KM^APME ^PMCTFC_G IFZFAKABF T_G@_HME

‛ ^ogfsmhme ^fbgoe Iatasfetotfc Doebme Cragmtabrmif Cortms

^mdm Dmue Tmemgme ^urfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug)‗  

Dfsusue akoh
Gmukfdm Eurdfmem
=8>:>0>4>=0

_EFYOPZFTMZ EOBOPF Z_PM@MVM

IMC_KTMZ GMTOGMTFCM DME FKG_ ^OEBOTMH_ME MKMG
L_P_ZME @FAKABF
^PABPMG ZT_DF ^OEDFDFCME @FAKABF
0>0>

=
 

M. Pugusme Gmsmkmh
=.  @mbmfgmem jmrm gogfsmhcme pfbgoe-pfbgoe iatasfetosfs pmdm dmue gudm
dme dmue tum tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug
purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug) doebme cragmtabrmif
cortms1

@. Tulume 
=.  _etuc goebotmhuf pfbgoe-pfbgoe iatasfetosfs pmdm dmue gudm dme dmue
tum tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug) doebme
vmrfobmtug) doebme cragmtabrmif cortms.
J. Hfpatosfs
Hm 7 Mdm pfbgoe-pfbgoe iatasfetosfs pmdm dmue gudm dme dmue tum tmemgme
 purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug). 
vmrfobmtug). 
Ha 7 Tfdmc mdm pfbgoe-pfbgoe iatasfetosfs pmdm dmue gudm dme dmue tum
tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug).

D. Cmlfme ^ustmcm
Tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug) 
vmrfobmtug)  gorupmcme tmemgme ymeb
gogfkfcfcormbmgme dmrf sobf wmrem dmue. Tmemgme purfeb `meymc dftogucme
df tmgme cmroem wmremeym ymeb `ormbmg. Dmue tmemgme purfeb tfdmc hmeym
 `orwmrem hflmu, mcme totmpf mdm ymeb `orwmrem cuefeb, hflmu cocuefebme dme
 `orwmrem gormh. Tmemgme purfeb gudmh tug`uh df`or`mbmf togpmt ymeb
goedmpmt poeyfemrme sopmelmeb tmhue soportf df dmormh-dmormh trapfs, mcme
totmpf fetoesftms sfemr gmtmhmrf ymeb dfdmpmt `orpoebmruh torhmdmp wmrem dmue
 purfeb. Dmue purfeb ymeb goedmpmt fetoesftms sfemr gmtmhmrf poeuh wmrem

dmueeym ko`fh jormh lfcm df`medfebcme doebme wmrem dmue tmemgme purfeb ymeb
goedmpmt fetoesftms jmhmym gmtmhmrf curmeb. Cormbmgme wmrem pmdm tmemgme
 purfeb tfdmc hmeym dfso`m`cme cmroem poebmruh fetoesftms sfemr gmtmhmrf ymeb
dfdmpmt, mcme totmpf lubm dfpoebmruhf akoh cmeduebme pfbgoe pmdm tmemgme
 purfeb torso`ut (Dowf, 0>=0).

