Ripple Tank

liquid molecules and solid atoms

Describe , with a labelled diagram , an experiment
↳ liquid molecules arranged in irregular shape but water that shows the reflection of
using waves

slide over
solid atom in
regular shape liquid . molecules wavefronts that occur at a
straight barrier .

each other but solid atom vibrate on the spot .

liquid ,
^
\
molecules are holding by strong to .a but solid atom are

>
'
[ metal
holding by strong intermolecular forces .

Electromotive forces ( e. mf )
↳ Prepare a ripple tank with water .
Place

Energy transferred per unit charge around a complete circuit and

-

in a vibrator connected to power

supply . Observe the wavefront when reflected

loudspeaker produces sound from the metal bar .

loudspeaker is connected to power

supply which

causes vibration of air particles in the form of compression and rarefaction .

Changes of velocity weight -

centre of mass

↳ change in direction Additional process by which the temp Of

. the whole spoon ↑ .

za free moving e- in metal are wlliding w atom when gaining energy so it is

Mega IMI ✗ 106 a good heat conductor .

Milli lm ) 10-3
✗
of wit
Explain motion
Micro ( M ) ✗ 10-6
↳ magnetic field from current is
nano ( n ) ✗ 10-9
overlap w/ magnetic field from bar magnet .

Alternating current CAC )

+ ↑
×

I -
↑i
↓ Add diode

I
2
-

- -

i
i

+ + , '
1 i
or
' '
I 1 -
-

,
I 1
'
'
_ _ - -
'
↓

Add 4 diode l full rectification)

Gravity
£ Acceleration of
freefall
Gravitational Gravitational
↳ l Earth) 10m62
Force Field strength
↳ 10N
↳ 10N/ Kg
 +
+
+
uncharged / neutral state

↳ equal amount of charges

-
_

111 i Q2 : How to make metal sphere

Positively charged rod
positively charged INO diagram )
✗ -

"
become .

× -

↳ this process is
✗
_

- 27 Winnett earth wire to remove charges lllebtrons )

+
called charging by
/ + +

¥ ,
induction l Doesn't
metal
ball touch each other )

Half life -

Q1 :
How to make the metal sphere become
Ex . Iodine -131 emits y -
radiation . It
negatively charged ? ↳ connect it with earth

Positively charged wire to attract more e-

has a half life of
-
8 hours .

¥
-
.

rod
21 Remove earth wire Explain why this emission and this half
-

✗ -
_

+ "
then the rod
/ + +
life make iodine -131 a suitable material for
.

earth
a
¥ , wire
metal e-
a tracer in medical diagnosis .

ball
-

Y can be detected outside the body .

Scale diagram
it needs long enough half time -
to
i.

parallelogram
reach part of the body required .

triangle method
↓
uniform acceleration , the
40°
←
30° To maintain a

trim
" "

with angles
r I ^ 1220N >
Resultant still
moving forward force on the truck must change .

950N A N - force
'
←
Direction of resultant
✓
\
i. p / -
a. Explain why .

yy^
% ↳ To resist friction
70° 12.2cm Hosed triangle
↓
9.5
↳ More resultant forces
em
stationary

100N =
1cm
•
State the relationship btwn temp .

In practice , it takes much longer to increase the of gas and pressure .

550°C ↳ The higher the temperature of gas,

temperature of the gas by using the heater .

the greater the pressure .

suggest one reason for this .

↳ In terms of molecules :

Ahs :
Energy is lost to surroundings .

↳ Rate of collision increases due

to more energy
conversion : •
state the relationship btwn ↳ Higher change in momentum
✗ 1000
volume of gas and pressure .

create more impulsive force .

>

A MA ↳ The smaller the volume , the

why
^

greater the pressure .

state and explain ntne size of bubble become

÷ 1000
↳ In terms of molecules :
bigger when rises up to the water surface .

↳ Rate of collision increases ↳ Pressure of gas bubbles decreases when

due to smaller space -

rises up due to bigger volume .

↳ Higher change in momentum ↳ Bigger volume > lower pressure

create more impulsive forces ↳ prove it by P=ᵗv .

Describe a renewable process

by which electrical energy is

obtained from the energy stored in water .

↳ water has gravitational potential

energy and converted to kinetic energy

when flowing down from the dam .

water

rotate the turbine and cut the magnetic

field and induce e- M.f. is
Electricity
in
generated generator .
 Thermocouple thermometer Brownian motion
Benefits :

2> Smoke particles colliding w air molecules in all

-

Robust
Milivdt meter wire A / iron direction at high speed .

aw, , ,
.

response
Able to detect high temp
-

v .

wire 131
copper Able to detect rapid change in temp
-

hot region wld region

How to demagnetise using A. C current ?

physical Place magnet solenoid that connected to

_

state other a into a is

liquid -
in -

glass thermometer properties that can be

an a. C current . Turn on A. C
supply and slowly withdraw it out .

Sensitivity ↑ used to measure temp .

