[GFDAF ^OKAME^OL
LAP[WBME^OLA

FGBMJYMF >
 

YGDEG^[AOD LAP
LAP[WB
[WBME^
ME^OLA
OLA

  Ygjgrafsoodd lastubmerol
lastubmerolaa okoboh pgjgrafsood rokambmea poko
lastubo
lastubo kgd
kgdeod
eod jgdeeud
jgdeeudofoofod d jgkao fmdtros pms
pmsata
atal.
l. Ygjgrafsood
ada ngr
ngrtuc
tucuod
uod udtuf jgdkopot
jgdkopotfod fod rokamerol yo
yode
de noaf tgdtode
lastubo
lastubo sgha
sghadeeo
deeo kopot
kopot jgdgeoff
jgdgeoffodod kaoedmso sg`or
sg`oro
o tgp
tgpot
ot kod
kopot kabofufod tadkofod sgbod
sgbodcutd
cutdyo
yo udtuf pgjngkohod.
 

YO[MBMEA LAP[
LAP[WBME^O
WBME^OLA
LA

▣ Lastubo okoboh soburod takof dmrjob

yode jgdehunudefod mreod-mreod
noeaod koboj
koboj tunuh yoyode
de sg`
sg`oro
oro
takof dmrjob takof ngrhunu
takof ngrhunudeod,
deod,
otou
otou jgdehunudefod mreod-mreod
noeaod koboj kgdeod pgrjufood
tunuh noeaod buor
 

YGDQGNON

▣ Ygdygnon lastubo sgnoeaod ngsor forgdo

okodyo adlgfsa, troujo otou tadkofod
ngkoh jgkas mbgh kmftgr (Jgka`ob
Abustrotamd [g
[goj,
oj, >99;)
>99;)..
▣ Lastubo yode kasgnonfod forgdo `o`ot
nowood otou fmdegdatob sodeot corode
katgjufod
▣ Kogroh odmrgftob jgrupofod tgjpot
 
od obad sgrad katgjufodd o
[apg-tapg l a s t u b o odtoro boad   (Cgllrgy 
Gvgrgtt, JK, > 9 9 0 )

▣ Nbadk (nudtu) ucude kod podefobdyo hodyo poko

sotu tgjpo
tgjpott tgtop
tgtopaa jgdehunud
jgdehunudefod
efod kuo struf
struftu
tur.
r.
▣ @mjpbgtg (sgjpurdo) jgjpudyoa ucude kod podefob
poko kogroh adtgrdob
adtgrdob kod gfstgrdob.
gfstgrdob.
▣ Hmrsgshmgs (ngdtuf sgpotu fuko) jgdehunudefod odus
kgdeod sotu otou bgnah tataf poko pgrjufood fubat
sgtgboh jgbobua rgftuj.
▣ Ad`mjpbgtg (takof sgjpurdo) yoatu sgnuoh papo otou

soburod
otou kora fubat
struftur yode tgrtutup kora sasa noeaod koboj
mreod.
 

Jo`oj- jo`oj l a s t u b o jgdu r u t tgjpotdy o

o k o b o h s g n o e o a n g r a fu
f u t   ([gs`o,
([gs`o, >9
>99;
9;))

‐ Lastubo Gdtgrmfmbmdaf yoatu lastubo yode

jgdehunudefod
ngsor. usus Hobus kgdeod usus
‐ Lastubo Gdtgrmfutodgmus yoatu lastubo yode
jgdehunudefod usus hobus kgdeod
pgrjufood fubat.
‐ Lastubo Ygraodob yoatu lastubo yode
jgdehunudefod odus kgdeod pgrjufood fubat.
‐
Lastubo fod
kogroh gdtgrmvgsafubor
fodkud
kude
e fgja h.yoatu lastubo poko
fgjah.
 

YO[MBMEA LAP[WBO YG^AGDOB

▣ Lastubo pgraodob jgrupofod obur erodubmjotmso frmdaf yode

ngrcobod kora odus sojpoa noeaod sojpoa noeaod buor fubat odus kora
onsgs sojpoa odus otou kogroh pgraodob. Lastubo pgraodob kopot
ngrhunudeod kgdeod rgftuj tgt tgtopa
opa naso cue
cueo
o takof ngrhunudeo
ngrhunudeodd
kasgnut cueo l
cueo laastubo ad od
odm
m otou lastubo odmrgftob
▣ Lastubo pgraodob sgrade kakohubua mbgh pgjngdtufod onsgs. Onsgs
pgraodob jgrupofod cgdas onsgs odmrgftob yode pobade sgrade
katgjufod
▣ Onsgs pgraodob kasgnonfod kora adlgfs
adlgfsaa ofut kora fgbg
fgbgdcor
dcor fg`a
fg`abb yo
yode
de
tgrcoka
jgdgjnuska sgngboh odus, fgjukaod noft
odus,
fgbgdcor. noftgra
gra josuf fg cora
coradeod
deod kod
 