0
 

Iatasfetosfs gorupmcme sumtu prasos `fakabf ymeb cagpkocs, prasos fef

goebbuemcme oeorbf dme jmhmym gmtmhmrf ymeb dmpmt dfgmeimmtcme akoh ckaraifk
ymeb tordmpmt dmkmg ckarapkms. Zoportf hmkeym gftacaedrfm, ckarapkms
gogpueymf gog`rme kumr dme gog`rme dmkmg. Gog`rme dmkmg goebokfkfebf
sumtu stragm ymeb goebmedueb oezfg-oezfg tmeb kmrut dmkmg structur gog`rme
ymeb dfso`ut tfkmcafd. ^rasos iatasfetosfs dfpoebmruhf akoh `o`ormpm imctar
metmrm kmfe mfr (H0A), caesoetrmsf JA0, suhu, ugur dmue, trmeskacmsf
cmr`ahfdrmt, dme jmhmym. Totmpf ymeb goelmdf imctar utmgm iatasfetosfs mbmr
dmpmt `orkmebsueb mdmkmh jmhmym, mfr, dme cmr`aedfacsfdm (Cfg`mkk,=660).
^mdm prasos iatasfetosfs, torlmdf poemebcmpme oeorbf jmhmym akoh zmt
hflmu dmue uetuc pog`oetucme `mhme arbmefc. Iatasfetosfs hmey
hmeymm torlmdf pmdm
tmemgme ymeb gogfkfcf sok-sok hflmu torgmsuc pmdm `o`ormpm loefs `mctorf. Mcsf
dmrf jmhmym hflmu dme cuefeb ymeb goeyo`m`cme iatasfstog pmdm tug`uhme
tfebcmt tfebbf dme poeyormpme pmelmeb bokag`meb fef akoh dmue so`oemreym
rokmtfi tfebbf, ko`fh tfebbf dmrf ymeb dftmgpmccme pmdm spoctrug sormpme ckaraifk
dme cmratoeafd. Totmpf, `ucme `ormrtf `mhwmmdm pfbgoe kmfe ymeb `orporme
goeyormp jmhmym torso`ut. Mkmsme utmgm goebmpm spoctrug mcsf ko`fh tfebbf
dmrf spoctrug sormpme mdmkmh cmroem jmhmym
j mhmym hflmu dme cuefeb ymeb tfdmc soborm
dfsormp mcme dfpmetukcme `orukmeb-ukmeb df dmkmg sok iatasfetotfc smgpmf
mchfreym dfsormp akoh ckaraifk dme goeyug`mebcme oeorbf uetuc iatasfetosfs.
(Kmcftme, 0>>2).
Goeurut Dwfdlasoputra (=664), kmzfgeym porfstfwm iatasfetosfs
dfeymtmcme doebme porsmgmme romcsf cfgfm so`mbmf `orfcut<
9 JA0 + 9 H0A ← J9H=0A9 + 9 A0 
^orfstfwm fef hmeym `orkmebsueb lfcm mdm ckaraifk dme mdm jucup jmhmym.
Iatasfetosfs `orkmebsueb df ckarapkms,
ckarapkms, ymeb gmem pmdm `mbfme fef
goebmedueb `meymc pfbgoe ckaraifk.
ckaraifk. Ckarapkms gogpueymf `oetuc soportf
jmcrmg doebme rumeb ymeb dfso`ut stragm. Ztragm fef df`uebcus akoh dum
kmpfsme gog`rme. Gog`rme stragm fef dfso`ut tfkmcafd, 
tfkmcafd,  ymeb dfdmkmgeym
tordmpmt rumeb-rumeb metmr gog`rme ymeb dfso`ut kacukf.
dfso`ut  kacukf. Df
 Df dmkmg stragm
dmkmg stragm lubm
 lubm
tordmpmt kmgokm-kmgokm ymeb `ortugpuc-tugpuc gog`oetuc brmem (cugpukme
brmeug). Brmeug soedfrf tordfrf mtms gog`rme tfkmcafd ymeb gorupmcme togpmt

:
 