↓ diameter
↳ Expansion of solid Purpose of split -

ring commutator
↳ Expansion of liquid Provide effect to the wit
turning
-

↑ volume

Reverse the direction of current in every direction

-

Factor that determines the rate of evaporation of water

metal sphere become
" "

_ charged
-

①
.

↳ surface
.

+ ↳
-

+
Temperature area
-

ʳ
↳
c- earth wire
Humidity Air speed
↳ pathway for Explain why evaporation of water from
= the

+
1 movement of electron
the surface of the person
to feel bold .
's
body causes the person

Attract more
↳ water molecules on the surface of skin gains energy from
electron from ground to
the metal sphere and start to break bond
body and start to get energetic .

↓
Remove earth wire first
water molecules change into vapour and start to escape out from the
then remove the rod metal
sphere surface Average kinetic so it has looting effect
energy of body decreases
.
.

become
'

negatively charged
'

In terms of Describe , in terms of air molecules , heat transfer shit

air molecules , pressure snit
. . .

↳ Air molecules each other and ↳ Plastic molecules

are
colliding w are vibrating when gaining energy and transfer
of the container
the walls
frequently . It causes a the heat to the next atom by vibrations . Thermal energy transfer
not " avid molecules wllide with the spoon atom .

change in momentum and produces a force on the wall from hot region to wld region atoms start to vibrate and transfer the
.

spoon
.

atoms
It will also create impulsive forces the wall energy to neighbouring
.

on .

Thermistor LDR Motion of body falling

Resistance t Brightness ↑ Resistance t force acting it is
temp ↑ 1 Initially , there's resistance and the only
'
. . .
no air on

T K R ↑ ti ↑
weight
2. As it falls , it accelerates which increases its speed and air

resistance
Fleming 's left Hand Rule -

Battery
3 Therefore , the acceleration decreases , so its speed is decreasing
Fleming 's Right Hand Rule No Battery
.

C
4 Eventually the air resistance and weight is equal and the forces
slip ring a
.

- - ,

>
↳ provide continuous connection will be balanced so there's no resultant force
while wit is rotating
.

split ring -
d. c a
% Zero acceleration and terminal velocity reached .

↳ changes the polarity of the current >

How high voltage reduces power loss .

Magnetic Relay ↳ High voltage has less current and lesser

ya 2> Used as a switch that uses small current to heating effect so power loss reduced .

[
Electromagnet switch on and off another circuit that uses ↳ It also save cost by using thinner cables
p = ↑ v it,
large current ↑
circuit Breaker constant so when the
voltage is high , current is
4 Automatic switch that cuts off the circuit when low -

current is too large .

?⃝
 Principle of the conservation of momentum
Force and Motion ① Total momentum before after
collision is equal to the total momentum collision

Acceleration -

rate of change of velocity ② Action is always equal to reaction

speed
-_

speed time graphs distance time graphs

Acceleration constant d
v v speed d constant d acceleration deceleration
speed

1- t t t t

deceleration d
return
d
u v
stationary journey stationary

1- t t t

* * * *
Area under the line =
distance travelled Gradient =
Speed
Gradient =
acceleration Distance :

wwnstant speed :
speed ✗ time
Final speed + initial speed
✗ time
Freefall wwnstant acceleration :
2

-
In the absence of air resistance , objects fall mass -

the amount

wwnstant acceleration mass and weight Density ( glcm3.to/cm3 )

of matter in an object
↳ mass per unit volume
^ IN )w= mg weight -

product of mass

S
p
=
% and force of gravity .

t
>
g →
kg
÷ 1000

Terminal velocity Forces Hooke 's law

① ② ③
↑
resistance change of shapes ↳ intention directly proportional to weight of
:
air ,

linear region load / forces

↑
.

p
↓ a ✗ 8115) F=k✗
↓
↓
^ elastic

.|
" M" spring constant ( how stiff )
,
K -

weight "
> × extension
At first , there is
-

Then , the forces Ext

-

downwards unbalanced Big upward unbalance ↳

Objects that obeys Hooke 's law
balance person travels
-

p=kn
force the person accelerates @ constant terminal veto force slows down will return to their original
In length
:
:
person
.

µ.

" " f" " / " " balanced after stretching

=

↑ force ,
Balanced forces ↳ Once it has past the limit of
=
, ,gzµµm
proportionality ( elastic limit ) it
Resultant Force ( RF ) ,

will no
longer obey the law
%
.

