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中国文化专论 - 文曲经典数字图书馆
中国文化专论 - 文曲经典数字图书馆
中国文化专论
董俊峰 著
图书在版编目 (CIP)数据
Ⅰ .① 中 … Ⅱ .① 董 … Ⅲ .① 英语 — 语言读物 ② 文
化 — 中国 Ⅳ .① H319 .4 :G
中国文化专论
董俊峰 著
责任编辑 杜玲玲
封面设计 雷建军
出版发行 浙江大学出版社
(杭州市天目山路 148 号 邮政编码 310007)
(网址 :http ://w w w .zjupress .com )
排 版 杭州大漠照排印刷有限公司
印 刷 杭州日报报业集团盛元印务有限公司
开 本 710mm × 1000mm 1 /16
印 张 15 .25
字 数 258 千字
版 印 次 2011 年 4 月第 1 版 2011 年 4 月第 1 次印刷
书 号 ISBN 978‐7‐308‐08483‐3
定 价 30 .00 元
Foreword …………………………………………………………………… 1
Chapter Ⅰ Two Economies and China摧s Agricultural Civilization
………………………………………………………………… 1
Chapter Ⅱ The Rite and Music System and China摧s Ethical Culture
……………………………………………………………… 16
Chapter Ⅲ Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness and Chinese Concept of
Harmony …………………………………………………… 34
Chapter Ⅳ The Mutual Complement of Confucianism‐Taoism and the
Psychological World of Chinese Scholar‐officials ………… 51
Chapter Ⅴ Nationality Integration and Chinese Concept of
Great National Unity …………………………………… 69
Chapter Ⅵ Ancient Chinese Education and the Historical Evolution
of Educational Ideas ……………………………………… 85
Chapter Ⅶ The Imperial Examinations and Ancient China摧s Official
Selecting System ………………………………………… 118
Chapter Ⅷ Tributary System and Ancient China摧s External Relations
……………………………………………………………… 129
References ………………………………………………………………… 226
目 录
前 言 ……………………………………………………………………… 1
后记 ……………………………………………………………………… 229
故中国之教 ,得孔子而后立 。 中国之政 ,得
秦皇而后行 。 中国之境 ,得汉武而后定 。 三者皆
中国之所以为中国也 。
夏曾佑
・ 1 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 2 ・
Chinese Culture
・ 3 ・
前 言
・ 1 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 2 ・
Chapter One
Two Economies and China摧s
Agricultural Civilization
两种经济与中国的农业文明
China has always been a country with agriculture as the mainstay of its
economy .Every dynasty attached so much importance to agriculture that
they went so far as to neglect and even despise trade and businessmen .The
overwhelming majority of its people have been peasants , involved in
agricultural productions directly and indirectly , and with the lifestyle and
habits of peasants acquired in agricultural productions .The Han Chinese had
long cultivated a mentality characteristic of peasants : they enjoyed the
settled life of ease in small villages ,were satisfied easily ,and never learned
to be ambitious and militant ;they had simple mind and pure heart ,forever
yearning for pastoral life .
・ 1 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
oceans ,where it was suitable for agriculture ,and to the north‐west of the line
was the semi‐arid area ,where the predominant economy was nomadic ,with
sporadic agricultural belts in the oases moisted by the groundwater and
continental rivers .In ancient times ,the agriculture from the Central Plains
(中原) could spread northward as far as the Great Wall , beyond which it
was the nomadic grassland . The 400 mm precipitation line , therefore ,
became the dividing‐line between the agricultural and the nomadic people .
Militarily speaking ,the Great Wall ,built and rebuilt by every dynasty ,did
p rovide protections to a certain degree for the agricultural people ,their life
and productions ,but they acquired a deep‐rooted habit to overdepend on the
Great Wall , and with this , the agricultural people developed a passive
mentality towards life in general . From the perspectives of economy and
culture ,the Great Wall was more an economic dividing‐line than a military
defensive works . The agricultural people generally could live all by
themselves ,without the aid from the outside except for some extreme floods
or drought ,but the nomadic people were constantly on the move ,in search
of water and grass , with more challenges and uncertainties in life so they
depended more on nature than the agricultural people did .In this vast east
Asian landmass ,both agricultural and nomadic people coexisted ,with their
respective national characters ,p roduced by their different ways of life .The
nomadic people ,constantly on the horsebacks ,roamed for water and grass
in a broad sphere ,and this unsettled life made them physically robuste and
strongly built , and what is more , the challenges and uncertainties in life
cultivated their militant spirit and courage . The agricultural people ,
however , lived a settled life of ease , with a lot of family utensils and
furnitures difficult to carry on the shoulders , seldom went beyond their
immediate vicinity and adopted a narrow and limited outlook towards life ,
sentimentally attached to their land and nervous of the outside world
unknown to them . The main theme running through Chinese history had
been the conflicts of these two ways of life ,two economies ,and two people ,
with the agricultural people passively defending themselves and the nomadic
p eople either invading in large hordes or harassing in small numbers .So the
・ 2 ・
Chapter One
① Lin Yutang ,“M y Land and M y People” ,Hualing Press ,1995 ,p246
・ 3 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 4 ・
Chapter One
in the north about 5 ,000 years ago and became the main food of the people
in the south .Besides these grain crops ,our ancestors also had vegetables ,
melons and fruits ,such as bottle gourd (葫芦 ) , muskmelon (甜瓜 ) , lotus
seed (莲子) and so on ,which were wild with no human cultivation .In their
gathering of fruits , tea plants were identified , differentiated from other
p lants for drinking to refresh people , gradually used by more and more
p eople ,and even exported to foreign countries .