torlmdfeym romcsf tormeb dme rumeb tfkmcafd ymeb gorupmcme rumeb df metmrm
gog`rme tfkmcafd. @fkm so`umh brmeug dfsmymt gmcm mcme dflugpmf
 `o`ormpm cagpaeoe soportf  pratofe, 
 pratofe,  ckaraifk m, ckaraifk `, cmrotaeafd, 
cmrotaeafd, 
dme kfpfd.
dme kfpfd. Zojmrm
 Zojmrm cosokuruhme, stragm `orfsf pratofe, 
pratofe,   oezfg, 
oezfg,  DEM, PEM,
DEM, PEM, bukm
 bukm
iasimt, rf`asag,
iasimt,  rf`asag, vftmgfe-
 vftmgfe-vftmgfe,
vftmgfe, dme lubm fae-fae kabmg
fae-fae  kabmg soportf gmebme (Ge),
 `osf (Io), gmupue pormc (Ju). ^fbgoe iatasfetotfc tordmpmt pmdm gog`rme
tfkmcafd. Zodmebcme, poebu`mhme oeorbf jmhmym goelmdf oeorbf cfgfm
 `orkmebsueb dmkmg tfkmcafd doebme praduc mchfr `orupm bkucasm
`orupm  bkucasm ymeb df`oetuc
df dmkmg stragm. Ckaraifk soedfrf so`oemreym hmeym gorupmcme so`mbfme dmrf
 pormebcmt dmkmg iatasfetosfs ymeb dfcoemk so`mbmf iatasfstog
so`mbmf iatasfstog (Oreftm, 0>==).
Ztructur ckaraifk `or`odm-`odm dmrf structur cmratoeafd, gmsfeb-
gmsfeb tordmpmt poemtmme sokmeb-sokfeb fcmtme cavmkoe tuebbmk dme
dme bmedm. ^mdm
ckaraifk, sfstog fcmtme ymeb
ymeb `orsokfeb goebftmrf
goebftmrf jfejfe parifrfe, sodmebcme pmdm
cmratoeafd tordmpmt sopmsmeb rmetmf hfdracmr`ae ymeb goebhu`uebcme
goebhu`uebcme
structur jfejfe torgfemk. Zfimt fefkmh ymeb goguebcfecme gakocuk-gakocuk
goeyormp jmhmym tmgpmc dogfcfme cumteym, ymcef `ortfedmc so`mbmf pfbgoe.
Zfimt fef pukmkmh ymeb goguebcfecme gakocuk- gakocuk goeyormp oeorbf
jmhmym ymeb dmpmt dfbuemcme uetuc gokmcucme iatasfetosfs (Zmkfs`ury dme
Pass, =66?).
Ckaraifk mdmkmh pfbgoe ymeb gorupmcme cmtmkfsmtar iatasfetosfs ymeb
smebmt poetfeb dmkmg sogum lmrfebme tug`uhme `oriatasfetosfs. Ckaraifk tordmpmt
dmkmg ckarapkms dme sorfeb `orcmftme doebme pratofe, totmpf gudmh dfocstrmcsf
co dmkmg pokmrut kfpfd. Df dmkmg tug`uhme, pmkfeb sodfcft tordmpmt kfgm loefs
ckaraifk. Zokmfe ckaraifk, df dmkmg tug`uhme lubm tordmpmt pfbgoe wmrem kmfe
ymeb dfso`ut cmratoeafd. Zokmfe so`mbmf pfbgoe wmrem, cmratoeafd lubm
gog`metu dmkmg iatasfetosfs. Tordmpmt ko`fh dmrf :>> loefs cmratoeafd, totmpf
ymeb tordmpmt dmkmg tug`uhme tfebbf hmeym sodfcft, ugugeym `orupm cmratoe.
Zmkmh smtu turueme cmratoeafd, ymftu hfdracmr`ae tmc loeuh turueme kfcapoe mtmu
turueme kfcapoe toracsfboeosf dfcoemk so`mbmf xmetaifk. Xmetaifk ymeb ugug
tordmpmt `orupm gaeahfdracsfcmratoe (cotrfe dme ru`fxmetfe), dfhdracsfcmratoe
(zomcmetfe) mtmu dfhfdracsf-opacsfcmratoe (vfakmxmetfe) (Hmr`areo, =682).

4
 

Bmg`mr 0. Ztructur Ckaraifk

^fbgoe-pfbgoe tmemgme `fmsmeym dflugpmf dmkmg pkmstfd sortm dmkmg

vmcuakm. Tfpo-tfpo pkmstfd fmkmh ckarapkms, cragapkms, dme koucapkms. Ckarapkms
 `orwmrem hflmu so`mbmf mcf`mt mdmeym pfbgoe ckaraifk ymeb ko`fh `meymc.
Cragapkms `orwmrem cuefeb, lfebbm, mtmu gormh cmroem pfbgoe cmratoeafd.
Koucapkms mdmkmh pkmstfd tmepm pfbgoe, `fmsmeym tordmpmt pmdm lmrfebme ymeb
tfdmc torcoem jmhmym (Hmttm, 0>>0)
^fbgoe iatasfetosfs ymeb tordmpmt pmdm gog`rme fetoremk mtmu ymeb
dfso`ut lubm tfkmcafd dmpmt goebu`mh oeobf jmhmym goelmdf oeorbf cfgfm.
Ckaraifk dme cmratoeafd gorupmcme pfbgoe iatasfetosfs ymeb utmgm. Ckaraifk
mdmkmh cagpaeoe ckarapkms ymeb utmgm dme cmeduebme ckaraifk rokmtfi
gogpueymf cakormsf pasftfi doebme kmlu iatasfetosfs. Zfetosfs ckaraifk torlmdf pmdm
dmue dme gogormecme iuebsf so`mbmf poemebcmp jmhmym gmtmhmrf ymeb `or`odm-
 `odm lugkmheym
lugkmheym uetuc sotfmp sposfos. Zfetosfs ckaraifk dfpoebmruhf
dfpoebmruhf akoh `or`mbmf
imctar soportf jmhmym, bukm mtmu cmr`ahfdrmt, mfr, togpormtur, imctar boeotfc,
uesur-uesur hmrm soportf E, Gb, Io, Ge, Ju, \e, Z dme A (Mf, 0>=0).
Kmlu iatasfetosfs dme cmeduebme ckaraifk goelmdf takac ucur
 portug`uhme pmdm praducsf tmemgme. Ckaraifk gorupmcme pfbgoe
pfbgoe ymeb tordmpmt
dmkmg ckarapkms dme gogmeimmtcme jmhmym ymeb dfsormp so`mbmf oeorbf uetuc
romcsf-romcsf iatasfetosfs. ^fbgoe-pfbgoe torso`ut gorupmcme ueft-ueft
iatasfstog df dmkmg gog`rme tfkmcafd ymeb gmsfeb-gmsfeb tordfrf mtms ckaraifk

?
 

m so`mbmf pusmt romcsf, dme pfbgoe ymeb mcme goeoruscme toembm rmebsmebmeeym
co pusmt romcsf mcme dfcokfkfebf akoh gakocuk-gakocuk metoem
(^rackmgmsfefebsfh, dcc, 0>=0).
^mdm tmemgme tfebcmt tfebbf mdm 0 gmjmg ckaraifk ymftu ckaraifk-m
(J??H20A? E4Gb) ymeb `orwmrem hflmu tum dme ckaraifk-` (J??H2>A9 E4Gb) ymeb
 `orwmrem hflmu gudm. Ckaraifk m dme ` pmkfeb cumt goeyormp
goe yormp jmhmym df `mbfme
`m bfme
gormh (9>>-2>> eg), sodmebcme ymeb pmkfeb sodfcft jmhmym hflmu (?>>-9>> eg).
Zodmebcme jmhmym `orwmrem `fru dmrf spoctrug torso`ut dfsormp akoh cmratoeafd
cmr atoeafd
(^urwaca, =666).
Cragmtabrmif gorupmcme smkmh smtu tocefc memkfsfs ymeb torpoetfeb
uetuc pogfsmhme jmgpurme soeymwm-soeymwm cfgfm. ^mdm dmsmreym tocefc
craremtabrmif tordfrf mtms dum imso ymftu imso dfmg (`orupm jmfrme mtmu pmdmt)
dme imso bormc (`orupm jmfrme dme bms). ^ogfsmhme cagpaeoe jmgpurme
dmpmt totlmdf cmroem mdmeym por`odmme, cojopmtme gfbrmsf. Zodmebcme
 por`odmme cojopmtme gfbrmsf fef tfg`uk cmroem mdmeym por`odmme
 por`medfebme dfstrf`usf (poeyormpme) dmrf cagpaeoe jmgpurme df metmrm dum
imso torso`ut (Gucmragmh, 0>>8).

O. Ymrfm`ok ^oeokftfme
Ymrfm`ok jaetrak < Loefs dmue tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug), vakugo
vmrfobmtug), vakugo
mkcahak 6?% , eadus, dme `ormt dmue ymeb mcme dfborus
Ymrfm`ok gmefpukmsf< _sfm dmue
Ymrfm`ok rospae < ^fbgoe iatasfetosfs pmdm dmue tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug
vmrfobmtug)
I. Doifefsf Apormsfaemk Ymrfm`ok
Ymrfm`ok
Ymrfm`ok gmefpukmsf pmdm prmctfcug fef mdmkmh ugur dmue dfgmem pmdm
tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug) 
vmrfobmtug)  dfmg`fk dmue gudm dme dmue tum. ^mdm
dmue gudm dfmg`fk dmrf dmue pujuc pmdm eadus = sodmebcme dmue tum dfmg`fk dmue
 pmdm eadus co 9 sotokmh dmue gudm
gudm ymeb mdm df pujuc.
Ymrfm`ok caetrak pmdm prmctfcug fef mdmkmh loefs dmue tmemgme ymftu tmemgme
 purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug), vakugo mkcahak 6?% so`meymc 0? gk dme `ormt

9
 

dmue ymeb mcme dfborus ymftu = brmg. Zo`okug dfborus dmue tmemgme purfeb
dftfg`meb torko`fh dmhuku so`osmr = brmg.
Ymrfm`ok rospae pmdm prmctfcug fef mdmkmh pfbgoe iatasfetosfs pmdm dmue
 purfeb gudm dme dmue tum.
tum. Ymrfm`ok rospae dfdmpmtcme
dfdmpmtcme goebbuemcme
goebbuemcme cragmtabrmif
cragmtabrmif
cortms doebme goejokupcme `mbfme ulueb cortms smrfeb co dmkmg ocstrmc ckaraifk
hfebbm torkfhmt pogfsmhme pfbgoe ymeb torcmedueb df dmkmgeym.