5N 5N 7N 3N
e > e >
>
Unbalanced forces
7N

RF ON RF =3 -17 RF 7-3 ↳ when unbalanced ( resultant ) force acts object

= =
on an ,

10N
( Balanced ) 5N the object could speed up
= =
-

( to the → )
↳ will either remain ( to the e-
) -
slow down
acceleration
@ rest / constant -

change direction
speed in astro line thrust >
↑f=ma↑
'
Friction ↓ ,
↑
↳ force that opposes the motion of an object caused the km ,
the thrust of an engine the ↑ a.

by contact of 2 surfaces
can change car 's speed
C ↳ Air resistance is a form of

friction caused by a
body moving thru the air .

t ↳ Friction results in energy loss due to transfer

of energy ( kinetic → internal heat )

weight
 moment CNCM / Nm )
moment =
f- ✗ d
↳ turning effect of force
"""
stationary / not moving / stable / equilibrium
①
•Éf cupboard is fixed on the wall and it is equilibrium
↓
%
- -
-

net moment / ^ ""

no moment / no Find out the force from screw .

no resultant moment cupboard

fall (screw ) F ✗ d F ✗ d ( cupboard )
Object
=
← •

turning effect / moment

µ
15m
② ↳ It has
1- b- F = 60010.5 )
↳ centre of mass fall outside of an object
F =

leg like losing your balance when standing on one foot ) I ,

200N

R
-
-

%
is
g. 5m
I

600N
① Find pivot ;
Two conditions which must be true for an
object to be in equilibrium
'
② Distance is 90° of object
.

I 5m
,

¥ ↓ 2> No resultant force

200N
2, No resultant moment
(a) Calculate the moment of the block .

moment f- d l 90° ) 27 Upward =

Downward force
= ✗
object to pivot ,

=
200×5 Principle of moments
1000 Nm
↳ For a system to be balanced ,
the sum of the clockwise
=

(b) what happen to the block ? moment must be =

the sum of anti clockwise moment -

Object topple over / fall be the block

d' d2
e > e >
clockwise moment and F, di Fzxdz
turning effect
✗ =
has
↓
.

↓
(c) How to make the object balance ? Fi Pivot 1=2

•
Add on load on another side and Balanced Beam

make sure it has same moment as object A- Equilibrium

conditions :
↳ forces on the object must be balanced
clockwise moment is balanced w/ anti-clockwise
[ No resultant force )
•

moment ↳ sum of clockwise moment equals to sum of anti-clockwise

moment
centre of mass scalars and vectors
↳ mass is concentrated at a point ↓ +

quantities that have both magnitude

have only a magnitude and direction

¥ ¥ ( numbers ) ↳ force velocity displacement, moment

, , ,

↳ distance , speed , time , acceleration weight , momentum

impulse
, ,

energy mass ,
,
energy

Momentum 1kg Mls ) Impulse

mass m
↳ Change of momentum / product of force and time
,
Momentum
velocity ,v
↳ When a resultant ( unbalanced ) force acts on a mass ,
> =
mass ✗ velocity
the momentum will change .

↳ the
impulse of a force is equal to that force multiplied by the time for

The conservation of momentum which it acts

↳ In the absence of external force / friction ) , impulse

=
f- ✗ t

the total momentum of a system remains the same momentum of mass is equal to the impulse provided
The change in a

↳ In collision , sum of momentum is the same before and after the force
a
by :

Elastic collision :
Mtv , + mzvz
=
must mzv ¢
impulse =
change in momentum

Inelastic collision :
Mtv , -1 mzvz
=
1mi -1M 2) V F ✗ t =
MV -

mu
 State 2 energy resources that do
Energy not have the sun as their source .

The conservation of energy

↳ Geothermal , nuclear , tidal energy .

↳ Energy is the capacity of smth to do work

↳ cannot be created destroyed , it only change from form to another
Energy or can one

conduction -

when molecules in solid gain more kinetic energy

and more vibrations , so they collide the next particles and transfer

heat energy

convection
-

heat by movement of molecules

kinetic energy ( KE ) -
the energy smth has when its moving
speed >

\
mass
,

KE and GPE
KE =
{ ✗ m × v2
GPE l gravitational potential energy )
↳ If an object is lifted up ,
GPE ↑ work done

↳ If it falls , GPE ti ↳ work is done whenever a force acts on an object that moves in the

direction of force
/ amass A
^
GPE mxgxh energy transferred ( J ) work done l ] )

-104
=
=

¥
height force ✗ distance
FORCE > w =

"
A
The energy an object has "
distance moved
when lifted up .

Ek AS the trolley moves across the rough surface , it slows down and stops .

Explain >
in terms of the work done > the energy change that takes place as the trolley
Efficiency slows down .

^ ^
↳ kinetic energy is used to do work
against friction Kinetic energy decreases
. .

Total useful
energy Thermal energy produced
energ
.

out
Yin ×

Power -
amount of energy transferred I / work done ) every Sec

↳ The power of the machine is the rate at which the machine transfer energy
e >

wasted energy

Useful energy output

p =
¥ ( Watts )
EFFICIENCY = × , go %
total energy input
Molecule momentum

Barometers and manometers + mu

mu
( Pa / Nlm 2)
-

Pressure ↓ " > e

Air pressure others

↳ concentration of a force
↳ this change in momentum each
EA
^
me" " see
P =

↑)
h ( atmospheric
pressure ) results in a force being exerted
, µ ,
×

In liquids against the wall .