The domestic and foreign exchanges ,usually bidirectional or even multi‐
directional ,had greatly enriched people摧s food supplies ,increased not only
in quantity , but also in variety of food . From the early time in history ,
Chinese rice had already spread to the Korean Peninsula and Japanese
Archipelagoes ,and ,at the same time ,many crops ,some very significant ,
had been introduced to the Central Plains and the south of China from
Western Regions (西域) of China ,central ,south ,and west Asia ,and even
from then newly discovered Americas .
Alfalfa (苜蓿 ) , introduced from Iran by Zhang Qian in the Western
Han Dynasty , had been the important fodder for raising best horses , and
this was of strategic importance as the successful introduction and cultivation
of alfalfa had promoted the animal husbandry (畜 牧 业 ) , and with it ,
agriculture had tremendously been pushed forward . Walnut ( 胡 桃 ) ,
p omegranate(石 榴 ) , flax (胡 麻 ) , cucumber (黄 瓜 ) , rocambole (胡 蒜 ) ,
p epper(胡椒) and so on were also introduced from Iran ,which became the
important sources of fruits , dried fruits , vegetables , seasoning and oil‐
bearing crops .Grapes ,introduced from the Western Region to the Central
Plains ,had been one of the major fruits of the people there .Ever since the
Western Han Dynasty ,crops ,fruits ,and vegetables had been introduced to
China by each dynasty ,such as lettuce (莴苣 ) and spinach (菠菜 )in the Sui
and Tang dynasties , Zhancheng rice (占城稻 ) from Vietnam in the Song
Dynasty ,carrot in the Yuan Dynasty ,and in the Ming and Qing dynasties ;
and also from Americas ,were introduced such drought‐enduring (耐旱) and
barren‐tolerant(耐 瘠 ) grain crops as sweet potato (番 薯 ) , corn (玉 米 ) ,
p otato (马铃薯 ) , p eanut (花生 ) ,and such vegetables as pumpkin (南瓜 ) ,
・ 5 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
chilli (辣椒) ,tomato(番茄) ,kidney bean (菜豆) ,onion (洋葱 ) ,and fruits ,
such as mango(芒果 ) , p ineapple (菠萝 ) , p apaya (番木瓜 ) ,sweetsop (番茄
枝) ,introductions and cultivations of which had met with the demands of
growing population .
With needs of food being satisfied , people began to think of the
question of clothing .With animal skins and tree leaves at the start , p eople
made their clothes ,and ,little by little ,learned to grow kudzu (葛) and jute
(黄麻) for making fibrous clothes .Our ancestors discovered the making of
cocoons by silkworms while gathering mulberry and then began to
domesticate and raise the silkworm ; they later mastered the silk reeling
technology ,wove silk cloth and made exquisite garments ,which proved to
be an innovation of epoch‐making significance in human history .
( Ⅱ ) Animal Farming
Our ancestors had already raised dogs ,pigs ,cattle ,sheep ,and chickens
about 8 ,000 years ago , but horse‐raising started comparatively late , the
domestication of these animals had ocurred even earlier . Dogs were
domesticated from the wild wolf ,and could help hunters in hunting animals
and also provided people with meat .Pigs ,domesticated from the wild hogs ,
offered people their main source of meat .Sheep ,also domesticated from the
wild sheep ,p rovided people with the main source of meat .Both cattle and
buffalo ,from different species of wild animals ,could provide people with
animal power and meat as well . Chickens , domesticated from the jungle
fowls ,were universally raised for satisfying people摧s needs for meat .Horse摧s
domestication ,p ossibly from Mongolian wild horses by Mongolians ,started
much later .These so‐called “Six Domesticated Animals” ,dog , pig ,sheep ,
cattle ,chicken and horse ,p rovided people with animal power for ploughing
and also served as meat source , which became an organic part of an
agricultural civilization .
( Ