf ug{sf nflu pko'St ljsNk 5gf]6 ubf{ To;sf] sfof{Gjogsf] cj:yf, ;f] ljsNk 5gf]6
ug'{sf] sf/0f / cfkm"nfO{ nfu]sf] cg'e"lt ljrf/ u/L lg0f{o ug'{kb{5 .
 pknAw ;do, cfjZos kg]{ dfgjLo, ef}lts, ljQLo, k|fljlws ;|f]t;fwgsf] pknAwtf, cfGtl/s
jftfj/0fLo kIfx¿ nufotsf s'/fx¿df klg ljrf/ k'¥ofpg'k5{ .
 7'nf lg0f{ox¿df /fli6«o tyf cGt/f{li6«o cfly{s, ;fdflhs, ;f+:s[lts, ef}uf]lns / k|zf;lgs kIf,
d'n'ssf] gLlt tyf sfg'gL Joj:yf, k|lt:kwL{sf] cj:yf, lj1fg / k|ljlwsf] ljsf; nufotsf afx\o
jftfj/0fLo kIfx¿ ;d]tnfO{ ljZn]if0f ug{'k5{ .
 tYo / k|df0fsf cfwf/df JolStut jf ;+:yfut ¿kdf ul/Psf pko'St lg0f{ox¿n] /fd|f] kl/0ffd
lbG5g\ .
 k"j{tof/L jf uxg ;f]rljrf/ / tYout ljZn]if0f lagf ul/Psf] lg0f{oaf6 ;|f]t;fwg / ;dosf]
b'?kof]u dfq x'G5 .

-3_ lg0f{osf ljif]ztfx? (Characterstics of Decision)

 of] lg/Gt/ rln/xg] -Continuous or Ongoing_ k|lqmof xf] .
 of] Ps ultzLn -Dynamic_ k|lqmof xf] .
 lg0f{o tyf lg0f{o k|lqmof p2]Zod"ns -Objective oriented_ x'G5 .
13
  pko'Qm ljsNk 5gf}6 u/L sfof{Gjog ul/G5 .
 of] Ps dxTTjk"0f{ Joj:yfksLo sfo{ -Managerial activity_ xf] .
 lg0f{o sfof{Gjog ug{ ;|f]t ;fwg / sfo{ljlw -Resource and Procedure_ cfjZos x'G5 .
 pko'Qm ljsNksf] 5gf}6 -Selection_ ul/G5 .
 of] Ps af}l4s tyf ljj]szLn sfo{ xf] .
 of] ;b}j jftfj/0f -Environment_ ;Fu ;DalGwt x'G5 .

@= lg0f{osf k|sf/x? (Types of Decision)

-s_ ;ª\u7gfTds lg0f{o -Organizational Decision_
s'g} sfof{no jf ;ª\3;+:yfsf kbflwsf/L tyf sd{rf/Laf6 sfof{no jf ;+:yfsf] sfdsf ;DaGwdf lnOg]
lg0f{onfO{ ;ª\u7gfTds lg0f{o elgG5 . o; k|sf/sf lg0f{ox¿ sfof{no jf ;+:yfsf] p2]Zo k|flKt jf ;d:of
;dfwfg;Fu ;DalGwt x'G5g\ . ljBfno ;+rfns ;ldlt, ljBfyL{sf hgjuL{o ;+u7gx?, pBf]u Jofkf/
;+u7gx?, cflbn] ug]{ lg0f{ox? ;ª\u7gfTds lg0f{o x'g\ .
-v_ JolStut lg0f{o -Personal Decision_
JolStn] cfkm\gf] b}lgs hLjgofkgsf l;nl;nfdf cfkm\gf] OR5fg';f/ ug]{ lg0f{onfO{ JolStut lg0f{o elgG5 .
o; lsl;dsf lg0f{o JolSt :jod\af6 lnOG5 . o; lsl;dsf lg0f{osf] k|efj / c;/ ;fdfGotof lg0f{o lng]
JolStdf dfq ;Lldt /xG5 .

-u_ ;fd"lxs lg0f{o -Group Decision_

cfk;L lxt jf enfOsf nflu ;DalGwt JolStx¿ Pscfk;df ldnL ul/g] lg0f{onfO{ ;fd"lxs lg0f{o elgG5 .
o; lsl;dsf lg0f{odf PseGbf a9L JolStx¿ ;xefuL x'G5g\ . ;fy} o; lsl;daf6 lnOg] lg0f{odf w]/}
hgfsf] ;xeflutf x'g] x'Fbf lg0f{o sfof{Gjogdf ;xhtf ;d]t x'G5 . 6f]n ljsf; ;ldtL, ;xsf/L, ;d'x,
cflbn] ug]{ lg0f{onfO{ ;fd'lxs lg0f{o elgG5 .
-3_ ljj]szLn lg0f{o -Rational Decision_
ljleGg ljsNkx¿sf] klxrfg u/L tYo tyf k|df0fx¿sf] ljZn]if0faf6 k|fKt lgisif{sf cfwf/df pko'St tyf
;jf]{Qd ljsNksf] 5gf]6 u/L ul/g] lg0f{onfO{ ljj]szLn lg0f{o elgG5 . hfFra'em ;ldlt, cbfnt, cflb4f/f
lbO{g] lg0f{o ljj]szLn lg0f{o x'g\ .
-ª_ a9f]Q/L lg0f{o -Incremental Decision_
o;k"j{ u/]sf lg0f{onfO{ g} cfwf/ dfgL eO/x]sf sfdx¿nfO{ yk kl/dfh{g jf ;'wf/ ug]{ u/L lnOg] lg0f{onfO{
a9f]Q/L lg0f{o elgG5 . h:t} M s'g} ljBfnodf ut ljut jif{x¿b]lv g} k"jf{wf/ ;'wf/ sfo{j|md ;~rfng
eO/x]sfdf cfufdL cfly{s jif{df Jojl:yt k':tsfno ejg yk ug]{ lg0f{o ul/g' o:tf] lg0f{o xf] .

-r_ ;xeflutfd"ns lg0f{o -Participative Decision_

nlIft ;d"x, nfeu|fxL jf ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] kmfObf jf lxt ug{sf nflu To:tf] ju{ jf ;d'bfonfO{ ;d]t
lg0f{o k|lj|mofdf ;xefuL u/fO{ ul/g] lg0f{onfO{ ;xeflutfd"ns lg0f{o elgG5 .
#= lg0f{o k|lj|mofsf r/0f (Steps of Decision Making)
;fdfGotof ljleGg r/0fx¿ k"/f u/L dxTjk"0f{ lg0f{o ug{'k5{ . ;d:ofsf] klxrfg b]lv ;d:of ;dfwfgsf
nflu kof{Kt ljsNkx¿sf] klxrfg ug]{, ljsNkx¿af/] cfjZos ;"rgf tyf tYofª\s ;ªs\ng ug{] tyf
n]vfhf]vf / ljZni]f0f u/L lg0f{o lng] nufotsf sfo{x¿ lg0f{osf r/0f cGtu{t kb{5g\ . oL lg0f{o k|lj|mofsf
r/0fx¿nfO{ b]xfo adf]lhd lg0f{o k|lj|mof rj|mdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5M

14
!= ;d:ofsf] klxrfgM ;d:of s] xf], s;/L k}bf eof] o; jf/] ;f]r ljrf/ ug]{ . Pp6f dfq ;d:of xf] sL w]/}
;d:ofx?n] hl6ntf ylk/x]sf 5g\, ;a{k|yd To;nfO{ klxrfg ug'{kb{5 .
@= ;d:ofsf] ljZn]if0fM klxrfg ul/Psf ljleGg ;d:ofx?nfO{ Plss[t ul/ ltgsf] n]vfhf]vf ug]{ . s] sf/0fn]
ubf{ ;d:of k}bf eof] / o;n] s] s:tf] c;/ u5{ kQf nufpg sf]lzz ug]{ .
#= ljsNksf] klxrfgM ;d:of ;dfwfgsf nflu ;xfos l;4 x'g] ;DefJo ljleGg ljsNkx?sf] ljsf; ug]{ .
sfof{Gjogof]Uo ljsNksf] k|fyldstf lgwf{/0f ug]{ .
$= ljsNksf] ljZn]if0fM k|To]s ljsNkx?sf] ;fGble{stf, sf/0f, c;/ / k|efjsf] ljZn]if0f / d"Nof+sg ug]{ .
ljsNksf kmfObf / a]kmfObfx? s] s] x'g ;S5g\ egL x]g]{ .
%= ;a}eGbf /fd|f] ljsNk 5gf]6 ug]{M w]/} ljsNk dWo Pp6f /fd|f] ljsNk 5gf]6 ug]{ . of] lg0f{odf k'u]sf] cj:yf
eOsf]n] o;nfO{ lg0f{o lgdf{0fsf] txsf] ?kdf lng] .
^= lg0fo{ sfof{Gjog ug]{M lg0f{o kZrft\ lglZrt glthf k|flKtsf nflu lg0f{o sfof{Gjog ug]{ .
&= k'g/fjnf]sg tyf d'Nofª\sg ug]{M lg0f{o sfof{Gjog kZrft\sf] r/0f xf] h'g clGtd r/0f ul/G5 . o;df
sfof{Gjog ul/Psf] lg0f{on] s] s:tf] k|efj kfl//x]sf] 5 o;nfO{ d'Nofª\sg ug]{ .
$= g]kfndf lg0f{o ubf{ lnOg] cfwf/
 g]kfnsf] ;+ljwfg,@)&@ sf] /fHosf] bfloTj, lgb]{zs l;4fGt / gLltx?
 cfjlws of]hgfsf nIo tyf p2]Zox?
 P]g, lgod, ljlgod / lgb]{lzsfx?
 cGt/f{li6«o sfg'g, ;lGw ;Demf}tf, ;xfotf, /0fgLlt
 ljutsf lg0f{o tyf glh/x?
 ;dfhsf] d"No, dfGotf / k|rngx?
 ;d:ofsf] sf/0f / bL3{sfnLg k|efjx?
 ;d:of;Fu ;DalGwt ;"rgf / tYox?
 ljifoj:t'sf] P]ltxfl;s k[i7e"ld
 sfof{Gjog Ifdtf, ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] cj:yf / pknAwtf
 eljio k|ltsf] b[li6sf]0f
 bafa ;d"xsf] dfu / cj:yf