Mercury Barometer to

^t↓density-~
mu -
mu
measure atmospheric pressure p =

t
manometer
depth as

@•%↑ÑM
2> less dense liquid
"
increases h be
pressure
the density falls l Pressure
.

remains
P=P9h constant )
p =
hpg ↑
←
increases
decreases
Pressure Changes Thermal expansion
↳ molecules move randomly @ high speeds , ↳ when materials r heated , they expand
walls 3 exerting pressure upon them
colliding w

the
↳ Decreasing the volume of gas will increase pressure

Temperature ABSOLUTE ZERO :

OK / -
273°C

Heat :
Joules (3) * K = Akins + 273

Temp :
0C / K

sensitivity :
how much liquid can expand
use a bigger glass bulb
-

use liquid that can expand more

-

use a tube takes for it to detect

narrow
Responsiveness how long it
-

temp
:
.

Change
Boyle's law
-
use a
glass bulb that has
-
thinner walls
P, V ,
=
P2 V2
smaller glass bulb
-

use a
-

liquid used in liquid in

glass thermometers properties
:
C Hoc )
- -

Mc
thermal capacity They expand linearly temp
=
w
-

↳ To of object is the amount of heat energy

They expand significantly , giving
an
them greater
-

it needs to raise the temp by 1°C

sensitivity
. .

↳ ↑ TC ↑ energy to raise its temp .

↳ it also equals to the amount of heat energy it gives out

Boiling and evaporation
it cools
when by Icc
@ fixed
Boiling temp and happens
.

occurs a .

Thermal
capacity
=
¥ ,
throughout the liquid
Evaporation
-

occurs @ any temp . and happens on

C)
°

capacity I ] / kg
specific heat the surface of the liquid
↳ Amount of thermal energy to raise the temp molecules near the surface
higher energy
.

occurs when
-

of 1kg of that substance by 1°C of liquid escapes and become

-

a
a
gas .

E = MCAT

waves

transverse -
perpendicular
latent heat to the direction of travel
↳ energy required to change the state of a substance

latent heat of Fusion :

energy required to turn a solid into liquid
v =
f- ✗
Vaporisation :
energy required to turn liquid into gas .

↳ specific latent heat of a substance is the energy required to

state of
f- =
f-
change the 1kg of that substance .

F- =
ML longitudinal ( Soundwave )

Transverse wave vibrations to direction of

parallel
-

longitudinal wave
-

vibrations of air particles of wave which is up and down travel

which is forward and backward and is parallel to and is perpendicular to direction

the direction of travel . It has compression of travel . waves are transferring

and rarefaction region energy distance btwn 2 successive crests / trough
wavelength
. .

compression -
a place of higher pressure / air molecules close together amplitude -
maximum distance from its equilibrium

rarefaction -
a place of low pressure / air molecules far apart frequency -

the number of crest passing a point per unit time

 Snell 's law denser medium , it slows down
Reflection
-

when light enters a

speed of
*
i = r n -
refractive index sound in :

-1 7 ↳ Airlgas ) -

300m15
Sini
n =
↳ water Ill -

1500m / S2
sin r "
↳ Direction change only 3-0×10 ↳ solid -

5000m / S2
f) X unchanged
1.
↳ V
,

speed of light in vacuum

n=
Refraction speed of light in medium
↳ 2 medium
Real image can be projected

/ fifty
-

maureen
Total internal reflection
virtual image cannot be -

↳ when all the

light are reflected it is called
projected
,
F no change on a screen
total internal reflection .

*
vi. d change critical 4
Angle of incidence >

Diffraction n=¥nc
-

passing thru an obstacle

↳ obtain critical angle

when angle reflected is

90° to the normal .

Projector
Converging lens photocopier , -

upright
more diffracted
↑ ↓
>

1- when obstacle
EE
smaller

ÉyFÉ / ?
-

wavelength is greater ≥

✗ ZF F
"

eyes , magnifying
Direction change only camera glass
f) X real D- diminished
,
V unchange R -

1- inverted M -

magnified
Dispersion of light
-
Red has the largest -1

-
Violet has the shortest

Monochromatic light
↳ light ray has single wavelength ,

colour } frequency
Resistance 1ohm ,r )
ROYGBIV
↳
opposition of current
✓=

Electromagnetic Spectrum Charge R= ¥ .

Q= charge C
Radio wave ,
Q= ne
Energy wavelength resistance
Microwave ↳ The longer the wire , the greater the
a It electrons ,
↓
=
n no
€
-
.

Infrared protons ↳ The thicker it is ,

the smaller the resistance
F- ↑ f- ↑ .tk / electron /
,
e- charge of
Visible ↑ Proton (1.6×10-19)
Ultraviolet Potential difference
Frequency
↳ voltage across each component
X-ray
Gamma ray ×
Electrical power lwatt ,
W) Parallel circuit ↳ current split up
↳ Power is the rate of transfer
energy

I p =
VI

series circuits
↳ current is the same

Resistors in series

Potential difference :

V7

series

current -
same

voltage -
V7 =
V1 + V2

resistance -

RT =
Ri -1122

Parallel

current -
IT =
Ii + Iz
Resistors in parallel

voltage same
-

V7
resistance -

¥-1 =
¥ +
¥2
¥ ¥ ¥2
,
= +

R =p / f) ,

Transformers

number of turn

1.
¥ -
-

÷ .

