EHAHCHB
–OH_@THF MHF MI_I] H_@]EH]@AH MHF JIKEI]_@―

M@TYTYF KCIB <

 FHEH <
 F@E <
AICHT <

JY_Y ^IEO@EO@FJ <

TIAKCHB EIFIFJHB AILY_YHF AITIBH]HF

PHBPH O@EH
]HBYF HLH_HF ?>?>/?>?8
 

AH]H ^IFJHF]H_ 
 Hsshcheu‐hch`aue Zr. Zo.

Hcbhemuc`cchb.. ^ul` syuaur aibhm`rht Hcchb TZ]. hths sijhch rhbeht mhf b`mhyhb-Fyh.
Tijhch pul`hf bhfyh chyha a`th hturahf aiphmh Hcchb TZ]. ]ubhf siru siahc`hf hche hths
sijhch
sijhch oir
oiraht
aht,, rhbeht
rhbeht,, thu
thug`a
g`a,, sirt
sirthh pit
pitufl
uflua-
ua-Fyh
Fyh yhfj
yhfj sufjju
sufjjub
b t`hm
t`hmhh tira`rh
tira`rh oishrf
oishrfyh,
yh,

sib`fjjh pifuc`s mhpht eifyi

sib`fjjh eifyicish`ah
cish`ahf
f ehahchb
ehahchb yhfj pifuc`s oir` lumu
lumucc ―OH_@THF
―OH_@THF mhf
MI_I]―.
Mhche pifyusufh ehahchb `f`, pifuc`s eifmhpht ohfyha ohftuhf mhr` oirohjh` p`bha,
kcib ahrifh `tu pifuc`s eifju
eifjudhpahf
dhpahf rhsh oirtir`
oirtir`ehahs`
ehahs`b
b yhfj sioishr-oishr
sioishr-oishrfyh
fyh aiphmh
eiriah
eiriah,, aim
aimuh
uh krhfj
krhfj tuh mhf sijifh
sijifhp
p aic
aicuhr
uhrjh
jh oishr
oishr pifuc`
pifuc`ss yhfj
yhfj tic
tichb
hb eie
eieoir
oir`ah
`ahf
f
muaufjhf, ekr`c, mhf aipirdhyhhf yhfj shfjht oirhrt` ohj` pifuc`s.
Oiraht muaufjhf eiriah sieuh aisuasishf `f` m`euch`, mhf siekjh sieuh `f` o`sh
eieoir`ahf siouhb f`ch` aiohbhj`hhf mhf eiflhm` ohbhf tuftufhf aihrhb yhfj cio`b oh`a 
chj`. ^ifuc`s tiftufyh oirbhrhp `s` ehahchb `f` t`mha eif`fjjhcahf dichb, oiruph aiaurhfjhf

hthu aishchbhf, fheuf aieufja`fhf hahf sichcu tirs`sh aiaurhfjhf yhfj t`mha m`shmhr` kcib
 pifuc`s.
Kcib ahrifh `tu, pifuc`s eifjbhrhpahf ar`t`a mhf shrhf yhfj eieohfjuf hjhr ehahchb
`f` mhp
mhpht
ht eif
eiflhm
lhm`` cio`b
cio`b oh`
oh`a
a chj`.
chj`. Hab`r
Hab`r ahth,
ahth, pif
pifuc`
uc`ss eifjbh
eifjbhrhp
rhpahf
ahf hjh
hjhrr ehahch
ehahchb
b `f`
 oirehfghht ohj` sieuh pieohdh.
Zhsshcheu‐hch`aue Zr. Zo.

O`eh, >0 Tiptieoir ?>?>

^ifuc`s
 

MHG]H_ @T@

BHCHEHF ....................
..........................................
............................................
............................................
...................................................
.............................
AH]H ^IFJHF]H_ ...............................................................
...................................................................................................
....................................
MHG]H_ @T@ ......................
............................................
............................................
............................................
................................................
..........................

OHO @ ^IFMHBYCYHF
H. Chthr Oichahfj ..........................................
................................................................
.........................................................
...................................
O. _ueushf Ehshchb ..........................................
................................................................
....................................................
..............................
D. ]uluhf .....................
...........................................
............................................
............................................
..........................................
.........................
.....

OHO @@ ^IEOHBHF
H. Ohr`shf mhf Mirit Hr`teht`ah ...........................................
.....................................................................
.................................
.......
O. Ohr`shf mhf Mirit Jikeitr` ...........................................
.................................................................
....................................
..............