15
$= lg0f{odf clg0fL{t x'g] cj:yfsf] klxrfg
xfdLnfO{ df}lvs hjfkm lbg hlt ;lhnf] xf]nf, kl/cfPsf] cj:yfdf lg0f{o ug{ sl7g x'g ;S5 . o:tf] lsg
x'G5 t < sltko cj:yfdf lgDglnlvt ;Defljt sf/0fx¿n] klg xfdL cGof]n / clgl0f{t aGg ;Sb5f}F Û
 kof{Kt ;"rgfsf] cefj
 tTsfnsf] kl/l:ylt jf jftfj/0f
 bafa ;d"x
 eljiosf] c;/ jf k|efj
 ;|f]t;fwgsf] pknAwtf
 lg0f{o ug]{ clwsf/
 ;do ;Ldf
 ljBdfg gLlt, sfg'g

@= ;d:of ;dfwfg (Problem Solving)

@=! समस्या (Problem)

• (Any question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty, or difficulty.)
• संका, अतनजश्चतता िा अब्ठे िोपनको प्रश्न नै समस्या हो ।
• (A question proposed for solution or discussion.)
• समािान िा छलफलको लाधग िाखखएको प्रस्ताि नै समस्या हो ।
• (difficult to train or guide)
• ताभलम ददन िा गाईड गनु कदठनाई हननन नै समस्या हो ।
• (dealing with choices of action difficult either for an individual or for society at large)
• समाि िा व्यजततलाई कननै पतन कायुमा अगाडी िढाउन गाह्रो हननन नै समस्या हो ।

@=@ समस्या समाधान (Problem Solving)

• (Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem; identifying,
prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution.)
• समस्याको पदहचान, समस्या आउनाका कािणहरु, समस्याको प्राथभमक्रककिण, समािानको लाधग
विकल्पहरुको छनोि ि ततनको समािानका लाधग अपनाईने कायाुन्ियन कला नै समस्या समािान हो ।

@=# ;d:of ;dfwfgsf r/0f (Steps of Problem Solving)

r/0f (Steps) k|lj|mof (Process)
;d:of klxrfg / ;d:of s] xf], s;/L l;h{gf eof] / lsg eof] eGg] k|Zgsf] pQ/ vf]hL ;d:ofsf]
kl/efiff d"n sf/0f / cGo sf/0f klxrfg ug]{
kl/sNkgf ;d:of ;dfwfgsf nflu ljZn]if0ffTds, tfls{s, cf}lrTok"0f{, l;h{gfTds /
;sf/fTds ljsNk dWo] pko'St ljsNksf] klxrfg ug]{ / pSt ljsNksf] ;Defljt
kl/0ffd Vofn ug]{
tYo ;ª\sng ;d:of ;dfwfgsf nflu klxrfg ul/Psf] ljsNk;Fu ;DalGwt cfjZos tYo vf]h
ug]{ / ;dfwfgsf nflu k|of]u ug]{ tl/sfsf] ;f]r ljsf; ug]{
ljZn]if0f klxrfg ul/Psf ljsNkx¿sf] ljleGg TfYo / ;"rgfdf cfwfl/t eO{ ljZn]if0f ug]{
lgisif{ ;d:ofsf] sf/0f, ;d:of ;dfwfgsf nflu rog ul/Psf] ljsNk / ;f] ljsNk;Fu
;DalGwt tYosf cfwf/df ;d:of ;dfwfgsf] lgisif{ lgsfNg]
k|of]u ;d:of ;dfwfgsf] lgisif{ k|of]u ug]{

16
#= ;+rf/ ;Lk (Communication Skill)
#=! ;+rf/ (Communication)
• b'O{ kIfx¿lar ;"rgf cfbfgk|bfg ug]{ / cy{ a'em\g] k|lj|mofnfO{ ;~rf/ elgG5 .
• (Communication is a process of understanding and sharing meaning between two
persons/aspects )
• Ps kIfn] csf]{ kIfnfO{ s'g} hfgsf/L k7fpg] k|lj|mof g} ;~rf/ xf] .
• ;~rf/ JolSt, ;d"x / ;+:yf lardf x'g] ub{5 .
• ;~rf/cGtu{t af]Ng], ;'Gg], k9\g], n]Vg], x]g]{ cflb lj|mofsnfkx¿ kb{5g\ .
• ;~rf/sf] d'Vo p2]Zo g} JolStn] c¿nfO{ ;"rgf k7fpg' tyf c¿af6 ;"rgf k|fKt ug'{ xf] .
• ;~rf/ eg]sf] s'g} ;Gb]znfO{ Ps :yfgaf6 csf]{ :yfgdf k7fpg' tyf To;sf] cy{ a'em\g' xf] .
• ;~rf/ b'O{ kIfx¿lar x'g] Ps Jojl:yt k|lj|mof xf] .
• of] Pp6f l;k jf snf xf] .
• o;df ;"rgf, hfgsf/L, ljrf/ / efjgfx¿ k7fpg], k|fKt ug]{ tyf a'em\g] sfo{ ul/G5 .
• ;"rgf jf ;Gb]znfO{ pko'St 9ª\uaf6 ;fª\s]tLs/0f ul/;s]kl5 ;"rgf jf ;Gb]zx¿sf] cfbfg k|bfg
ug{ o:tf dfWoodsf] cfjZostf kb{5 .
• k|ToIf e]63f6, 6]lnkmf]g, df]afOn kmf]g, /]l8of], 6]lnlehg, lr7Lkq, kqklqsf, OG6/g]6, km\ofS;,
lel8of] cflb k|rngdf /x]sf d'Vo ;~rf/ dfWod x'g\ .

#=@ ;+rf/sf cfwf/e"t tTjx¿ (Fundamental Elements/components of Communication)

-s_ ;"rgfsf] ;|f]t (Sources of information): b'O{ jf b'O{eGbf a9L kIf jf JolStx¿
-v_ ;"rgf (Message): hfgsf/L
-u_ ;~rf/sf] dfWod (Communication Channel): /]8Lof], 6]lnlehg, kqklqsf, ;fdflhs ;+hfn, ukmufkm,
cflb
-3_ k|]ifs -;"rgf k7fpg]_ (Sender): ;"rgf lbg] AolQm, ;+:yf .
-ª_ k|fks -;"rgf kfpg]_ (Receiver): ;"rgf kfpg] AolQm, ;+:yf .
-r_ k|fKt ;"rgf :jLsf/ ug'{ (Acceptance of the information): gs/fTds jf ;s/fTds tj/n] .
-5_ ;"rgfnfO{ ;xL ¿kdf j'em\g' (Good Understanding of the information):सूचनालाई िाम्रो भसत िनझ्नन पछु .
-h_ ;"rgfsf] k|ltlj|mof hgfpg' (Feedback the information): k[i7kf]if0f ug'{, सननेि, हे िेि, पढे ि मात्र हनदै न .

#=# संचािका प्रकाि (Types of Communication)

-s_ df}lvs ;~rf/ (Verbal Communication)

• JolStn] s'g} efiff k|of]u u/L af]n]/ ;"rgf jf ;Gb]z cfbfgk|bfg ub{5 eg] To;nfO{ df}lvs
;~rf/ elgG5 .
• of] ;a}eGbf k|rlnt, ;/n / dxTjk"0f{ ;~rf/ ljlw xf] .
• df}lvs ;~rf/ k|ToIf e]63f6 / ;~rf/sf ;fwg k|of]u u/L b'O{ lsl;dn] ug{ ;lsG5 .
• ;fdfGotof ;~rf/sf dfWoodaf6 ul/g] s'/fsfgL jf ;~rf/eGbf k|ToIf e]63f6dfkm{t ul/g]
;~rf/ k|lj|mof clws k|efjsf/L tyf e/kbf]{ x'G5 .
-v_ lnlvt ;~rf/ (Written Communication)
• b'O{ kIfx¿ lar lnlvt ¿kdf ;Gb]z, ;"rgf jf hfgsf/L cfbfg k|bfg ul/G5 eg] To;nfO{
lnlvt ;~rf/
• elgG5 .
• lr7Lkq, cfsfzjf0fL, k|ltj]bg, P]g sfg'g, gLlt lgod, a'n]l6g, kqklqsf, k':ts cflb :j¿kdf
lnlvt ;Gb]zsf] ;~rf/ ul/G5 .
• lnlvt ;~rf/ Ps e/kbf]{, ljZjfl;nf] tyf k|efjsf/L ;~rf/ ljlw xf] . ;"rgf k|bfg u/]sf]
;'lglZrttfsf nflu lnlvt ;~rf/ dxTjk"0f{ 5 .
• lnlvt ;~rf/nfO{ sfg'gL dfGotf k|fKt x'G5 .