Y^MPGKW^ YGJG^AFPOOD

•  Ygjgrafsoodlastubo tgreodtude poko bmfosa dyo, Kopot kakaoedmso kgdeod

 ngngropo jo`oj pgjgrafsood kaoedmstaf yode sgrade kabofufod udtuf
 pgjgrafsoood poo pgrokodeod pgdyofat usus sgpgrta pgjgrafsood norauj
gdgjo,`mbmdms`mpy,, saejmakms`mpy,
gdgjo,`mbmdms`mpy saejmakms`mpy, gdkms`mpy kod kopot cueo kakaoedmso

kgdeod pgjgrafsood lastubmerola (U

(Uofg
ofg Lmrgst Wdavgrsaty P`hmmb ml Jgka`adg
Kavasamd ml ^okambmea` P`agd`gs, >99?).
 

YG^PAOYOD YOPAGD

▣ Yoko pgjgrafsood lastubmerola takof jgjgrbufod

pgrsaopod
ngdko-ngdko fhusus, hodyo pokoyode
rokammpoqug kogrohko
lastubo
lastu
pottbo tgrngnos
kopo kora
kora
jgdeodeeu
rokamerol .

▣ Oponabo pgjgrafsood
jofo soburod udtuftgrngnos
ususs hobus
usu lastubo poko
kora kogroh onkmjgd
ukoro kod lg`obb
lg`o
jotgraob

▣ ? hora sgngbuj pgjgrafosood posagd horus jofod,jofodod

yode budof kod rgdkoh ngrsgrot
 

YG^PAOY
YG^PAOYOD
OD OBO
OBO[
[ KOD NOHO
NOHOD
D

‐ Ygsowot sador-x yode kabgdefopa lbbumrmsfmpa

‐ Labj kod fosgt sgsuoa kgdeod fgnutuhod
‐ Jorfgr ^ kod B
‐ Oprmd
‐ Porude todeod Yn
‐ @oarod solbmd
‐ Ygrobotod stgrab jgbaputa 3 kuf stgrab, fotgtgr, spuat ufurod 7 jb->9
jb, fmrgdtode, eudtade,
eudtade, hodk s`mgd, foad fosso, cgba
cgba,, onm`oth, kuf
bunode.
‐ Obfmhmb
‐
‐ Ngtokadg
Mnot odta obgrea
 ‐ Jgkao fmdtros cgdas wotgr smbunbg yoatu amkauj.
 

[GFD
[GFDAF
AF YGJG
YGJG^AFP
^AFPOOD
OOD

▣ Pgngbuj jgkao fmdtros kajosuffod tgrbgnah kohubu

kanuot pbodjgkao
sgbodcutdyo lmtm kgdeod
fmdtrosprmygfsa O
prmygfsa  Od
kajosuffoddtgrm Ymstgrafotgtgr
Yms
kgdeod mr (OY
(OY),
otou onm`oth jgbobua juoro lastubo yode kaafuta kgdeod
lbumrmsfmpa. Fgjukaod kabofufod pgjmtrgtod poko soot
jgkao fmdtros kasudtaffod jgbobua juoro lastubo yode
tgboh jgdea
jgdeasa
sa pgduh soburod last
lastubo.
ubo. Hob ada kopot kabahot
kabahot
poko boyor lbumrmsfmpa kod katodkoa kgd kgdeod
eod fgbuordyo
jgkao fmdtros jgbob
jgbobua
ua juoro lastubo (Nobbadegr, ?117).
Cujboh
Cuj boh jgkao fmdtros yod
yodee kajosuffod tgreodtude kora kora
buos juoro las
lastubo
tubo..
 