B. Mkmt
Mkmt dme @mhme
Mkmt <

=.  Gartmk dme mku = `umh

0.  Bokms ucur = `umh
:.  ^fpot totos 0 `umh
4.  Cortms smrfeb 4 `umh

?.  Tfg`mebme (eormjm tfg`meb) = `umh

9.  Lopftme cortms 0 `umh
@mhme <

=.  Dmue tum dme gudm tmemgme purfeb tmemgme 0 Dmue

 purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug)
0.  Kmrutme mkcahak 6? % 0? gk

2
 

H. Pmejmebme ^orja`mme

Dmue gudm tmemgme ^urfeb Dmue tum tmemgme ^urfeb

-  Dftfg`meb so`meymc = brmg

-  Dfborus dmkmg gartmk
-  Dftmg`mhcme 0? gk mkcahak
uetuc gogporgudmh torkmruteym
ckaraifk sohfebbm ocstrmc
 `orwmrem hflmu
-  Ocstrmc df`fmrcme smgpmf
mgpmseym goeboedmp

-  Dfjokupcme ulueb cortms smrfeb

kmfeeym co dmkmg ocstrmc
ckaraifk ymeb mdm
-  Dfmg`fk cortms smrfeb dme dflopft
smkmh smtu uluebeym doebme
 poelopft cortms
-  Dfjokupcme `mbfme ulueb cortms
smrfeb kmfeeym co dmkmg ocstrmc
ckaraifk ymeb mdm pmdm jmwme

 potrf
-  Df`fmrcme cortms smrfeb
torbmetueb `o`ormpm kmgm
smgpmf torkfhmt pogfsmhme
 pfbgoe ymeb torcmedueb
torcmedueb
dfdmkmgeym
-  Dfporhmtfcme mdm `ormpm gmjmg
 pfbgoe ymeb dfporakoh gokmkuf
ocstrmc

Hmsfk

8
 

F. Kmebcmh Corlm 
=.  Dfborus = brmg dmue dmkmg gartmk, buemcme `metume 0? gk mkcahak 6?% uetuc
gogporgudmh torkmruteym sokuruh ckaraifk, sohfebbm ocstrmc `orwmrem hflmu.
0.  Df`fmrcme ocstrmc torso`ut smgpmf mgpmseym goeboedmp.
:.  Dftumebcme jmfrme ocstrmc torso`ut co dmkmg jmwme potrf.
4.  Dfmg`fk cortms smrfeb dme lopft smkmh smtu uluebeym goebbuemcme poelopft
cortms.
?.  Dfjokupcme `mbfme ulueb cortms smrfeb kmfeeym co dmkmg ocstrmc ckaraifk ymeb
mdm pmdm jmwme potrf, cogudfme df`fmrcme cortms smrfeb torso`ut torbmetueb
uetuc `o`ormpm kmgm, smgpmf torkfhmt pogfsmhme pfbgoe ymeb torcmedueb df
dmkmgeym.
9.  Dfporhmtfcme mdm `o`ormpm gmjmg pfbgoe ymeb dmpmt dfporakoh gokmkuf
ocstrmc torso`ut. ^mdm ugugeym dfporakoh pmkfeb sodfcft : gmjmg pfbgoe,
ymftu ckaraifk m ymeb `orwmrem hflmu, ckaraifk ` `orwmrem hflmu-`fru, dme
cmrmtoeafd `orwmrem cuefeb smgpmf lfebbm.

L. Pmejmebme Tm`ok ^oebmgmtme

^oebmgmtme
@ordmsmrcme prmctfcug pogfsmhme pfbgoe-pfbgoe iatasfetosfs pmdm dmue
gudm dme
dme dmue tum tmemgme purfeb doebme cragmtabrmif
cragmtabrmif cortms ymeb
ymeb tokmh
dfkmcucme, gmcm dfdmpmtcme hmsfk `orupm tm`ok so`mbmf `orfcut.

Tm`ok =. ^fbgoe Iatasfetotfs pmdm Dmue ^urfeb

Ea Loefs dmue Rmrem ^fbgoe Iatasfetotfs

Cuefeb Cmratoeafd
=. Dmue purfeb gudm Hflmu Ckaraifk `
Hflmu Ckaraifk `
Dmue purfeb tum @fru Ckaraifk `
0.
Lfebbm Cmratoeafd