17
 • o;nfO{ ;'/lIft clen]v /fVg ;lsG5 / eljiodf sfg'gL k|df0fsf ¿kdf k]; ug{ ;lsG5 .
• o;y{ dxTjk"0f{ ;Gb]znfO{ lnlvt ;~rf/ dfkm{t cfbfgk|bfg ug'{ /fd|f] x'G5 .
-u_ ;fª\s]lts ;~rf/ (Symbolic Communication)
• s'g} efiff jf zAb k|of]u gu/L ;ª\s]tsf cfwf/df ;Gb]z cfbfgk|bfg ul/G5 eg] To;nfO{
;fª\s]lts ;~rf/ elgG5 .
• o; cGtu{t lrx\g, ;ª\s]t, O;f/f, zf/Ll/s xfpefp, cg'xf/sf] cleJolSt cflb kb{5g\ .
• lrghfgsf dflg;;Fu e]6 x'Fbf d':sfpg], v';L dx;'; ug]{, xftsf] O;f/fn] af]nfpg], 6fpsf]
xNnfP/ xf] jf xf]Og eGg' ;fª\s]lts ;~rf/ xf] .
• 6«flkms lrx\g jf gS;f klg ;fª\s]lts ;~rf/ xf] .
• 5f]6f] ;dodf tTsfn va/ k7fpgsf nflu ;fª\s]lts ;~rf/ dxTjk"0f{ 5 .

#+=$ ;~rf/sf cj/f]w (Barriers of Communication)

-s_ dgf]j}1flgs cj/f]w (Psychological Barriers)

• ;~rf/ k|lj|mofdf ;+nUg kIfx¿sf] dgf]j}1flgs cj:yfn] k|efjsf/L ;~rf/df cj/f]w pTkGg x'g
;Sb5 .
• JolStdf ePsf] ;"rgf 5gf]6sf] k|j[lQ, ;"rgfsf] af]em, cfj]u / n}ª\lus z}nLn] k|efjsf/L
;~rf/df cj/f]w l;h{gf x'g ;S5 .
• ;"rgf k7fpg] JolSt jf k|]ifsn] ;"rgfnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg] axfgfdf cgfjZos yk36 u/L
jf:tljs ;"rgfsf] cy{nfO{ cgy{ agfpg ;S5 .
• To;} u/L ;"rgf k|fKt ug]{ JolSt jf k|fksn] cfkm\gf] cfjZostf, cg'ej, k[i7e"ld tyf JolStut
u'0fsf cfwf/df ;"rgfx¿nfO{ 5gf]6 u/]/ u|x0f ug]{ ;Defjgf clws x'G5 .
• yf]/} ;dodf w]/} ;"rgf k|jfx ePdf k|fkssf] lbdfudf ;"rgfsf] af]em w]/} eO{ ;a} ;"rgfx¿ u|x0f
ug{ ;Sb}g .
• k|efjsf/L ;~rf/df ;"rgf k7fpg] / k|fKt ug]{ JolStsf] cfj]un] klg cj/f]w l;h{gf ug{ ;Sb5 .
• ;fdfGotof cfj]u / l/; p7]sf] ;dodf JolStn] ;"rgfsf] k|lt/f]w ub{5 .
• lnª\u lje]bsf sf/0f ;~rf/df cg]sf}F cj/f]w l;h{gf x'g ;Sb5g\ . dlxnf / k'?ifsf] cfjfhdf g}
leGgtf x'G5 .
-v_ eflifs
cj/f]w (Semantic Barriers)
•efiff jf zAbsf] unt cy{sf] sf/0fn] ;~rf/ k|lj|mofdf cj/f]w pTkGg x'g ;Sb5 .
•leGg leGg ;dfhdf km/s km/s efiff x'G5 .
•b]z, wd{, ;+:s[lt / pd]/n] ;d]t efiffdf k|efj kfb{5 .
•k|]ifssf] efiff jf clek|fo k|fksn] a'em]g eg] cy{sf] cgy{ x'g ;Sb5 .
•To;} u/L ;~rf/ k|lj|mofdf k|fljlws efiff tyf 5f]6s/L zAb k|of]u ubf{ ;~rf/ k|efjsf/L gx'g
;S5 .
• o;y{ efiff tyf zAbsf] ;xL 9ª\uaf6 k|of]u u/L ;~rf/ ug'{kb{5 .
-u_ ef}lts cj/f]w (Physical Barriers)
• of] ;~rf/ k|lj|mofsf] ;dodf pTkGg x'g] jftfj/0fLo cj/f]w xf] .
• o; cGtu{t ef}lts k|aGw, b'/L, Wjlg h:tf s'/fx¿ kb{5g\ . ;Gb]z jf ;"rgf k|fks / k|]ifslar
pko'St ;DaGw x'g'kb{5 .
• pko'St k|aGwsf] cefjdf pgLx¿lar k|efjsf/L ;~rf/ ;DaGw sfod x'g ;Sb}g .
• Ps kIfnfO{ k7fPsf] ;"rgf cs}{ kIf ;dIf klg k'Ug ;S5 .
• ;"rgf k|jfx ubf{ k|]ifs tyf k|fks lardf nfdf] b'/L 5 eg] k|fksn] k|efjsf/L 9ª\uaf6 ;"rgf
k|fKt ug{ ;Sb}g .
• ;~rf/ k|lj|mof ;~rfng eO/x]sf] cj:yfdf 7'nf] cfjfh pTkGg ePdf klg o;n] ;Gb]z k7fpg]
/ k|fKt ug]{ k|lj|mofdf cj/f]w pTkGg ub{5 .
-3_ ;ª\u7gfTds cj/f]w (Organizational Barriers)
• ;ª\u7g leqsf] cflGtl/s tTjn] ;d]t ;~rf/ k|lj|mofdf afwf pTkGg ug{ ;Sb5 .
18
 • o;cGtu{t v/fa of]hgf, hl6n ;+/rgf, dof{bf, cxdtf h:tf s'/fx¿ kb{5g\ . ;Gb]zsf]
;fª\s]tLs/0f,
• ;~rf/sf ;fwg, ¿kfGt/0f cflb sfo{sf nflu v/fa of]hgf th'{df x'g uPdf o;n] ;~rf/
k|efjsfl/tfdf gsf/fTds k|efj kfb{5 .
• ;ª\u7gleq Hofb} km/flsnf] ;+/rgf 5 eg] o;n] ;~rf/ k|0ffnLnfO{ k|efljt ub{5 .
• To;}u/L sd{rf/Lx¿df x'g] cxd\sf] efjgfn] ubf{ k|d'vn] ;xfosaf6 k/fdz{ lng rfxFb}gg\ .
• o;n] ubf{ ;"rgf k|efjsfl/tf Go"g x'g hfG5 .
$= tgfj Joj:yfkg (Stress Management)
$=! tgfj (Stress)
• कननै पतन प्रकािको परिितुन िसले शािीरिक, िािनात्मक, मानभसक िा मनोिैज्ञातनक धचन्ता/
खखचातानी/वपडा/असि/चोि पैदा गदु छ।
• (Any type of change that causes physical, emotional, mental or psychological strain.)
• तनाि िनेको कननै चीिको लाधग मातनसको शिीिको प्रततक्रक्रया हो िसलाई ध्यान िा कायुको आिश्यक
पदु छ।
• (Stress is human body's response to anything that requires attention or action.)
• तनाि िािनात्मक चोि ि दिािको एक प्रततफल हो।
• तनाि अल्पकालीन िा ददर्ुकाभलन हननसतछ ।
• तनाि स्थानीय, िास्रीय, ि अन्तिाजस्रय हननसतछ ।
• यदद तनाि ददर्ुकाभलन िएमा यसले मातनसको स्िास््यमा गंभिि असि गदु छ ।
• JolStdf pTkGg x'g] dfgl;s bafasf] cj:yf tgfj xf] .
• jftf/0fdf cfPsf] kl/jt{gsf sf/0f JolStdf b]lvPsf] zf/Ll/s tyf dfgl;s kl/jt{gsf] l:ylt g}
tgfj xf] .
• JolStsf] ;xgzLntfdf r'gf}tL lbg] dfu jf wDsLsf ¿kdf tgfjnfO{ lng] ul/G5 .