② Iron will link the

magnetic flux to secondary

coil
V11 V2 /
.

=
I z

↑ current
④

[
induced voltage

↑
[
a
↑

(
Produced in
output
circuit

primary wit secondary wit

① Primary wit is
How transformers work
supply
.

A- l
connecting to
③ It will induced out
① Alternating current produce a changing magnetic field and causes change of emf in secondary wit

② Iron core transfer the magnetic field to the secondary coil magnetic field

③ secondary coil cuts magnetic field

④ Voltage is induced

transformer
use iron core
↳ change of magnetic field
easily magnetised demagnetised
'

Reason :
can be 3
induced emf induced voltage
.

> >

use topper wit

Reason :
good electrical wndubtor / low resistance
 chapter electronic
to
system
-

fuse

\
:

I
✗

Analogue Signal Digital signal

t
signal that represented
a'0 '¥ ;
" is by
binary code co and 1)
0765 " or ( ON and OFF )

signal w/ continuous
-

signal Cin circuit )

potential divider adjust
↳ it can

voltage sharing
①
t →
convert electrical signal
microphone from microphone to sound

sone
wave that's why you
Amplify sound can
2>
waves control the volume .

-
the microphone convert to electrical signal

↳
translucent
(device that can convert non -
electrical

signal to electrical signal )

or

electrical
signal to non -
electrical signal
*** very sensitive light
• to
used
Electric signal symbol : •
detect changes of light cintensity )
in
phone ,ipad(in circuit *
board )
very sensitive to
cnrrentHow@rarYcwrentsC.usedcharge
•
*
④ ⑤
① t
• control to store
flow temp
-#
.

detect the
←
-1¥
•

-1 1- changes of
-

resistor dependent
variable resistor capacitor Lprciightresistor ,
-
Thermistor temp .

• automatic switch
• act as an automatic
• can convert a. cto
•
Amplify current
switch / signal even
d. c
supply •
will glow"w/ small (create bigger current 4
allow current to flow • share out *
•
help amplify current
current you )
voyage
•

}
@
⑧
fi
in 1 direction
⑦ *
i
.
-

⑥ ¥
Al -1£ * @ I

Diodes Potential divider

i 1
transistor LED C. light-emitting
diode)
1 -

f -

f -
-1

relay
 can produce
output circuit →

larger current
Relay e.
g input circuit .
: so can activate

t# engine
car
iron switch
→

{-"9ine
✓

when current in wire ,

,

== →
car
engine
it produce magnetic
↳ ,
need bigger current
" ""
to activate .

I
Push start -
switch is attracted/ magnetized
button .

convert small current to

big
current

① Activate battery 1st Adv

:

-
safe power, energy money -

② current flow in circuit

I
field
produce magnetic

Potential divider
input Both resistor connected in circuit
[
-

circuit are series

#
.

Ri
-

output circuit is connected to one of the

I T•
17m output
circuit
resistor ( to provide / share a fraction of voltage ]
Ty purpose
↳
connected to one
of the resistor ( can be either
V2 Rz
R1 or R2 ) =

Vy RT

Expl calculate the voltage sharing in R2 .

10h * The higher the resistance , the

[fr ,
30h =
GV
it
fu I 1 higher the voltage sharing be

Zor IRL u
In =
0 ZV -
=
7¥ needs more voltage to pass through

4
=
0.2×20 then resistance
.

output circuit =
4. or ¥ ¥0 =
high

end ( so full res ) V2

=
4. OV
f. xp z*
Adjustable clip

|;¥
f- -
-

,
←
Potential divider a) Find out the output voltage when the p dis in A
-
.

:B
!-
WE
2> Voltage given to
resistor no

floor
so

voltage shared
I

the
b) find out the output voltage sharing for point B. CB e- mid of resistor)
Before
resistor
ginning )
1001 =
6V bc middle
←
c) find out the output voltage sharing Ir =
0-06×501
for point c. =
3. or

2, point C =
share most of the voltage ( GV )
Thermistor detect the change of temp thermistor
- •
.

sensitive ↳ resistance decreases when warm

to temp
-
.

↳ resistance increases when cold .

(High temp of (a) What happen to the light bulb ?

surrounding
I warm ) ) ↳ light bulb is light up
/-1
Input
circuit Thermistor
E.

st \ -
output

1
Resistance fall

voltage sharing =
low voltage
arrest of
/ to the resistor
the voltage go

( when R low ,
V low ) (Thermistor ]

EXIT WARM 1h07

Why light bulb is unable to light up when detect

¥T
warm and hot
surrounding .

bv I
↳ the resistance of thermistor decreases , so voltage sharing is low

|_#
.

l> light bulb is not able to light up -

out
↳ Resistor will share, most of the voltage

EXPf
A group of student would like to design
a potential divider circuit to detect cold
temp .