6
 

C. Poejmem Memkfsfs Dmtm

@ordmsmrcme hmsfk prmctfcug pogfsmhme pfbgoe - pfbgoe iatasfetosfs pmdm
dmue gudm dme dmue tum tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug) doebme
cragmtabrmif cortms ymeb tokmh dfkmcucme, gmcm dfdmpmtcme hmsfk `mhwm pmdm dmue
gudm tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug) goebmedueb
vmrfobmtug) goebmedueb pfbgoe ckaraifk ` dme
cmrmtoeafd ymftu xmetaifk. Hmk fef dfcmroemcme guejukeym wmrem hflmu cocuefebme
ymeb goemedmcme tordmpmt pfbgoe ckaraifk ` dme guejukeym wmrem cuefeb ymeb
goemedmcme tordmpmt pfbgoe xmetaifk sodmebcme pmdm dmue tum tmemgme purfeb
(Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug) goebmedueb pfbgoe ckaraifk m, metasfmefe, dme cmratoeafd.
Hmk fef dfcmroemcme guejukeym wmrem hflmu ymeb goemedmcme tordmpmt pfbgoe
ckaraifk `, guejukeym wmrem `fru ymeb goemedmcme tordmpmt pfbgoe ckaraifk `, dme
guejukeym wmrem lfebbm ymeb goeueluccme tordmpmt pfbgoe cmratoeafd.

K. Hmsfk Memkfsfs Dmtm

@ordmsmrcme memkfsfs dmtm dfmtms dmkmg poebucurme cmdmr ckaraifk loefs dmue
 purfeb ymeb gokfputf dmue gudm
gudm ymeb `orwmrem gormh, cue
cuefeb
feb dme hflmu dme dmue
tum ymeb `orwmrem hflmu dme cuefeb. ^or`odmme fef dfcmroemcme tug`uhme `orwmrem
goeyormp jmhmym doebme `or`mbmf pmelmeb bokag`meb smgpmf pmdm tfebcmt
tortoetu, dme wmrem ymeb tfg`uk pmdm wmrem torso`ut mdmkmh jmhmym ymeb dfsormp
 pmkfeb sodfcft. ^mdm prasos iatasfetosfs wmrem ymeb pmkfeb sodfcft dfsormp mdmkmh
wmrem doebme jmhmym hflmu, wmrem fefkmh torso`mr dfpmetukcme akoh tug`uhme
sohfebbm tmgpmc wmrem hflmu (Jmgp`ok dcc., 0>>0). @ordmsmrcme prmctfcug dmue
 purfeb hflmu gogfkfcf cmeduebme pfbgoe ckaraifk dme cmratoeafd, mpm`fkm dfkfhmt
dmrf wmrem dmue, purfeb hflmu gogfkfcf wmrem ymeb dagfeme hflmu. Dmue purfeb
cuefeb gogfkfcf cmeduebme pfbgoe ymeb smgm doebme dmue purfeb hflmu ymftu
ckaraifk dme cmratoeafd, mpm`fkm dfkfhmt dmrf sobf
s obf ymeb smgm ymftu wmrem dmue, purfeb
cuefeb gogfkfcf wmrem ymeb dagfeme cuefeb. ^fbgoe ckaraifk goemedmcme pmdm
dmue purfeb torso`ut goebmedueb wmrem hflmu. ^fbgoe cmratoeafd goemedmcme
dmue torso`ut goebmedueb wmrem cuefeb. ^fbgoe methasfmefe goemedmcme dmue
torso`ut goebmedueb wmrem gormh smgpmf uebu torbmetueb comdmme
kfebcuebmeeym (Babmhu, dcc., 0>=9). Goscfpue wmrem dmue pmdm tmemgme purfeb
 `or`odm-`odm, mcme totmpf sotfmp dmue purfeb gogfkfcf cmeduebme ckaraifk. Hmk