OHO @@@ ^IFY]Y^

H. Ais`epuchf ....................
..........................................
............................................
..............................................................
........................................
O. Thrhf ...........................................
.................................................................
.......................................................................
.................................................

MHG]H_ ^YT]HAH ..........................................

................................................................
..........................................................
....................................
 

OHO @
^IFMHBYCYHF

H. Ch
Chth
thrr Oi
Oich
chah
ahfj
fj
Ehtieht`ah hmhchb shchb shtu `ceu mhshr, yhfj sieha`f m`rhshahf `ftirahs`fyh mifjhf

 o`mhfj-o`mhfj `ceu ch`ffyh sipirt` iakfke` mhf tiafkckj`. ^irhf ehtieht`ah mhche `ftirhas`
`f` tircitha phmh struatur `ceu mhf pirchthf yhfj m`jufhahf. @ceu ehtieht`ah siahrhfj `f`
ehs`b ohfyha m`ju
m`jufhahf
fhahf mhche oiroh
oirohjh`
jh` o`mhf
o`mhfj
j sipirt` o`mhfj `fmustr`, hsurhf
hsurhfs`,
s`, iakfke`,
iakfke`,
 pirthf`hf, mhf m` ohfyha o`mhfj sks`hc ehupuf tiaf`a. Eifj`fjht pirhfhf ehtieht`ah yhfj
sieha`f
sieha`f oishr mhche thbuf
thbuf-thbuf
-thbuf eifmhthf
eifmhthfj,
j, tiftufyh
tiftufyh ohfyha shrlhfh ehtieht`a
ehtieht`ahh yhfj
shfjht m`outubahf yhfj shfjht tirhep`c, hfmhc, akepitif, mhf oirwhwhshf cuhs, oh`a m`
mhche m`s`pc`f `ceufyh sifm`r` ehupuf mhche m`s`pc`f `ceu ch`ffyh yhfj shc`fj eifuflhfj.
Yftua
Yftua eiflh
eiflhm`
m` shrlhfh ehtieht`a
ehtieht`ahh t`mhachb
t`mhachb eumh
eumhb,
b, bhrus oifhr-oifhr
oifhr-oifhr sir`us mhche oichlhr,
oichlhr,
sich`f bhrus oichlhr ehtieht`ah, a`th lujh bhrus eiepichlhr` o`mhfj-o`mhfj `ceu ch`ffyh.

Tib`fjjh, l`ah sumhb eiflhm` shrlhfh ehtieht`ah yhfj mhche sijhch o`mhfj o`sh ehah shfjht
eumhb uftua eifdhr` piairlhhf.

O. _u
_ueu
eush
shf
f Eh
Ehsh
shch
chb
b
Yrh`ahf hph yhfj aheu
aheu aithbu` tifthfj Mirit mhf Ohr`shf ;

D. ]uluhf
Eifjurh`ahf Mirit mhf Ohr`shf
 

OHO @@
EH]I_@ ^KAKA 

H. OH
OH_@T
_@THF
HF MHF
MHF MI_I
MI_I]
] H_@]E
H_@]EH]@
H]@AH
AH
Ohr`shf hmhchb suhtu o`chfjhf yhfj m`oiftua eifurut suhtu uruthf tirtiftu.

Timhfjahf mirit hmhchb luechb mhr` o`chfjhf.

8. Ohr`
Ohr`sh
shf
f mh
mhff Miri
Miritt Hr`t
Hr`tei
eit`
t`ah
ah
^ifjirt`hf
Ohr`shf
Ohr`shf hr`tei
hr`teit`a
t`ahh hmhchb
hmhchb suhtu
suhtu ohr`sh
ohr`shf
f mifjhf
mifjhf sic
sic`s`b
`s`b (oimh)
(oimh) hfthrh
hfthrh muh sua
suau
u yhfj
yhfj
 oiruruthf sichcu tithp. Bhrjh yhfj tithp `f` m`fhehahf oimh. Tuhtu ohr`shf hr`teit`ah mifjhf
suau pirtheh h mhf oimh o hmhchb
h,h + o,h + ?o,h + 4o, mhf sitirusfyh.
Mifjhf eiepirbht`ahf pkch aioirhturhf iepht suau pirtheh,
Tuau pirtheh 5 u85 h 5 h + ( 8 — 8 )o