$=@ तनावका लक्ष्यण (Sign of Stress)

• मनडमा परिितुन (Changes in mood)
• हत्केलामा पभसना आइिहनन (Clammy or sweaty palms)
• पखाला लाग्नन (Diarrhea)
• सत्न न कदठनाई (Difficulty in sleeping)
• पाचन समस्या (Digestive Problem)
• चतकि लाग्नन (Dizziness)
• सिै धचजन्तत हननन (Feeling anxious)
• िािम्िाि बििामी हननन (Frequent sickness)
• दााँत िोतन/न क्रकिक्रकिाउनन (Grinding teeth)
• िाउको दख्
न नन (Headaches)
• शिीिमा ऊिाु कम हननन (Low energy in the body)
• मांसपेशीमा तनाि हननन (विशेष गिी र्ााँिी ि कााँिमा) (Muscle tension, especially in the neck and
shoulders)
• शािीरिक दख न ाइ ि पीडा हननन (Physical aches and pains)
• मि
न न को िडकन िढ्नन (Racing heartbeat)
• प्रायिसो डिले काभमिहनन (Trembling)

19
$=# tgfjsf ljz]iftf (Nature of the Stress)

$=$ tgfj l;h{gf x'g] cj:yf (Conditions of stress occurance)

• कायुिन्य तनािका कािण (Work related Stress): hfuL/df c;Gt'li6, ysLt kfg]{ sfo{af]em,
sfof{nodf JofKt /fhlgtL, dflns / ;xsdL{ larsf] ¢Gb, cflb .
• तनािको सामाजिक कािण (Social Stress): ul/la, ljlQo bjfa, hflto / of}ghGo e]befa,
a]/f]huf/, PsfGtaf;, ;fdflhs ;xof]usf] cefa, cflb .
• तनािको िाताििणीय कािण (Environmental Stress): xNnf, le8ef8, bafa, c;'/lIft l5d]sL,
k|b'if0f, ck/fwaf6 u|:t If]q, o'4 u|:t If]q .
• तनािको पारििारिक ि सम्िंििन्य कािण (Family and Relationship stress)
• cl:tTj tgfj (Survival Stress) M vt/f k|lt k|ltlj|mof hgfpFbf cfpg] tgfj, b'3{6gf tyf
la/fdL kbf{ cfpg] tgfj .
• cfGtl/s tgfj (Internal Stress) M lrGtf, ;+j]u, lk/, dfgl;s rf]6, खखचातानी/वपडा/असि, cflb .

$=% तनावका असरहरु (Effect of Stress)

१ िौविक असिहरु: परिक्षािन्य काम, सािुितनक रुपमा िोल्ने वपि, ध्यान केजन्ित गनु कदठनाई प्रथाभमकिण गनु
असमुथता,
२ सामाजिक असिहरु: लिालप
न न, आक्रमकता, आिाि गम
न ाउनन, दहंस्रक िन्ने िा झोजतकनन
३ आजत्मक असिहरु: तनिासा िा असह्याय महसनस गने, शजततहीन महशनस गने
४ सम्िेगात्मक असिहरु: िक्षात्मक महशनस गनन,ु धचिहरु सम्झना समस्या िईिहनन

$=^ तनाव ब्यबस्थापनका (Stress Management)

• िदिल क्रकभसमको तनािलाई तनयन्त्रण गननु पछु ।
• मनोधचक्रकत्साको विस्तत
ृ श्रीन्खलालाई समािेस गरिन्छ ।
• तनाि ि प्रततकूलताको सामना गनु व्यजततलाई िाम्रोसंग मद्द्त पय
न ाुउने बिस्तत
ृ दृस्िीकोणहरु नै तनाि
ब्यिस्थापन हो ।
• Counseling/bio-feedback, Meditation, Massage विधिहरुको प्रयोग गरि तनािको ब्यिस्थापन गनु सक्रकन्छ
।
$=^=! तनाव ननयन्त्रणका उपायहरु

-s_ ;dk{0f (Surrender)

• o; pkfocg';f/ tgfj l;h{gf ug]{ sf/snfO{ :jLsf/ ul/G5 .
• of] bdgfTds k|s[ltsf] x'G5 .
• cfkm"nfO{ tgfj lbg] sfd, ljrf/ tyf ;Gbe{nfO{ k|ltjfb ug{ g;Sg', k|ToIf jf k/f]If ¿kdf
To;nfO{ :jLsf/ ug'{ o; pkfosf ljz]iftfx¿ x'g\ .
• tTsfnnfO{ ;dfwfg eP klg bL3{sfnLg ;dfwfgsf nflu of] pko'St ljlw xf]Og .
20
 • s;}nfO{ s'g} a:t' ;Ddfgk'a{s lbg], cfˆgf] clwsf/, :jfldTj cflb c? s;}nfO{ lbg] jf ;'Dkg] .
-v_ k|lt/f]w (Resistance)
• Tfgfj pTkGg ug]{ j:t', JolSt tyf kl/j]zk|lt abnf lbO{ tgfjnfO{ lgoGq0f ug]{ ljlw xf] .
• o; ljlwdf tgfj pTkGg ug]{ sf/s k|lt l/; kf]Vg], d'8\sLn] lxsf{P/ k|ltjfb ug]{, ef}lts ¿kdf
cfj|md0f ug]{, bfx|f ls6\g] cflb ul/G5 .
• o;n] Ifl0fsnfO{ tgfj sd t x'G5 t/ o;n] klg bL3{sfnLg ¿kdf ;sf/fTds sfd ub{}g .
• of] tgfj Joj:yfkg ug]{ gsf/fTds tl/sf xf] .
• rSsf hfd ug]{, x8tfn ug]{, la/f]w k|b{zg ug]{ cflb .

-u_ ;Demf}tf÷;dembf/L (Agreement)

• la/f]lw ljrf/wf/f ePsf JoQmL, ;d'x, b]z, cflb lardf x'g] ldqtf, d]nldnfk, ;lGw xf] .
• of] bL3{sfnLg ¿kdf tgfj Joj:yfkg ug]{ tl/sf xf] .
• o;df tgfj Joj:yfkgsf nflu JolStn] cfkm\gf z}nLut, cfr/0fut / Jojxf/hGo ultljlwdf
;Demf}tf u/L ;f] cg'¿ksf] sfo{ Jojxf/ k|:t't ug{'kg]{ x'G5 .
• o;n] lbg] glthfx¿ ;sf/fTds x'G5g\ .
• a[xt zflGt ;Demf}tf, g]kfn / O{i6 O{lG8off slDkgL larsf] ;'uf}nL ;lGw, cflb .

$=^=@ तनाव ब्यबस्थापनका रणनीनत (Strategies of Stress Management)

क. रणनीनत १- आफुलाई चलायमान गराईरहने (Get Moving)
 सामाजिक तथा व्यजततगत काममा व्यस्त िहने ।
 आफैलाई संडगठीत गने ।
 साथीिाईहरु संग िाम्रो कामको लाधग िमाउने ।
 साथीिाई, छितछमेक तथा ईष्िभमत्रहरुसंग िेिर्ाि गने ।
 धचत्रकला, िस्तनकला तथा अन्य सि
ृ नात्मक कायुमा व्यस्त हनने ।
ख. रणनीनत २- अनावश्यक तनाववाट पन्त्छने (Avoid unnecessary Stress)
 योग तथा प्रणायाम गने ।
 वप्रयिनहरुसाँग फोन गने कनिाकािी गने ।
ग. रणनीनत ३-पररजस्थनत बदल्ने (Alter the situation)
 खेल खेलेि, जिम गएि, पौडी खेलेि, भसनेमा/दििी हे िेि आफैमा आनन्द भलने ।
 िनन धचिले तनाि भसिुना गिे को हो त्यो धचि िन्दा आको काम गने ।
घ. रणनीनत ४- तनावसिजकलाई अनुकुल बनाउने (Adop to the Stressor)
 तनाि सि
ृ ना गने तत्िहरुलाई आफन अननकनल िनाउन कोभशस गने ।
 आफ्ना िीिनका फनसुदका गततविधिहरुलाई योिना िनाएि आफनलाई िाहत ददने ।
ङ. रणनीनत ५- बदल्न नसककने कुराहरुलाई स्वीकार गने (Accept the things one can not change)
 कननै कनिालाई आखखिमा िेहोननु पने नै छ िने बिना कननै कन्िस्
न याई स्िीकाि गने ।
 कननै कनिा िीिनमा जस्िकादाु आफैलाई पछनतो नगने ।
च. रणनीनत ६- मनोरं िन र ववश्रामका लागग समय छुट्टाउने (Make time for fun and relaxation)
 २४ र्न्िामा आफ्नो लाधग ३/४ र्ण्िा समय छनट्टाउने ।
 छनट्टाईएको समयमा आनन्दसंग सनत्ने िा विश्राम भलने ।
 साथीिाई संग मन पने खेल खेल्ने, ब्यायाम गने ।
छ. रणनीनत ७-स्वास्थ िीवनिैली अपनाउने (Adopt the healthy lifestyle)
 सन्तनभलत खाना खाने ।
 योग, ध्यान, प्राणायाम, ब्यायाम, आदद गने ।

21
  सकािात्मक सोच भलने ।
 सामनदातयक कायु गने ।
 समय समयमा स्िास््य िााँच गने ।
 अरुको अनािश्यक नतकल नगिी आफ्नो पष्ृ ठिूभम अननसाि चल्ने प्रयास गने ।
 कनलत/दव्न युसनमा नफस्ने ।
 भमतव्ययी िीिनशैली अपनाउने ।