=>
 

torso`ut dfso`m`cme cmroem uetuc `ortmhme hfdup mtmu gogmsmc

gogmsm c gmcmeeym tmemgme
 porku gokmcucme prasos iatasfetosfs.
^mdm tmemgme tfebcmt tfebbf mdm 0 gmjmg ckaraifk ymftu ckaraifk-m
(J??H20A? E4Gb) ymeb `orwmrem hflmu tum dme ckaraifk-` (J ??H2>A9 E4Gb) ymeb
 `orwmrem hflmu gudm. Ckaraifk m dme ` pmkfeb cumt goeyormp jmhmym df `mbfme
gormh (9>>-2>> eg), sodmebcme ymeb pmkfeb sodfcft jmhmym hflmu (?>>-9>> eg).
Zodmebcme jmhmym `orwmrem `fru dmrf spoctrug torso`ut dfsormp akoh cmratoeafd
(^urwaca, =666)
Zokmfe ckaraifk, df dmkmg ckarapkms lubm tordmpmt pfbgoe cmratoeafd.
Cmratoeafd dmpmt `orupm cmratfe (J 4>H?9) `orwmrem lfebbm dme cuefeb. ^fbgoe
cmratoeafd mdmkmh smkmh smtu pfbgoe ymeb tordmpmt df dmkmg ckarapkmst, cmratoeafd
tordfrf mtms dum bakaebme ymftu bakaebme cmratfe dme cmratfeak. Cmratfeak mtmu
xmetaifk fefkmh ymeb gog`orfcme wmrem cuefeb pmdm tmemgme.
t memgme.
^mdm dmue purfeb, cmeduebme ckaraifkeym tfdmc totmp sofrfeb portmg`mhme
ugur dmue. Hmk fef guebcfe dfso`m`cme cmroem mdmeym pfbgoe kmfe ymeb ko`fh
dagfeme portug`uhmeeym df`medfebcme ckaraifk, ymcef cmratoefd `orupm xmetaifk
ymeb gog`orf wmrem cuefeb smgpmf lfebbm, dme metasfmefe ymeb gog`orf wmrem
 `fru. Cmroem sojmrm gariakabf, dmue purfeb gogfkfcf wmrem gormh dme cuefeb.
Zohfebbm dmpmt dfcotmhuf dmue purfeb gogfkfcf pfbgoe kmfe sokmfe ckaraifk ymeb
ko`fh dagfeme (Dowf, 0>=0).
Lfcm tfebcmt copocmtme dfhu`uebcme doebme tfebcmt m`sar`mesf (poeyormpme
jmhmym) sumtu dmue ymeb dfmemkabfcme so`mbmf sumtu kmrutme `ordmsmrcme hmsfk
 poebmgmtme, gmcm dmpmt dfsfgpukcme `mhwm sogmcfe pocmt sumtu kmrutme gmcm
sogmcfe `meymc jmhmym ymeb dfsormp (efkmf m`sar`mesf ko`fh tfebbf). Mtmu sogmcfe
hflmu sumtu dmue, gmcm sogmcfe tfebbf tfebcmt poeyormpme jmhmym gmtmhmrf ymeb
dfgfkfcf. ^oreymtmme fef dfducueb
dfducueb (Fsgmfk & Gufs, 0>=0) `mhwm
`mhwm gmcfe pocmt sumtu
kmrutme, gmcfe `meymc goeyormp jmhmym.
_etuc gogfsmhcme zmt-zmt wmrem ymeb tordmpmt pmdm sumtu tug`uhme dmpmt
dfkmcucme doebme `or`mbmf jmrm, totmpf tocefc cragmtabrmif gorupmcme tocefc ymeb
 `meymc dfbuemcme. Cragmtabrmif gorupmcme smkmh smtu tocefc memkfsfs ymeb
torpoetfeb uetuc pogfsmhme jmgpurme  soeymwm-soeymwm cfgfm. ^mdm dmsmreym
tocefc craremtabrmif tordfrf mtms dum imso ymftu imso dfmg (`orupm jmfrme mtmu

==
 

 pmdmt) dme imso bormc (`orupm jmfrme dme bms). ^ogfsmhme cagpaeoe
cagpaeoe jmgpurme
dmpmt torlmdf cmroem mdmeym por`odmme, cojopmtme gfbrmsf. Zodmebcme por`odmme
cojopmtme gfbrmsf fef tfg`uk cmroem mdmeym por`odmme por`medfebme dfstrf`usf
(poeyormpme) dmrf cagpaeoe jmgpurme df metmrm dum imso torso`ut (Gucmragmh,
0>>8).

G. Cosfgpukme 
@ordmsmrcme prmctfcug ymeb tokmh dfkmcucme, gmcm dmpmt dftmrfc cosfgpukme,
 `mhwm pmdm dmue gudm dme dmue tum tmemgme purfeb smgm-smgm gogfkfcf pfbgoe
iatasfetosfs cmratoeafd ymftu xmetaifk dme ckaraifk ` emgue dmkmg lugkmh ymeb
 `or`odm. Zogmcfe tum ugur dmue gmcm pfbgoe ckaraifk sogmcfe `meymc dme
 pfbgoe xmetaifk sogmcfe `orcurmeb.
`orcurmeb.