Draw out the circuit w/ correct position of thermistor and explain it

-

increasing

=¥
↳ At low temperatures , the thermistor 's resistance increases , therefore

Voltage sharing .
most of the voltage will go to the thermistor so the light
, µ bulb will light up when the surrounding temperature is cold .

↳ light bulb is lit up w/ high voltage supplied -

LDR blight dependent resistor )

-

resistance falls
Bright → , V4
↳ sensitive to intensity of light Dark →
resistance increases
↳ detect the changes of light intensity

É ,
what

↳ light
happen to the light bulb if
bulb will light up due to high
LDR detected dim

voltage sharing
light
.
? (3)

4^-1-1 1T¥ ④ ↳

Application
When

:
LDR detected dim

lamppost / streetlamp
light , resistance
.
increases .

LDR
 Diode •
convert a. o to d. c

allow current to flow in one direction

171
•

( change all
supply to
-1¥
a. c.
resistor
①

✗
b. Hit
← normal

② Add four diode 7- Paper 2 only when add 4

diode
' '
f '

, , ,
e- D.c more stable
→ Add ' '
' - -
after added capacitor

. : capacitor :
A. c full rectification
supply

Transistor standby for circuit

•
depends on the
③ light bulb will
needs of the circuit
light up Automatic switch •
to activate a transistor,
won't work w/o this )

µ
P"" " " 99hr
" " " °" there must high Vora in base (transistor
" ^^"
④ current in output circuit beg there must be standby

f
←
.

take care
t collector
high voltage / current
Resistance of CDR
flies;star ofytransistor base

to>→
g
#
• -

'

increases , output I
,

voltage sharing
ffiprcnignv ,
base
I - -
-1 ② f Emitter
I
T.IE?gYf?urrentwiufiowin
increases -

/ activated -3 allow
emitter will open when it collect enough
circuit .

of voltage from collector { base

a) What happen to the electric bell if thermistor detects

high temp ? .

Resistance and output sharing is low in

thermistor therefore most of the voltage will go to

the resistor Base will have detected high voltage

.

and activated the thermistor as there are enough

voltage Finally ,. the electric bell will turn on .

automatic switches
logic gates
→

→
detect signal in
binary code 11,0 )

1- to - -

AND NOT OR

a-

MAND NOR
Electron beam
structure of metal atom
f
:

↳
O
.

lattice
•

arranged in

0€00
-
•

fuel w/ free moving electron

metal atom

① what happen to the metal wire when

?
connected to power supply
metal wire
←
C filament )
↳ metal wire is heated and become hot

3.
I e- e-
are
Powers '
Y e- e-

e- e-
↳ electrons h
colliding w/ each other and the atoms

[ ( electrons
↳ electrons are too
are being broken down )

3000°C ]
energetic and start to escape out from the surface
[ 2000°C
.

" "
i. This is called thermionic emission

Heated up to 2000°C
-
3000°C
t

z
e e e
-

e
- - -

e e
-

e e
- -
-

e e
-

e e
-
-

t
electron beam
→ electrons are coming out
in high speed and energetic

*
Electron beam

can be tested by

v v

Electric field magnetic field

µ , meta ,
6 plate five >
- -
ve )
bar E#
+ + + + t -1
µ magnet
current electron
7 ← electrons are e e
>

t attracted to (f) metal > ,

plate electron
electron
current
- -
- - - -

beam
%-) metal plate 1- ve → + ve ) s

s
force is into the page / away from viewer

① A beam of electron has deflection

when passes through magnetic field

regions
② where is the deflection ?

[
" " ^ " " """ " " " " " "" ° "

left hand rule

forces
①
I
☒ e-
magnetic field
t current
( electron is always
florescent light opposite of current )
27 electron beam

I magnetic deflection out of page toward /

1
Y ←
- -

\
-
-

field
,

viewer (
try not to use up force )

µ
e. e.
-

-
,
i
'

from earth
- e- e- I
"

/
I \
'
e) i m '

electron -
- -
-

deflected

1.
release energy
in florescent light
 Chapter 11 -
Inside atom ✗ Nucleon atom -
combination of proton number 3 neutron number

electron C- Charge )
- • -
Isotopes
Proton ( + charge) ↳ of proton numbers but different neutron /nucleon
#
atom the same elements with same
y unstable nuclei
.

••g• "
"
"
00
'

\
[ '
carbon -12 carbon -13
\
1
carbon -14
1

neutron ( neutral ) isotopes

↳ stable nuclei
_
a

* Radiation given out

Types of Radiation wave

↑ w/o warning .

neutron

/
°
✓ Xtra

}
> unstable Constable }
of neutron
/
•
↓
• →

↓ ✓ radiation •
go
nuclei energetic )
↓
✗ 13 y start breakup

w/ nucleus
alpha beta
.

gamma ( Release waves)

↓ ↓
Highly energetic
✗ =
helium particles electron Electromagnetic wave these waves
← neutron will release
are known as

ÉÉI
'
wave once break
- - -
. - i - -

, ,
radiation
-

'

:& :He
' '
o
upwi
'
nucleus
y
or . .

i. '
1 ' l
-
,
' '
☆☆
o
-
. _

,
' " "

Heaviest low / very low ① radiation particle / wave radiate from

-

Nuclear The nucleus

- -
:
mass : mass :
.