$=& åGå, tgfj / åGå Joj:yfkg (Conflic, Stress and Conflict Management)
 दईन िा दई न िन्दा िढी व्यजतत, समूह िा संगठन बिचको असहमतत नै द्िन्द हो ।
 (A conflict is a disagreement among two or more individuals group or organizations)
 कननै पतन परिजस्थमा दई न िा दई
न िन्दा िढी पािीहरुले आफनलाई बिपक्ष महसनस गननु नै द्िन्द हो ।
 (Conflict is any situation in which two or more parties feel themselves in opposition)
 एक प्रक्रक्रया िहााँ एक पािीले अको पािीलाई नकािात्मक असि गिे को छ िन्ने महसनस गदै सनरु हनन्छ िा
पदहलो पक्षले ख्याल गने केहीलाई नकािात्मक रुपमा असि गछु ।
 (A process that begins where one party perceives another party has negatively affected, or is about to
negatively affects something that the first party cares about)
 मातनसहरुको दे खापने बिपरित दृस्िीकोणको द्िन्द अिस्था नै हो ।
 स्रोत दल
न ि
ु हननाको कािण ि मातनसहरु सिै त्यसैको प्राजततमा केजन्ित िहदा उनीहरुका बिचमा द्िन्द हनन्छ
।
 कननै पतन समािमा द्िन्द तनयभमत ि अपरिहायु प्रक्रक्रया हो ।
 सकािात्मक द्िन्दले मातनसमा सकािात्मक उिाु ि नकािात्मक द्िन्दले नकािात्मक उिाु प्रदान गदु छ ।

$=&=! द्वन्त्दका प्रकार (Types of Conflict)

१. स्िरुपका आिािमा
• अदहंसात्मक द्िन्द: िनािन, िादवििाद, बिचाि मन्थन, आदद
• ससस्त्र द्िन्द: हातहततयाि उठान गरिने द्िन्द
२. संलग्नताको आिािमा
• अंतिव्यजततगत द्िन्द; आफै भित्र हनने द्िन्द
• अन्तिैयजततक द्िन्द: व्यजतत व्यजतत बिचको द्िन्द
• संगठनात्मक द्िन्द: संगठन-संगठन हनने द्िन्द
३. सत्यताको आिािमा
• िास्तविक द्िन्द: सतहमा दे खा पने द्िन्द
• अिास्तविक द्िन्द: अन्तिात्माले महसनस गने द्िन्द

४.७.२ द्वन्त्द र तनाव (Conflict and Stress)

 तनािलाई शिीिको उत्तेिना िा र्िनाको एक अविभशष्ि प्रततक्रक्रयाको रुपमा भलइन्छ ।
 सकािात्मक ि तिस्थ तनािले खासै असि नदे खखए पतन नकािात्मक तनािले मातनसमा िदिल असिहरु
दे खा पनु सतछ ।
 मातनसले एक अकाुमा गिे का अन्तिक्रक्रयाका आिािमा द्िन्दको सि
ृ ना हननसतछ ।
 द्िन्द, तनाि ि शाजन्त एक आकाुमा अन्तिसम्िजन्ित छन ् ।
 शाजन्तले तनाि ि दहंसा निएको ि मेलभमलाप, सहकायु ि समािका सदस्यहरुले एक आपसलाई सम्मान
गने अिस्थालाई िनाउछ ।
 स्थाई शाजन्त हनदा तनाि ि दहाँसाको कम सम्िािना िहन्छ ।
 मातनसमा तनाि ि द्िन्दात्मक अिस्था विभिन्न चिणहरु पाि गिे ि शनरुको अिस्थािाि अजन्तम अिस्थामा
पनग्दछ । यसलाई तलको धचत्रिाि िनझ्न सक्रकन्छ ।

22
 धचत्र: द्िन्द ि तनाि विचको सम्िन्ि

४.७.३ द्वन्त्द ब्यबस्थापन (Conflict Management)

४.८ तनाव ब्यबस्थापनमा मनोसामाजिक परामिज, योग र ध्यानको प्रयोग

(Application of psychosocial counseling, yoga and meditation for stress management
 मनोसामाजिक समस्याको कािण खोजि गननु मनोसामाजिक पिामशु हो ।
 समस्या पिे को व्यजततलाई सम्मानपूिक
ु व्यिहाि गदै सकिात्मक िािणा तनमाुणमा मद्दत गने, समस्या
िदिल हनन नददन सिक िनाउने, तनिासा हननिाि िचाउने, तनणुय गनु सहि पारिददने, उसको क्षमतालाई
प्रशंसा गने, आत्मविश्िास िढाउदै परिजस्थतत संग समायोिन हनन सतने ि सामाना गनु सतने िनाउनन नै
पिामशु सेिा हो ।
 कननै विषयमा एकाग्रता कायम गननु नै ध्यान हो ।

23
  ध्यानले मनमा िएका नकािात्मक कनिाहरुलाई सकािात्मक रुपमा रुपान्तिण गरि मनलाई शान्त िाख्ने
काम गछु ।
 यसले धचत्त शान्त ि सन्तनभलत िनाई मातनसलाई उिाु ददन्छ ।
 त्यसैगिी योगले पतन मातनसलाई शािीरिक रुपमा तन्दरु
न स्ती िाखी स्िस्थ ् िहन मद्दत गदु छ ।
 यसरि दै तनक रुपममा ध्यान, योग गने ि विज्ञको सहायतािाि मनोसामाजिक पिामशु भलएमा कननै पतन
खालको तनािलाई तनयन्त्रण गनु सजिलो हनन्छ

% cGt/j}olSts l;kx¿ (Interpersonal Skill)

• To:tf ;Lkx? Jff sf};nx? h'g cGo JoQmL jf JoQmLx?sf] ;d'x;Fu k|efjsf/L ;+rf/ ug{
cfjZos x'G5 .
• cfkm"n] ghfg]sf s'/f c¿;Fu ;f]w]/ l;Sg] / cfkm\gf ljrf/ /fv]/ c¿;Fu ;~rf/ ug]{ l;k
cGt/j}olSts l;k xf] .Æ
• j}olSts bIftf / cGt/;+jfb l;k ljsf; ug]{ ePsfn] o;nfO{ hgl;k klg elgG5 .
• dflg; / ljBfyL{x?sf] nflu /fd|f] lzIff, JolQmTj ljsf; cflbnfO{ cGt/j}olSts l;ksf] dxTj
/x]sf] x'G5 .
• lzIfljb\x?nfO{ klg z}lIfs ;'wf/ ug]{ sfo{sf] nflu cGt/j}olSts l;k / sf};nsf] cfjZostf
kb{5 .

%=! cGt/j}olSts l;ksf] dxTj

 cGt/j}olSts l;kn] ljBfyl{x?nfO{ JolQm;Fu ;Dks{df /xg d2t ub{5 .
 JolQmx?sf] JolQmTj ljsf;df cGt/j}olSts l;kn] kmfObf k'/\ofpF5 .
 sd'xdf sfd ubf{ cGt/j}olSts l;k ckl/xfo{ x'G5 .
 obL cfk;L s'/fsfgL ug{, c?nfO{ dgfpg / c?nfO{ k|efj kfg'{ k/]sf] v08df cGt/j}olSts l;kx?
ljz]if ?kdf ;xof]uL x'g] ub{5g\ .
 4G4 ;dfwfg / dWo:ytf ug]{ sfo{ ubf{ cGt/j}olSts l;ksf] jf:tljs kl/Iff x'ghfg5 .
 ;d:of ;dfwfg / lg0f{o ug]{ sfo{ hj Ps eGbf al9 JolQm ;dfj]z eP/ ub{5g\ To;nfO{ pQd
dflgG5 .
24
%=@ ;fdflhs ;+hfnsf] k|of]uaf6 cGt/a}olQms ;DaGwdf b]lvPsf cj:yfx?
• ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf] a9\bf] pkof]usf] sf/0f kfl/jfl/s ;b:ox? larsf] ;~rf/ ;DaGwdf
dxTjk"0f{ ?kdf ;'wf/ cfPsf] 5 .
• ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf ;fO6x?sf] lgoldt pkof]usf sf/0f sfNklgs -Virtual_ ;DaGwx?sf]
;xfotfn] cGt/a}olQms ;DaGwsf] lasf; u/]sf] 5 .
• ;d'bfo / cGt/a}olQms cGt/lqmofdf ;fdflhs ;~hfnx?sf ;fO6sf] dfWodaf6 gljgtd
cy{x? ylklbPsf] kfOG5 .
• ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf j]a;fO6x?n] OG6/g]6 hl8t ;~rf/, Od]n kmf]/dx? tyf tTsfn ;+b]zx?
Kf7fpg] / k|To'Q/ lbg] h:tf w]/} OG6/g]6 ;~rf/sf :t/Lo ;]jfx? Pp6} ;|f]taf6 pknAw u/fPsf]
5 . oBkL cGo pd]/sf dflg;x?sf] t'ngfdf o'jf jo:sx?sf] hLjgdf ;fdlhs ;~hfnsf]
k|of]u g} d'Vo ultljlw aGg k'u]sf] kfpg ;lsG5 .
• ;fdflhs ;~hfnn] k|f]T;fxg / ;xfotf k|bfg ug'{sf ;fy} cGo JoflQmx?;Fu klxrfg :yfkgf ug]{
/ cfj4 ePsf] dx;'; ug]{ JolQmut / ;fdflhs cfjZostfx? k"/f ug{ ;xof]u u/]sf] 5 .
• s]xL JolQmx?n] t ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf] pkof]usf] ;xfotfn] JolQmut / ;fdflhs klxrfg
agfpg] qmddf c?;Fu klxrfg agfpb}, ljleGg sfo{qmdx?df lgoGq0f /fVg] / cfkm"nfO{ g]t[Tj
txdf ;d]t pEofpg ;kmn ePsf 5g\ .
• ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf ;fO6x?sf] pkof]uaf6 k'/fgf ;DaGwx?nfO{ dnhn ug{ / gofF ;DaGwx?sf]
lgdf{0fdf k|of]u ub}{ cfPsf] kfOG5 . h:t} ;fgf sIffx?af6 :yflkt ldqjt\ ;DaGwnfO{ dflyNnf]
txdf k'Ubf ;d]t lg/Gt/tf lbg'sf ;fy} dflyNnf txx?df ylkg] gofF ;fyLx?nfO{ ;d]t ;fyLsf]
?kdf Nofpg ;Sg' o;}sf] pbfx/0f xf] .
• ljBfyL{x?sf] xsdf t ;fdflhs ;~hfn cfkm\gf] cj:yf cfkm\gf ;fyLx? dfem k|:t't ug]{ / cGo
;fyLx?sf] cj:yf af/] kl/lrt x'g] dfWodsf] ?kdf lnPsf kfOG5 .
• ;fdflhs ;~hfnn] JolQmnfO{ pgLx?sf] dgdf nfu]sf s'/fx? k|:t't ug]{ o:sf leQfx?df -
Walls_ ;fj{hlgs ug]{, hLjgL k|:t't ug]{ h:tf sfo{df ;d]t cj;/ k|bfg u/]sf] 5 .
• ;fdflhs ;~hfnsf ;fO6x?n] ljBfyL{ / lzIfs, ljBfyL{ / ljBfyL{x?sf lardf k|z:t}
cGt/lqmofsf cj;/x? k|bfg ub{5 . o;af6 pgLx?df ;sf/fTds cGt/;DaGw, ljZjf; tyf
hLjgsf ;Gt'li6 -Life contentment_ k|bfg ug]{ gfu/Ls ;+nUgtfsf cj;/ ;d]t k|fKt x'G5 .
%=# c;n g]t[Tjsf nflu cGt/j}olSts ;DaGw Joj:yfkg -g]tfdf x'gkg]{ u'0fx?_