YGJOPWFOD JG
JGKA
KAO
O FMD
FMD[^
[^OP
OP YG
YG^A
^AOD
ODOB
OB

▣ [ucuod pgjosufod jgkao fmdtros okoboh

udtuf jgjpgrbahotfod lastub
lastubo
o poko kogroh
pgraodob.
▣ Ygjosufod jgkao fmdtros kaju kajuboa
boa kgdeod
jgjngrsahfod kogrkogroh
oh sgfa
sgfator
tor last
lastubo
ubo kgdeod
ngtokadg. Jgkao fmdtros kajosuffod fg koboj
juoro lastubo
pgrbohod- bohodfaro-
pgrbohod-bohod faro sgkoboj
jgbobua
jgbobua fotgtgr yo >-0
>-0
de `j
yode sg`oro
sukoh
sukoh kangra cg
cgba
ba
kod kaafuta kgd
kgdeod
eod lbumrmsfmpa
lbumrmsfmpa..
▣ Fgjukaod jgkao fmdtros kasudtafod pgrbohod-bohod
sghadeeo jgkaoyode
bunode lastubo fmdtros josuf
ka todkoa kod jgjgduha
kgdeod jgdgtgsdyo
 
jgkao fmdtros kora
kora buno
bunode
de lastu
lastubo.
bo.

Y^MQGFPA

▣ Jgdurut Nobb
Nobbadeg
adegrr prmyg
prmygfsa
fsa yod
yodee kaeudofod udtuf
udtuf
pgjgrafsood lastubmerola sgtgboh pgjos
pgjosufod
ufod jgkao
fmdtros okoboh prmygfsa Odtgrm
Odt grm Ymstgramr (OY),
prmygfsaa Bot
prmygfs Botgro
grob,
b, kod prmygfsa Mnbaf.
Mnbaf. Wdt
Wdtuf
uf prmygfs
prmygfsaa
Oxaob
sukoh jgtmkg @hossork-Bopadg
corode kabofufod forgdo kod
yodeprmygfsa [oybmr
kapgrbahotfod
sukoh
suk oh kawofaba
kawofaba mbgh prmygfsa
prmygfsa OY,
OY, botg
botgrob
rob kod Mnbaf.
 

Y^MQGFPA

▣ OY
▣ BO[G^OB
▣ MNBA_WG
▣ Yrmygfsa
Yrmygfsa O
 Ox
xaob Jgtmkg @h
@hossork-Bopadg
▣ Yrmygfsa [oybmr 
 

Y^MQGFPA OY

 Ymsasa posagd supadg ka otos jgco pgrafsood, fgkuo todeod kabgtoffod

ka otos koko kod fgkuo fofa burus. Ygbvas sajgtras tgrhokop jgco
 pgjgrafsood.
 Fgkuo fofa gdkmrmtosa ?7¹->9¹, fg`uoba cafo tgrcoka lroftur otou

kasbmfosa poko hap cmadt.

 Pador vgrtafob tgeof burus fosgt, `gdtrob pmadt poko pgrtgdeohod fgkuo
frasto abaofo kgdeod LLK ?99 `j. Gfspmsa poko soot posagd tohod
dolos.
 

Y^MQGFPA OY
 

Y^MQGFPA BO[G^OB

 Ygdkgrato kaotur jarade ka soboh sotu sasa yode ofod kalmtm ked fgkuo bgdeod
katgfuf fg otos sgnoeoa nodtobod fgpobo.
 Jak Poeatob Ybodg sgcocorjgco pgjgrafsood, kod nakode oxaob katgjpotfod
 poko pgrtgdeohod jgco pgjgrafsood.

 Ppado abaofo OY sgsuoa kgdeod eoras vgrtafob sghadeeo takof oko rmtosa kora
 pgbvas. @gdtrob Ymadt poko kogroh pgraodob
pgraodob faro-faro Jak Oxabo Badg sgtadeea
>-0 ad`ha ka otos sajlasas punas, sador vgrtafob tgeof burus tgrhokop fosgt kod

LLK ?99 `j. Gfspmsa poko soot posagd tohod dolos.

 

Y^MQGFPA bO[G^OB
 

Y^MQGFPA MNBA_

 Ymsasa posagd prmdg ka

ka otos jgco pgjgrafsood, tunuh karmtosafod
karmtosafod fg soboh sotu sasa yode
kapgrafso yode jgdudcufod bgtof lastubo furode bgnah ;7¹ tgrhokop jgco pgjgrafsood.