Tuau aimuh 5 u ? 5 h + o 5 h + ( ? — 8 )o
Tuau ait`jh 5 u 4 5 h + ?o 5 h + ( 4 — 8 )o
Tuau aiiepht 5 u 4 5 h + ?o 5 h + ( = — 8 )o
Ehah suau ai-f suhtu ohr`shf hr`teit`ah hmhchb
u f 5 h + ( f — 8 )o
Dkftkb Tkhc <
Mirit hr`teit`ah hmhchb luechb suau-sua
suau-suau
u ohr`shf hr`teit`ah.
hr`teit`ah. L`ah ohr`shf hr`te
hr`teit`ahf
it`ahfyh
yh
hmhchb u8 , u ? , ….., u f , ehah mirit hr`teit`ahfyh hmhchb<
f

a58
T f 5 ∘ Ya  5
 5 u8+ u ? + …..+ u f
Tuau ai-f mhf luechb suau f suau pirtheh mirit hr`teit`ah
^hmh mirit hr`teit`ah u 8+ u ? + …..+ u f mifjhf suau pirtheh 5 u85 h mhf oimh mirit 5
 o, ehah suau ai-f mirit `f` hmhchb u f 5 h + ( f — 8 )o mhf luechb f sua
suau
u pirthehfyh hmhchb
T f 5 u8+ u ? + …..+ u f 5 µ f ( u 8+ uf )58/? f (?h + (f-8)o)
Dkftkb Tkhc <
8. M`a
M`aith
ithbu`
bu` ohr`shf
ohr`shf hr`teh
hr`teht`a
t`ahh < -4 , ? , : , 8
8?
? , ...
.....
]iftuahf <

h). Tuau ai-2

 o). Tuau ai-?>
 

Lhwho <
h 5 -4
 o 5 9
Yf 5 h + (f-8).o Y?> 5 -4 + (?>-8).9
Y2 5 -4 + (2-8).9 5 -4 + 80.9

  5 -4 + :.9 5 0?
  5 4?

?.  M`aithbu` suhtu mirit hr`teht`ah < 4, :, 88, 89, ...., b`tufj oimh mhf suau ai-: mhr`
dkftkb mirit tirsiout;
  Lhwho<
  M`a <
  mirit < 4,: , 88, 89, ...
  M`thfyh < o mhf Y: ;

  ^ifyicish`hf <
  o 5 :-4 5 88-: 5 =
  Yf 5 h + (f-8) o
  5 4 + (:-8) =
  5 4 + (7).=
  5 4 + ?=
  5 ?:
  Lhm` oimh hmhchb = mhf Tuau ai-: hmhchb ?:.
?.  Ohr`shf mhf Mirit Jikeitr`

^ifjirt`hf
Ohr`shf jikeitr`
jikeitr` hmhchb suhtu ohr`shf yhfj eiepufyh`
eiepufyh` pkch aioirhturhf
aioirhturhf bhs`c ohj` muh
suau oirturuthf tithp bhrjhfyh. Bhrjh yhfj tithp `f` m`fhehahf rhs`k.
r hs`k. Tuhtu ohr`shf jikeitr`
mifj
ifjhf su
suau
au pi
pirt
rthe
hehh h mhf rhs`
rhs`k
k r hmhc
hmhchb hr, hr ? , hr  4 , mhf
hb h, hr, mhf sitir
sitirus
usfy
fyhh mi
mifj
fjhf
hf
eiepirbht`ahf pkch aioirhturhf iepht suau pirthehfyh. Tuau pirtheh 5 u 85 h 5 hr >5 hr 
8∟8,
Tuau aimuh 5 u ? 5 hr 5 hr ?∟8
Tuau ait`jh 5 u 4 5 hr ? 5 hr 4∟8
Tuau aiiepht 5 u = 5 hr 4 5 hr =∟8

ehah suau ai-f suhtu ohr`shf jikeitr` hmhchb

u f 5 hr f∟8
 

mirit jikeitr` hmhchb luechb suau-suau ohr`shf jikeitr`. L`ah ohr`shf jikeitr`fyh hmhchb <

f
a58
T f 5 ∘ Ya  5
 5 u8+ u ? + …..+ u f
Tuau ai-f mhf luechb f suau pirtheh mirit jikeitr`