25
%=$ 6f]nLsfo{ / g]t[Tj ljsf; (Team work and leadership development)
• एक आकाु प्रतत तनिुिता ि समान उद्देश्य िा सोचमा आिारित िहे ि तनमाुण िएको मातनसहरुको
समनहलाई िोभल (Team ) ितनन्छ । उतत िोलीले गने कायुलाई िोभल कायु ितनन्छ ।
• कननै पतन िह
ृ त काम गनु व्यजतत एतलैले सम्िि हनदै न ।
• कदठन कामहरु सामदन हक प्रयासमा सम्पन्न गदाु सहि ि सफल हनन्छ ।
• िोलीको आकाि भसभमत हनननको साथै सदस्यहरु छनोि गदाु साििानी अपनाउनन पछु ।
• िोलीमा िहे का सिैले नेतत्ृ ि आदान प्रदान गछु न ।
• सिैको क्षमताको कदि गननप
ु छु िन्ने भसिान्तमा िोभल कायु आिारित हनन्छ ।
• समहन को सोच गततभसल अन्तिक्रक्रया (Dynamic interaction) मा आिारित हनन्छ ।
• त्यसैले सामान्य व्यजततहरुलाई असािािण परिणामहरु प्रातत गनु अननमतत ददने त्यस्तो एक सहकािी
प्रक्रक्रयालाई िोभल कायु (Team work) ितनन्छ ।

26
 PsfO $
dfgj tyf ;dfhsf] pb\ej / ljsf;
(Emergence and Development of Human and Society)

! dfgjsf] h}ljsLo pTklQ / ljsf;j|md (Human emergence and Evolution)

!=! dfgjsf] h}ljsLo pb\ljsf;
• k[YjLdf /x]sf ;Dk"0f{ hLjx¿ h}ljs pb\ljsf;sf] k|lj|mofaf6 pTklQ eO{ j|mlds ¿kdf ljsl;t
x'Fb} clxn]sf] cj:yf;Dd cfOk'u]sf x'g\ .
• cGo hLjx¿ h:t} dfgj hfltsf] pTklQ / ljsf; klg ToxL h}ljs pb\ljsf;sf] k|lj|mofaf6
ePsf] xf] .
• sltkon] dfgjsf k'vf{ afFb/ jf g/jfg/ x'g\ eGg] vfnsf cjwf/0ffx¿ /fVg] u/]sf] kfOG5 t/
j}1flgs cWoogaf6 dfgjsf] pb\ljsf; afFb/ jf g/jfg/ (ape) af6 geO{ g/jfg/ h:t} b]lvg]
(ape-like) k'vf{af6 ePsf] lyof] .
• g/jfg/h:t} k'vf{af6 pb\ljsf; eO{ j|mlds ¿kdf clxn]sf] dfgjsf ¿kdf ljsl;t ePsf]
k|lj|mofnfO{ g} dfgjsf] h}ljsLo pb\ljsf; (Human biological Evolution) elgG5 .
• j}1flgs juL{s/0fsf cfwf/df dfgjsf] hflt …xf]df]Ú (Homo) xf] .
• dfgjn] h}ljsLo pb\ljsf;sf] k|lj|mofåf/f g} cfˆgf g/jfg/ h:t} k'vf{af6 5'6\l6O{ ljleGg
r/0fx¿ j|mdzM kf/ ub}{ clxn]sf] …xf]df]Ú hfltsf] …;]lkoG;Ú k|hflt;Dd cfOk'u]sf] xf] .

27
!=@= dfgj hfltsf] h}ljsLo ljsf;j|md
• To; a]nf k'R5/ gePsf, 7f8f] lhp8fn, 7'nf] dl:tis / b'O{ v'6\6fn] lxF8\g ;Sg] ljz]iftf ePsf
g/ jfg/x¿sf] pTklQ ePsf] lyof] .
• pb\ljsf;sf j|mddf jt{dfg dfgjsf k'vf{n] log} ljz]iftfx¿ j|mlds ¿kdf ljsf; u/L kl/is[t
agfpFb} nu]sf] kfOG5 .
• dfgjsf oL k'vf{nfO{ xf]ldlg8 (hominid) eGg] ;femf gfdn] lrlgG5 .
• vf]h tyf cg';Gwfgsf j|mddf e]l6Psf g/jfg/x¿ ;x]nfGy|f]k; (Sahelanthropus), cf]/f]l/g
(Orrorin) / cfl8{lky]s; (Ardipithecus) sf cjz]ifx¿af6 klg logLx¿df xf]ldlg8sf s]xL
ljz]iftfx¿ /x]sf] kfOPsf] 5 .
• dfgj cjz]ifzf:qLx¿n] xfn;Dd e]l6Psf xf]ldlg8x¿sf cjz]ifx¿nfO{ c:6«fnf]lky]s; / xf]df]
u/L hDdf b'O{ hfltdf juL{s/0f u/]sf 5g\ .
• t/ xfn;Ddsf] vf]h cg';Gwfg / cflbd dfgjsf cjz]ifx¿sf] ljZn]if0f ubf{ dfgjsf] ljsf; ^
r/0fdf ePsf] dflgPsf] 5 .
!= c:6«fnf]lky]s; (Australopithecus)
@= xf]df] x\oflaln; (Homo habilis)
#= xf]df] O/]S6; (Homo erectus)
$= xf]df] lgoG8/yn]lG;; (Homo neanderthalensis)
%= /fdflky]s; -Ramapithecus_
^= xf]df] ;]lkoG; (Homo sapiens)
!=@=!= c:6«fnf]lky]s; (Australopithecus)

• c:6«fnf]lky]s;n] cfheGbf sl/a $) nfv jif{ cufl8 b]lv !) nfv jif{ cufl8;Dd k[YjLdf a;f]af;
u/]sf] lyof] .
• c:6«fnf]lky]s;sf cjz]ifx¿ k'aL{ clk|msfsf s]Gof, tfGhflgof / Olyof]lkof tyf dWo clk|msfsf]
rf8df ;d]t e]l6Psf 5g\ .
• l;wf ¿kdf b'O{ v'6\6fn] lxF8\g', vKKf/sf] cfsf/ jfg/;Fu ldNg', xf]rf] sbsf] x'g', kf]yLeGbf efn] 7'Nff]
x'g' / cg'xf/sf] cufl8 Rofk' lg:sg' o; hfltsf ljz]iftf x'g\ .
• logLx¿ em'G8 agfP/ a:g] ub{y] .
!=@=@= xf]df] x\oflaln; (Homo habilis)

• xf]df] x\oflaln;nfO{ xf]df] hfltsf] klxnf] k|hflt dflgG5 .