 Bgdeod yode kgfot fosgt kaotur ka nowoh fgpobo udtuf nodtobod fgpobo sgkodefod bgdeod yode
boad kaotur jgdyabode ka kgpod
kgpod tunuh. Fofa yode
yode kgfot fosgt jgdgjpgb jgco pgjgrafsood, fofa
yode boad katgfuf sgnoeoa pgdmpode tunuh.
Ygbvas kaotur furode bgnah ;7¹ tgrhokop jgco pgjgrafsood. Wdtuf lafsosa, sasa padeeode
pa deeode yode
 couh kora fosgt kangra pgdeodcob.
 Pador kaotur vgrtafob tgeof burus tgrhokop fosgt kod `gdtrob pmadt poko kogroh pgraodob furode
bgnah >-0 ad`ha ka otos sajlasas punas, toraf eoras ? ad`ha tgeof burus fg oroh botgrob.
bo tgrob. LLK kaotur
?99 `j. Gfspmsa poko soot posagd tohod dolos.
 

MNBAF
 

Y^MQGFPA  O
 OX
XAOB Jgtmkg @H
@HOPPO^K-BOYADG 

 Ymsasa posagd kukuf

kukuf ka otos jgco pgjgrafsood sghadeeo
sghadeeo pgrjufod pmstgramr butut

jgdygdtuh ucude
jgdeegdeeoj tgpa jgco pgjgrafsood fgjukaod fgkuo todeod burus fg nowoh
butut.
 Yosagd jgjnudefufod
jgjnudefufod pudeeude
pudeeude sgjofsajob judefad sojpoa sajlasas punas
jgdygdtuh jgco pgjgrafsood, sukut yode kangdtuf odtoro pgbvas ked sujnu vgrta`ob faro-
faro ;7m.
 Pador vgrtafob tgeof burus fosgt kgdeod `gdtrob pmadt jgbobua
jgb obua kogroh bujnmsfrob
jgdgjnus trmfhodtgr joymr.
joymr. Nabo lbgfsa
lb gfsa tunuh tgrnotos `gdtrob pmadt kaorohfod kora
odtgramr mnygf tgeof burus jgducu nakode fmrmdob kora sajlasas punas. LLK kaotur ?99 `j.
 

▣ Y^MQGFPA  O
 OX
XAOB Jgtmkg @H
@HOPPO^K-BOYADG 
 

Y^M
Y^MQGF
QGFPA
PA [OQBM
QBM^ 
^ 


Yosagd supadg ka otos jgco pgjgrafsood kgdeod fgkuo todeod kabgtoffod ka otos
ot os koko
kod fgkuo fofa burus.
Ygbvas kaotur sghadeeo trug Odtgrm-Ymstgramr yoatu fgkuo frasto abaofo fodod kod fara
 ngrcorof sojo tgrhokop jgco pgjgrafsood kod Jak Poeatob Ybodg ngroko ka
 pgrtgdeohod jgco pgjgrafsood. Pador jgdyukut
jgdyukut 09m fg `rodaob, `gdtrob pmadt poko >
ad`ha ka nowoh notos otos kora sajlasas
sajla sas punas. LLK kaotur ?99 `j. Gfspmsa poko soot
 posagd tohod dolos.
 

Y^MQGFPA [OQBM^
 

[WCWOD Y^MQGFPA

▣ Yrmygfsa OY yode kaeudofod sgngbuj pgjosufod

jgkao fmdtros ngrtucuod udtuf jgbahot struftur
odotmja, pgrsaopod posagd kod pgdgdtuod loftmr
gfspmsa yode tgpot.

▣ Pgkodefod
pgjosufod Yrmygfsa
jgkao OY yode kaeudofod
fmdtros ngrtucuod sgsukoh
udtuf
jgdegtohua oroh lastubo opofoh jgdeoroh fg
fodod
fodo d otou fg fara sgrto udtuf jgbahot
pgdojpod
pgdo jpode
e lastu
lastubo
bo kora kgpo
kgpod.
d.
 

▣ Yrmygfsa Botgrob ngrtucuod udtuf

jgjpgrbahotfod oroh lastubo opofoh
jgdeoroh fg kgpod otou fg ngbofode.
• Yrmygfsa Mnbaf ngrtucuod udtuf jgbah
jgbahotot hunu
hunudeoddeod odtoro
lastubo yode sotu kgdeod lastubo yode boad c
boad caafo
fgjudef
fgj udefadod
adod tgrkopot ngngropo lastu
lastubo.
bo. Yrm
Yrmygfygfsa
sa ada cueo
kopot jgjpgrbahotfod fgkoboj
fgkobojod
od last
lastubo
ubo yo
yode de jgdeor
jgdeoroh oh
fg sojpade.
 

Lmtm pbod Lmtm Op tgrasa Lmtm botgrob tgrasa

fmdtros fmdtros
Yoko lastubo
 pgraodob
 

[G^AJO FOPAH....