Mass : No mass

speed of speed of fast / Very fast

moderate
:
:

speed of 3.0×108 m/s

travel travel
travel
:
② Radioactive decay :
The disintegration of nucleus
[speed of light ]
charge :
ve
-

charge
:
tve
none
charge :

penetrating weak Cbc heavy) penetrating : moderate

effect
:
effect penetrating
↳ skin , muscle , effect
:
Highest
↳ easily blocked I> able to pass thru
paper
by skin 3 paper ↳ block by thick everything
metal Aluminium)
↳ only can block by 160 -70% blockage)
thick lead metal concrete wall / .

Expl
radioactive Paper
1
Aluminium
I 1
Lead Ionizing Effect →
Atom is able to release or receive electron
source
✗ 13 Y

l a
>
P
↓

highest weakest
↓ ↓

none
no particles
>
7
4
22 .ie ;y
↓ ↓ ↓
more particles less particles no particles

Effect of field

heavy Electric field NY

t t t t t t t t

tlt)
e- more curvy / deflection ft
q ↳ lighter easily1- -3 B
G) B
attracted by plate .

>
+ (no deflection )
>
y
- - - -
- - -
-

magnetic field Direction of deflection

↓
N N
t.tl f)
d- particles B-particles
Determine by Fleming 's a

> >
left Hand field
(currents e Rule magnetic
current into Hilla
S S r

Direction Out of the page/ xbxx ✗ magnetic field

Direction :
into the page/
:
d s × ,
g. ① ⑥ g- outofthepagf
away from viewer
towards viewer ✗ ✗ × ✗ ① ① ① ④
Y =
y
> Y = >
✗ ✗ × ① ⑨ ⑨⑧
✗ X
=
B × X
p = ⑥⑧ ⑧④
v u
 ' '

Nuclear radiation ↳ radiate out from nucleus

wave Radiation →
measured by count rate-

↳ [
Radioactive sources > sources that emits out radiation
measured by G. M tube
Geiger Muller ]

→ radiation is measured by count -

rate
G. M tube
↳ radiation in sources usually in high dose /
↳ detector

Background radiation → radiation around us / in the environment

↳ food , drink rocks , soil
, , sun 3 cosmic ray

↳ Not dangerous to humans Ratemeter

↳ shows count rate

-

y,
Q1
detector / radioactive E. 500 counts / min
:
g
source
( or
550
counts / min
☐ 500 counts / s Aluminium

radioactive

a) G. M tube detects 550 counts / min to the radioactive

Q2 ( source
when brought close

source . When radioactive source is removed > count rate -

drop to 45 counts/min .

What is the radiation for 45 counts/min ?

620
↳ It is background radiation counts / min

b) The student repeated the experiment to measure the background radiation

Ratemeter is register 620 counts/min from the
.

Number I 2 3 4 5 radioactive source .

After placing an aluminium sheet,
the count rate
drop to 600 Counts/min What
-
. is the type of
count rate 45 go 47 radiation released from the radiation source ?
-

40 44

↳ The difference between the count rate

gamma ray .
- is

why the count rate is -

not the same ? not so
big . ( 20 counts / min )

↳
Background radiation is random

Radioactive decay
↳ ✗ -

decay ,
13 decay ,
Y decay .

Radium stable →
becomes
nucleus different
E.
g
:

/ 226-4/9 element
t.gl
:

no
☒ ☒
Ra →
Rn t d
☒ ☒ 232 iI ☒
l "
I
unstable decay
go
-2^1 "
Decay product goth
→

pig
✗ +
☒
2

nucleus Radon
process
T
disintegration
of nucleus

B- decay (-9/3) Y decay 1:41

-

131 ☒ III Eg
:
Decay of Uranium -234 it will emits alpha particles is gamma ray .

I + e
file
→

53 nucleus 234 123-07 ☒

K T u →
Th t d t
Y
In B- decay change
, neutron 92 190-7 ⑦ ☒
into proton number/electron .

t 1 ,
f
, 1
''

Decay decay
'
Thorium
uranium product product
Radioactive decay series
( 1st series )
219
HII 4 0

Rn > Po t d t Y
86
In THE 2 0

Radon

(2nd ) IIT
!
215 °

p, >
pb + 13 1-
Y
III , 0
84 .
 ! ! due to the detector
Reading
↳ Add back radiation
background
Reading due to emission of radioactive substance
↳
Half life
w/o background radiation .