• x\oflaln; cfheGbf @# nfv jif{ cl3b]lv !% nfv jif{ cl3;Dd cl:tTjdf lyof] .
• x\oflaln;n] 9'ª\ufsf] xltof/ gagfPtf klg ;;fgf 9'ª\ufx¿nfO{ l;sf/ v]Ngsf nflu xltof/sf
¿kdf k|of]u ub{Yof] .
• 3fF;] d}bfgdf n6\7Ln] vg]/ sGbd"n lgsfNg / hgfj/nfO{ l;sf/ ug{ ;Ifd ePsfn] o;nfO{ l;kfn'
(handy) dfgj klg elgG5 .
• logLx¿ klg em'G8 agfP/ a:g] ub{y] .
28
!=@=# xf]df] O/]S6; (Homo erectus)
• clk|msf dxfb]zaf6 c¿ dxfb]zdf
km}lnPsf] klxnf] dfgj hflt xf]df]
O/]S6; xf] .
• o;sf cjz]ifx¿ blIf0f clk|msf,
s]Gof, Olyof]lkof / tfGhlgof,
OG8f]g]l;ofsf] hfef / rLgsf] k]lsª
tyf o'/f]ksf ljleGg 7fpFdf k|fKt
ePsf 5g\ .
• o;sf] klxnf] cjz]if ;g\ !*() df
8r Pgf6f]ld:6 o'lhg 8'af]O;n] OG8f]g]l;ofsf] hfefdf k|fKt u/]sf lyP .
• xf]df] O/]S6;sf aª\uf/fx¿sf] cfsf/ cl3Nnf xf]ldlg8x¿sf] eGbf cem ;fgf] lyof] .
• o;n] logLx¿sf] vfg]s'/f / vfg] tl/sfdf cfPsf] kl/jt{gnfO{ k|:6;Fu ;ª\s]t ub{5 .
• logLx¿sf ufnfsf x8\8Lx¿ / Rofk' clxn]sf] dflg;sf] eGbf 7'nf] cfsf/sf lyP eg] lrpF8fsf]
ljsf; eO;s]sf] lyPg .
!=@=$ xf]df] lgoG8/yn]lG;; (Homo neanderthalensis)
• hd{gLsf] 8;]n8km{ glhs}sf] lgoG8/
pkTosfsf] gfd cg';f/ lgoG8/yn
dfgj gfds/0f ul/Psf] xf] .
• o;sf cjz]ifx¿ d'Vo ¿kdf o'/f]k
tyf klZrd Pl;ofsf ljleGg
d'n'sx¿df e]l6Psf lyP .
• cfheGbf sl/a !,%),))) jif{
cufl8b]lv #),))) jif{ cufl8;Dd
lgoG8/ynn] k[YjLdf a;f]af; u/]sf] lyof] .
• clxn]sf dfgjx¿ eGbf xf]rf / ul7nf, cfFvfdflysf cfFvLef}F k|:6 b]lvg], nfDrf] vKk/ cflb
lgoG8/ynsf zf/Ll/s ljz]iftfx¿ x'g\ .
• oL 9'ª\ufaf6 ljleGg vfn] xltof/ agfpFy] . o;nfO{ d:t]l/og (Mousterian) ;+:s[lt elgG5 .
• oL pHofnf], tfk / hª\unL hgfj/x¿nfO{ eufpgsf nflu cfufsf] k|of]u ug]{ ub{Yf] . oL ;d"xdf
a:g] ub{y] .
• lgoG8/ynn] d/]sf JolStx¿nfO{ uf8\g] u/]sf] k|df0f e]l6Psfn] logLx¿df ;fdflhs ;+:sf/x¿sf]
;d]t ljsf; ePsf] dfGg] ul/G5 .
• clxn]sf] h:tf] efiffsf] ljsf; geP klg logLx¿ ;fª\s]lts ¿kdf s'/fsfgL uy{] .

!=@=% /fdflky]s;÷lzjflky]s; (Ramapithecus/Shivapithecus)

• िामावपथेकस/भशिावपथेकसलाई िामिानिको रुप मान्दै दहन्द न दे िताको नाम िाम/भशििाि नामाकिण गरिएको
मातनन्छ ।
• िामावपथेकस/भशिावपथेकसलाई अन्य िानि(Ape)लाई छोडेि हे ने हो िने मानि िस्तै दे खखने पदहलो प्राणीको
रुपमा भलईन्छ ।
• सन ् १९३२ मा पदहलो पिक यो मानिको १ लाख २२ हिाि िषु पनिानो अिशेष िाितको भशिाभलक क्षेत्र
ििपि दे खखयको हो िन्ने मान्यता छ ।

29
 • नेपालको ततनाउ नदीको क्रकनािामा िहे को िनििलमा १ लाख १० हिाि िषु पनिानो िामावपथेकसको दााँत प्रातत
गरिएको त्यहरु िहे का छन ् ।
• यसलाई िामायणका हननमान, िली, सनधग्रि आदद िानिहरुको आददम पनखाु हो िन्न सक्रकने आिाि पतन
िएको छ ।
• यसलाई ओिांगगोिांगको पख
न ाु पतन मातनएको छ ।

!=@=^ xf]df] ;]lkoG; (Home sapiens)

• xf]df] ;]lkoG; cyf{t\ cfw'lgs dfgjsf] cfheGbf sl/a ! nfv %) xhf/ jif{ cufl8 pb\ljsf;
eO;s]sf] lyof] .
• To;}n] s]xL ;do lgoG8/yn dfgj / cfw'lgs dfgj ;Fu;Fu} afFr]sf lyP .
• lgoG8/yn dfgj cfw'lgs dfgj;Fusf] k|lt:kw{fn] ubf{ nf]k eP/ uPsf] xf] jf cfw'lgs dfgjd}
;dflxt ePsf] xf] eGg] af/]df vf]hstf{x¿df Psdt 5}g .
• sf/0f h] eP klg #),))) jif{ otfsf] lgoG8/ynsf] cjz]if k|fKt ePsf] 5}g .
• o;kl5sf] xfn;Ddsf] dfgj hflt xf]df] ;]lkoG; g} xf] .

@ dfgj ;dfhsf] ljsf;j|md (Developmental Stages of Human Society)

• cflbd dfgjsf] r]tgfsf] ljsf;;Fu} ;dfhsf] pTklQ ePsf] dfGg ;lsG5 .
• ;dosf] kl/jt{g;Fu} dfgj ;dfhsf] ljsf; x'Fb} uPsf] xf] .
• lxhf]sf dfgjn] ;'/Iffsf nflu ;d"xdf a:g'kg]{, vfgf vf]Hg klg ;fd"lxs ¿kdf lxF8\g] / l;sf/sf]
vf]hL ug'{kg]{ sf/0faf6 ;dfh lgdf{0f ug'{k/]sf] lyof] .
• dflg;df /x]sf] r]tgf / ;fd"lxs ;f]rsf] sf/0f, kl/jf/sf] ljsf; / kl/jf/ kl/jf/sf] lj:tf/af6 klg
;dfh lgdf{0f x'g uof] .
• dfgj ;dfhsf] ljsf;sf] ;Gbe{df ljleGg ljåfg\x¿n] ;dfh ljsf;sf ljleGg r/0fx¿ kf/ u/Lo;
cj:yfdf cfPsf] egL atfPsf 5g\ .
@=! sfn{ dfS;{sf] ;dfhsf ljsf; r/0fx¿

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@=# dfgjzf:qLx¿ O{= aL= 6fOn/ / P= Pn= df]uf{gsf] ;dfhsf ljsf;sf r/0f

@=$ 9'ª\u]÷kfiff0f o'u (Stone/Lithic Era, age)