^hmh mirit jikeitr` u 8+ u ? + …..+ u f mifjhf suau pirtheh 5 u 85 h mhf rhs`k mirit 5
r , mifjhf r [ 8, ehah suau ai-f mirit `f` hmhchb u f 5 hr f∟8 mhf luechb f suau pirthehfyh
hmhchb T f 5 u8+ u ? + …..+ u f 5 h + hr + hr ? + …..+ hr f∟8 5 h .8- r f 8 — r 
Dkftkb Tkhc <
8.  Dhr`chb suau ai 2 mhr` ohr`shf m` ohwhb `f` !
h) ?,=,2,87,4?,
?,=,2,87,4?,...
... o) ?,8,8/?,8/=,8/2,
?,8,8/?,8/=,8/2,...
...
?.  M`aithbu` ohr`shf jikeitr` mifjhf Y4 5 ?: mhf Y9 5 ?=4. Oirhphahb 7 suau pirtheh mirit
tirsiout;
^ifyicish`hf <

8. h) Y8 5 = Y2 5 Y8 . r2-8 5 ? . ?: 5 ? . 8?2 5 ?97

  Y? 5 ?
  r 5 Y? < Y8
  5=<?
  5?
  o) Y? 5 8 Y2 5 Y8 . r2-8 5 ? . (8/?): 5 ? x 8/8?2 5 8/7=
  Y8 5 ?
  r 5 Y? < Y8
  58<?

  5 8/?
?. Y4 5 h . r4-8 5 h . r? 5 ?: ?: 5 Y8 . (4)4-8
  Y9 5 h . r9-8 5 h . r= 5 ?=4 ?: 5 Y8 . 4?
  ?: 5 Y8 . 0
  Y9/Y4 5 h . r= / h . r? 5 ?=4/?:
r? 5 0
Y8 5 ?: < 0 5 4
  r54
  T89 5 4 ( 47 - 8) / 4-8 5 4 (:?0-8) / ? 5 4 (:?2) /? 5 8>0?

O.  OH_@THF MHF MI_I] JIKEI]_@

 

8.  ^ifjirt`hf Mhf _ueus Ohr`shf Jikeitr`

Ohr`shf Jikeitr` mhpht m`mig`f`s`ahf siohjh` ohr`shf yhfj t`hp-t`hp suaufyh m`mhphtahf
mhr` bhs`c pirahc`hf suau sioicuefyh mifjhf siouhb akfsthfth tirtiftu
Dkftkb Ohr`shf Jikeitr`
Yftua cio`b eiehbhe` hph yhfj m`ehasum mifjhf ohr`shf jikeitr` pirbht`ahf dkftkb

 oir`aut<
4, 0, ?: , 28, ?=4, ...
Ohr`shf m` hths hmhchb dkftkb ohr`shf jikeitr` m`ehfh sit`hp suau phmh ohr`shf tirsiout
eiruphahf bhs`c mhr` pirahc`hf suau sioicuefyh mifjhf akfsthfth 4. ehah o`sh m`s`epucahf
 ohbwh rhs`k phmh ohr`shf m` hths hmhchb 4. rhs`k phmh suhtu ohr`shf mhpht m`rueusahf
eiflhm`<
r 5 ha+8/ha 
M`ehfh ha  hmhchb
  hmhchb sieohrhfj suau mhr` ohr`shf jikeitr` yhfj hmh. sieifthrh ha+8 hmhchb
suau sichflutfyhh sitichb ha .uftua
sichflutfy .uftua eififtuahf suau ai-f mhr` siouhb ohr`shf jikeitr`, a`th
f-8
mhpht eifjjufhahf rueus < Yf 5 hr
M`ehfh h eiruphahf suau hwhc mhf r   hmhchb
hmhchb f`ch` rhs`k mhr` siouhb ohr`shf jikeitr`.
Ehr` a`th pichlhr` pifjjufhhf rueus-rueus ohr`shf jikeitr` m` hths mhche eifyicish`ahf
skhc<
Dkftkb Tkhc mhf ^ieohbhshf Ohr`shf Jikeitr`
Dkftkb Tkhc 8
Tiouhb Ohatir` ehepu eichauahf pieoichbhf m`r` eiflhm` = sit`hp 8? eif`t. oirhphahb
 luechb ohatir` yhfj hmh sitichb 8 lhe hpho`ch sioicuefyh tirmhpht 4 ouhb ohatir`;
ohatir`;