E. Dmitmr ^ustmcm 
Mf, E. Z. 0>=0. Ovakusf Iatasfetosfs pmdm Tug`uhme. Fkgfmh
Tug`uhme. Fkgfmh Zmfes. =0(0) < 08-:4.

Dowf, V.Z. 0>=0. Cmlfme

0>=0. Cmlfme Oioctfvftms dmue ^urfeb ( Jadfmoug
Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug) dme
 Kfdmh Gortum (Zmesovform trfspmsjfmtm) Dmkmg Goeyormp
Goeyormp Tfg`mk df
_dmrm Mg`foe. Fkgfmh
Mg`foe. Fkgfmh _efvorsftms Zmtym Eobmrm Fedaeosfm, ?(0)< =-2.
Dwfdlasoputra, =664.  ^oebmetmr Ifsfakabf Tug`uhme.
Tug`uhme. Lmcmrtm< ^T. Brmgodfm
Lmcmrtm.
Oreftm, Kavorm. 0>==. ^rmctfcug
0>==. ^rmctfcug Ckaraifk . Gmkmeb< _efvorsftms @rmwflmym.
Babmhu, V., E.F. Mf, dme ^. Zfmhmme. 0>=9. Caesoetrmsf
0>=9.  Caesoetrmsf Ckaraifk ^mdm @o`ormpm
Ymrfotms Tmemgme ^urfeb (Jadfmoug vmrfbmtug K.). K.) . Gfpm _esrmt, ?(0)< 29-
8>
Hmr`areo, =662.  ^oebmetmr Ifsfakabf Tug`uhme
Tug`uhme.. Lmcmrtm< ^T Brmgodfm.
Hmttm, 0>>0.  Ifsfakabf Tmemgme.
Tmemgme. Lmcmrtm< ^T @fem Mcsmrm.
Fsgmfk & M`d.Gufs. 0>=0.  ^oeuetue ^rmctfcug Ifsfakabf Tug`uhme.
Tug`uhme. Gmcmssmr<
Lurusme @fkabf IGF^M _EG

Cfg`mkk, Lahe. R. =660. @fakabf

=660. @fakabf _gug.
_gug. Lmcmrtm< Orkmebbm.
Gucmragmh M., H. 0>>8.  Fdoetfifcmsf \mt Rmrem Phadmgfeo @ ^mdm Kfpstfc
 @orwmrem Gormh.
Gormh. Luremk Memkfsfs Cosohmtme. Yak =. Ea =. Hmk < 4.
Zogmrmeb< _efvorsftms Guhmggmdfymh.

Kmcftme, @oeymgfe. 0>>2.  Dmsmr-Dmsmr Ifsfakabf

Ifsf akabf Tug`uhme.
Tug`uhme. Lmcmrtm< ^T. Pmlm

Brmifeda ^orsmdm.

=0
 

^rackmgsfefebsfh, O, dcc. 0>=0. Kmlu

0>=0. Kmlu Iatasfetosfs
Iatasfetosfs dme Cmeduebme Ckaraifk Codokmf
 pmdm Godfm Tmemg Gmsmg doebme ^og`orfme Bmrmg Mkugfefug.
Mbratrap.. 0(=) < =2-04.
Mbratrap
^urwaca, =666.  Ifsfakabf Tug`uhme Lfkfd  0. @medueb< FT@ ^ross.

Zmkfs`ury, L.R. dme Pass. =66?. Ifsfakabf @medueb< FT@ ^ross. 

=66?. Ifsfakabf Tug`uhme Lfkfd F . @medueb< ^ross. 

=:
 

Kmgpfrme =. Dacgoetmsf

Tmemgme purfeb (Jadfmoug

(Jadfmoug Goefg`meb dmue tmemgme purfeb
vmrfobmtug)) 
vmrfobmtug (Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug)
vmrfobmtug)

Dfborus dmue tmemgme purfeb dfsmrfeb ocstrmsf dme df`fmrcme smgpmf

(Jadfmoug vmrfobmtug)
vmrfobmtug) doebme mgpms goeboedmp
 `metume 0?gk mkcahak 6?%
6?% 

Dfjokupcme `mbfme ulueb cortms kmfeeym co Dfjokupcme `mbfme ulueb cortms kmfeeym co
dmkmg ocstrmc ckaraifk pmdm bokms ucur, dmkmg ocstrmc ckaraifk pmdm bokms ucur,
df`fmrcme cortms smrfeb torbmetueb uetuc df`fmrcme cortms smrfeb torbmetueb uetuc
`o`ormpm kmgm `o`ormpm kmgm

=4
 

Gmjmg wmrem pfbgoe ymeb tordmpmt

 pmdm dmue tmemgme purfeb

=?
 

Kmgpfrme 0. Kmparme Zogoetmrm

=9