! ! Count rate low

-

↳ The time taken for the no . of radioactive nuclei in a sample to halve ↳ Background radiation

↳ Time taken for the no .

of decays /activity to halve
e.
g boo decays per Sec > 300 decays per second

Activity
↳ overall rate of decay of
All the isotopes in our sample

Becquerels
9- Bq =
1 decay per Sec
Detector
1st Day /
500
① radioactive
\ / counts/
}
min
source
Radioactive decay
Half life
*
1st half Process
Number of count rate
-

life
decay to half

② After 1 week . . . Detector

;ff
grads
ve °

250
counts 1min

)
↳ radioactive sources
2nd count rate decreases to
-
half
"" " "
After 2nd week
③ Detector
radioactive / L
I
125
it's going through
source so

\/ counts /min
another half life process

3rd
Half-life
④ 3rd week
Detector
radioactive / 62.5
t
source

\ / counts/ min

4th Half life

⑤ 4th week

Detector
radioactive / L
source
31.2 This is
background radiation

\/ counts /min ←
↳ That means that the radiation

decay process has stopped .

The experiment continously for

5th n 6th week , but count rate

remain 32 and 33 -
 Potential
energy inside of a
y nucleus of an unstable atom
Nuclear Energy
↳ related to the collision of radiation
when emitted from the nucleus .

I
,
t '
human made
Nuclear fusion Nuclear fission it unstable

}
Proton e.g
:
Uranium 235

goof
,
tightly hold
by strong nuclear force .

)
• °
Proton! neutron are not allowed
neutron
a

/ ° →
neutron
to transfer in -3 out from nucleus
1
.
1-

nucleus Neutron is
! ! If nucleus is unstable it will burst hitting the
, uranium
unstable nuclei 235
anytime
f. ( unstable nuclei )

light nuclei tgt and form t

joining 2 a ,

start to split
into 2
heavy nucleus . At the same time to release
↳
process of splitting heavy nuclei
huge amount of nuclear energy .

into 2 light nuclei due to bombardment of high speed neutron

f,
!! sun is v dangerous ↳ this process will release huge amount of energy
bc it gives out a lot of
radiation during fusion
This only occur in sun 3 star
but we are protected by
2
- isotope the earth 's atmosphere
,
µ
y

combine ( Nuclear energy )

-1
fusion Release huge
tgt >

a
process energy
1H
/ k ↳ I F- =
mi ]
( heavy
isotope nucleus
 Nuclear Reactor

"

nuclear power plant

t,

generate electricity

( uranium )
boat -

power plant Nuclear power plant

↳ expensive to build , operate

↳ low efficiency

↳ produce polluted gas

↳
produce high dose of radiation
causes cancer

↳ safer ↳ produce radioactive waste

↳ needs storage
space to keep
radioactive waste .

How to handle radioactive waste properly

↳ Store radioactive waste in thick lead / concrete container

↳
Bury the container underground / under seabed
Affect aquatic life
↳ wear special suit / shielding case before handling the waste

↳ Reduce the time of

contacting w/ radioactive substance

( more efficient than wld powerplant )

concrete / lead
✓ wall
↳ to block most
radiation

moderator control rod ) used to

✓ ↳ graphite 1- activity the

control
of
Nuclear fission neutron
← occur here

expl .

high dose of radiation

very expensive to build might cause health issues
to living things Required landscape
a
storage to store radioactive to store the waste
sources / waste
waste from nuclear power plant I 9
y might have long half life State -
. Environment
"
← F-Whom
T 3 economic b environmental consequence 4
to
very expensive
transport radioactive t of producing of waste .
it
waste w/ to rent Pollution to the environment
proper required
protection alot of space to build

up the power plant

 Atom and particles

electron Ernest Rutherford → Discovered nuclear model

•
( scientist )
-
-
,
Proton
i

•
•f ↳ He believed that atom has tiny particles
I 0*000 - nucleus
"

X
"

-
↳ gold foil experiment → to figure out the atomic model
neutron
.

✗
① >
•

•
>
•

>
orbiting around •

I
1st observation most of the alpha particles passes through the gold foil Latam)
: -

Reason : -
there are space between nucleus

① 9
✗ (t) • (t )

2nd observation some deflected

particles
: -

a- are

Reason : -
nucleus contain charge

③ a
••
e

Gold foil -

experiment
3rd Observation : -
few a-
particles strongly bouncing back
a) State the deflection of a -

particles
nucleus of Reason : - nucleus has most of the charge and mass that is
-
✗
•
gold foil the middle
>
concentrated in

•
>
1-

> •

b) write down the deduction and reason for each deflection .

•
most of the alpha particles passes through the gold foil tatom) because
↳ Reason :
there are space between nucleus

deduction : nucleus is small

•
Some of the d- particles are deflected
↳ Reason There :
are charges inside the nucleus
It ) (t)
deduction :
there are force of repulsion btwn d-
particles and nucleus

few bounced back

particles
•

↳ Reasons : Most of the charges and mass are concentrated at the

centre / middle of nucleus

y
.

Deduction