^ifyicish`hf<

h54
r5=
f 5 8 lhe/8? eif`t 5 7>/8? 5 9
Ehsuaahf ai mhche rueus<
Yf 5 hr f-8
Y9 5 4 x =9-8
Y9 5 4 x ?97 5 :72 ohatir`

?.  ^ifjirt`hf mhf _ueus mirit Jikeitr`

 

Mirit jikeitr` mhpht m`hrt`ahf siohjh` luechb mhr` f suau pirtheh phmh siouhb ohr`shf
jikeitr`. hpho`ch suau ai-f mhr` suhtu ohr`shf jikeitr` m`jheohrahf mifjhf rueus< hf 5
h8rf-8, ehah mirit jikeitr`fyh mhpht m`lhohrahf eiflhm`<
Tf 5 h8 + h8r + h8r? + h8r4 + ... + h8rf-8
Hpho`ch a`th eifjhc`ahf mirit jikeitr` m` hths mifjhf -r , chcu a`th luechbahf bhs`cfyh

mifjhf mirit hsc`fyh, ehah a`th hahf eiepirkcib<

Titich
Titichb
b m`p
m`pirk
irkcib
cib Tf - rTf 5 h8 - h8rf eha
hahh a`t
`thh mhp
hpht
ht ei
eif
fji
jith
thbu
bu`` f`c
`ch`
h` mhr`
hr`
suau f  pirtheh mifjhf dhrh oir`aut `f`<

Oirmhshrahf aiphmh bhs`c pirb`tufjhf m` hths, ehah mhpht m`s`epucahf ohbwh rueus
 luechf f suau pirtheh phmh siouhb ohr`shf jikeitr` hmhchb<

^irbht`ahf dhrh eifjjufhahf rueus tirsiout phmh dkftkb skhc m` ohwhb `f`<
Dkftkb Tkhc Mirit Jikeitr`
Dkftkb Tkhc ?
]iftuahfchb luechb 2 suau pirtheh mhr` ohr`shf jikeitr` ?, 2, 4?, ...

^ieohbhshf<
h5?
r5=
f52
Tf 5 h (8-r f) / (8-r)
Tf 5 ? (8-=2) / (8-=)
Tf 5 ? (8-79947)/ (-4)
Tf 5 ? (-79949)/ (-4)
Tf 5 ? x ?82=9

Tf 5 =470> OHO @@@

 

^IFY]Y^

H. Ais`epuchf
Ghatkr tirpift`fj mhche hmhchb eiehbhe` akfsip mhf mig`f`s` ehtir` `tu sifm`r` mhf lujh
 ohj`hffyh.

O. Thrhf
Yftu
Yftua
a ei
eif`
f`fj
fjah
ahta
tahf
hf pris
prisths
ths`` oi
oich
chlh
lhrr s`swh
s`swh pi
pirc
rcu
u m`
m`ai
aieo
eohf
hfja
jahf
hf pi
pifm
fmia
iaht
hthf
hf
 pieoichlhrhf yhfj mhpht eifjhat`gahf s`swh, eifjakfm`s`ahf s`swh sib`fjjh mhpht
eifjakfstruas` sifm`r` pifjithbuhffyh mhf eifjjufhahf ekmicekmic yhfj m`aieohfjahf
sifm`r`
sifm`r` kcib s`swh.Fheu
s`swh.Fheuf
f mie`a
mie`a`hf
`hf mhche `epcieifths`fy
`epcieifths`fyhh m` siakch
siakchb
b t`mha
t`mhachb
chb eumhb,
eumhb,
sib`fjjh pircu airlh airhs phrh juru mhf s`swh. Aioirbhs`chf `epcieifths` tirjhftufj phmh
aiehepuhf juru uftua eieouht suhtu `ac`e m`ehfh s`swh ehu eifdkoh oirp`a`r mifjhf
dhrh ohru mhf eifjakeuf`ahs`ahffyh mifjhf krhfj ch`f.

MHG]H_ ^YT]HAH
 

_hbeht, it hc. (?>>7). Oichlhr Ehtieht`ah mifjhf Kr`ifths` ^ifieuhf mhf ^ieidhbhf
Ehshchb. Ohfmufj< Thrhfh ^hfdhahryh.
_usiggifm`. (800?). ^ifm`m`ahf Ehtieht`ah 4. Lhahrth< Mipm`aoum
T`fhjh, E. it hc. (?>>7). ]irhep`c Oirb`tufj Ehtieht`ah uftua TM Aichs @W. Lhahrth<

Irchfjjh