• o; o'udf dflg;x¿ ef]hg / cf>osf] vf]hLdf 3'dGt] hLjg afFRg] ub{y] .
• logLx¿n] l;sf/sf nflu 9'ª\u] cf}hf/x¿ k|of]u uy{] .
• ;fgf] ;d"xdf a:g] logLx¿ l;sf/ klg ;fd"lxs ¿kdf g} ug{] ub{y] .
• 9'ª\ufaf6 ljleGg vfnsf cf}hf/ Pjd\ xltof/ agfO{ u'hf/f ug{] d"n ;+:s[lt /x]sfn] o;
sfnv08nfO{ 9'ª\u] o'u elgPsf] xf] .
• hª\unL o'uaf6 ;'? ePsf] dfgj ;+:s[ltsf] 7f]; ¿kdf ;'?cft Pjd\ pb\ljsf; 9'ª\u] o'uaf6
ePsf] x'gfn] o; o'unfO{ dfgj ;+:s[ltsf] hggLsf ¿kdf lnOG5 .
• cfheGbf nueu @% nfv jif{ cufl8 ;'? eO{ lgs} nfdf] ;do;Dd sfod /x]sf] 9'ª\u] o'u sl/a
%)))–&))) jif{ cufl8 wft'sf] o'usf] ;'?cft;Fu} cGTo ePsf] lyof] .
• xf]df] x\oflaln;, xf]df] O/]S6; / lgoG8/yn nufotsf cflbd dfgjn] 9'ª\u] o'usf] ;+:s[ltsf]
ljsf; u/]sf lyP .
• 9'ª\u] o'usf dfgjx¿sf] k|d'v sfd eg]sf] vfg]s'/f vf]h]/ vfg] x'g] ub{Yof] .
@=$=! k'/fkfiff0f hLjg k4lt (Paleolithic Age)
• cfheGbf sl/a @% nfv jif{ cufl8
b]lv !) xhf/ jif{;Ddsf]
sfnv08nfO{ k'/ftTjljb\x¿n]
k'/fkfiff0f o'u gfd lbPsf 5g\ .
• nueu @% nfv jif{;Dd sfod
/x]sf] o; sfnv08df dfgjn] ljsf;
u/]sf] 9'ª\ufaf6 xltof/ agfpg]
k4ltnfO{ k'/fkfif0f ;+:s[lt gfd
lbOPsf] 5 .
• o;cGtu{t 9'ª\uf k'm6fNbf lg:s]sf
rf]O6fx¿ (flakes) af6 ljleGg lsld;sf cf}hf/ agfOGYof] .
• o; ;+:s[ltsf 9'ª\u] cf}hf/x¿ t'ngfTds ¿kdf e2f vfnsf 5g\ .
• d"ntM of] ;+:s[lt clk|msfdf ljsl;t eO{ o'/f]k tyf Pl;of;Dd k}mlnPsf] dflgG5 .
-s_ lgDg k'/fkfiff0f hLjgz}nL (Lower Paleolithic Age)
• cfheGbf sl/a @% nfv jif{ b]lv @ nfv jif{
cufl8;Dd lgDg k'/fkfiff0f ;+:s[lt /x]sf]
lyof] .
• o; sfnv08sf] d'Vo dfgj k|hflt xf]df]
O/]S6; (Homo erectus) lyof] .
• o; cjlwdf ag]sf 9'ª\u] cf}hf/ k|foM ;/n /
e2f vfnsf lyP .
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 • o; ;+:s[ltsf] k|d'v cf}hf/ xft] aGr/f] (hand axe) lyof] .
• o; sfnv08sf] dfgj e'mG8d} a:g] ub{y] eg] hLjgz}nL d'Votof 3'dGt] k|sf/sf] lyof] .
• logLx¿sf] d'Vo sfd gofF gofF 7fpFdf uO{ vfg]s'/f vf]Hg' lyof] .
• o; sfnv08sf dfgjx¿ u'kmf, gbLsf lsgf/ tyf ?vsf 5xf/Lx¿df a:g] ub{y] .
• lghL ;DklQsf] cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; geO;s]sfn] dflg;x¿lar ;dfgtf /x]sf] lyof] .
-v_ dWo k'/fkfiff0f hLjgz}nL (Middle Paleolithic Age)
• cfheGbf sl/a @ nfv jif{b]lv $)
xhf/ jif{ cufl8;Ddsf] sfnv08nfO{
dWo k'/fkfiff0f o'u elgG5 .
• o; sfnv08df lgofG8/yn dfgjsf]
hLjg k4ltsf] ljsf; ePsf] lyof] .
• o; ;+:s[ltdf 9'ª\u] cf}hf/ agfpg]
k4lt klxn]eGbf lgs} vfl/Psf] lyof] .
• o; o'udf dl:tissf] a9\bf] cfsf/sf
sf/0f ;f]rfO Ifdtf a9\b} uof] .
• pgLx¿n] wfl/nf] 9'ª\ufnfO{ afFw]/ xft] aGr/f] agfpg l;s] / ;f] cf}hf/nfO{ sf6\gsf cltl/St
/]6\g, v's{g], vf8n vGg], tf5\g], Kjfn kfg{] cflb sfdsf nflu k|of]u ug]{ u/]sf] tYo kQf nfu]sf]
5.
-u_ pRr k'/fkfif0f hLjgz}nL (Upper Paleolithic Age)
• dWo k'/fkfiff0f o'usf] ;dflKt;Fu}
cfheGbf sl/a $) xhf/ jif{
cufl8af6 sl/a !) xhf/ jif{
cufl8;Dd /x]sf] sfnv08sf] hLjg
k4ltnfO{ pRr k'/fkfiff0f hLjg z}nL
elgG5 .
• o; ;dodf lgofG8/yn dfgj xf]df]
;]lkoG;åf/f lj:yflkt x'Fb} hfg yfn] .
• dfgj dl:tissf] cfsf/ a9\b} uPsfn]
/ sfo{z}nLdf cfPsf] kl/jt{gn] cfw'lgs dfgj ljsf;df o; sfnv08sf] of]ubfg /x]sf] 5 .
• pRr k'/fkfiff0f hLjg z}nLsf k|d'v ljz]iftfdWo] 9'ª\u] xltof/ agfpg] k4ltdf cfPsf] Jofks
kl/jt{g Ps xf] .
• logLx¿ lrqsf dfWodaf6 cfkm\gf cleJolStx¿ k|:t't ug]{ ub{y] .
• l;sf/ ug{'sf cltl/St df5f dfg{] sfd klg oxL ;+:s[ltaf6 ;'? ePsf] dflgG5 .
• a;f]af;sf nflu jf;:yfgsf] lgdf{0f, sk8f nufpg] afgL, hª\unL hgfj/nfO{ kj|m]/ kfNg]
sfdsf] ;'?cft cflb o; sfnsf hLjg k4lt x'g\ .
@=$=@ dWokfiff0f hLjg k4lt (Mesolithic Age)
• k'/fkfif0f o'usf] cGTo;Fu} ;'? eO{
nueu !) xhf/ jif{;Dd /x]sf]
sfnv08nfO{ dWokfiff0f o'u elgG5 .
• cf}hf/x¿ tyf xltof/x¿ o;eGbf
cufl8sf] k'/fkfiff0f ;+:s[ltdf h:t}
9'ª\ufaf6 lgsflnPsf kftnf An]8
(Blade) sf] k|of]u u/L agfPsf lyP .
• o; ;dosf sltko cf}hf/x¿
lqe'hfsf/, rGb|fsf/, cfotfsf/
nufotsf ljleGg HofldtLo cfsf/
lbO{ agfOPsf] lyof] .
• o; afx]s tL/ Pjd\ efnfsf ¿kdf klg xltof/ agfO{ k|of]udf NofPsf] lyof] .
• cGo dxTjk"0f{ ;f+:s[lts ljsf;sf ;Gbe{df 9'ª\u] cf}hf/sf cltl/St hª\unL jg:kltaf6 ljleGg
vfB j:t'sf] k|zf]wg u/L k|of]udf Nofpg yflnPsf] lyof] .
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 • To:t} aN5Lsf] k|of]u u/L df5f dfg{], afF;sf] rf]ofaf6 6f]s/L agfpg], sk8f agfpg] h:tf
sfo{x¿ ;d]t o;} ;dodf ljsf; ePsf x'g\ .
• hª\unL jg:klt / hgfj/nfO{ 3/kfn'jf agfpFb} ;fgf]ltgf] s[lif sfo{sf] ;'?cft x'g' g} o; o'usf]
csf{] dxTjk"0f{ ;f+:s[lts pb\ljsf; xf] .
#= gjkfiff0f hLjg k4lt (Neolithic Age)
• o; sfnv08df 9'ª\ufaf6 kfln; u/]/
lrNnf] agfOPsf cf}hf/x¿ lgdf{0f /
k|of]u ug]{ hLjgz}nL k|rngdf lyof] .
• cfheGbf sl/a ( xhf/ jif{
cufl8af6 ;'? ePsf] gjkfiff0f
o'unfO{ ;f+:s[lts kl/jt{gsf cfwf/df
j|mflGtsf/L o'u ;d]t eGg] ul/G5 .
• o;} sfnv08af6 dflg;n] 3'dGt],
l;sf/L, hLjgz}nLsf ;6\6f :yfoL
a;f]af; ;'? ug{] j|mddf s[lif /
kz'kfngnfO{ cFufn]sf s'/f k'/ftflTjs
vf]hx¿n] b]vfPsf 5g\ .
• cf}hf/x¿nfO{ cem} a9L wfl/nf] agfO{ vGg, sf6\g, a'Gg, sf7sf] sfd ug{ k|of]u ug{ ldNg] u/L
lgdf{0f ul/Psf] lyof] .
• s[lifsf] Jojl:yt ;'?cft eO;s]sfn] s[lif sfo{sf nflu cfjZos 6f]s/L, gfª\nf], kfyL nufotsf
;fdu|Lsf] ;d]t o; o'udf lgdf{0f ul/Psf] lyof] .
• o; ;dodf kz'kfng klg Jofks alg;s]sf] lyof] .
• s's'/af6 ;'? ul/Psf] hª\unL hgfj/nfO{ 3/kfn'jf agfpg] j|mddf ufO{, e}F;L, ;'Fu'/, e]8f
cflbnfO{ klg j|mdzM kfNg yflnPsf] lyof] .
• sk8f nufpg] afgLsf] ljsf; eof] . :yfoL a;f]af; tyf v]tLkftL ug{sf nflu hldg cf]u6\g]
j|md a9\b} ubf{ JolStut ;DklQnfO{ clws dxTj lbg yflnof] .
• o;n] ubf{ ;dfhdf c;dfgtfsf] ;d]t ljsf;
x'g yfNof] .
• ;dfhdf wd{sd{ ;+:yfut x'Fb} uP eg]
/fhgLlts r]tgfsf] ljsf;;Fu} ;;fgf /fHo /
/hf}6fx¿n] zf;g ug{] k4lt;d]t ;'? x'Fb} uof]
.
• gjkfiff0f o'usf] r/d ljsf; x'g] j|mddf
wft'sf] cfljisf/ eO{ o;nfO{ 9'ª\ufsf] ;6\6f
cf}hf/ agfpg] sfddf k|o]fu ug{ yflnof] .
• gjkfiff0f ;+:s[ltsf] ljsf;sf] r/d ¿kdf
lnFbf wft' o'u x'Fb} ;Eotf (Civilization)
sf] ljsf;sf nflu alnof] hu v8f u¥of] .

33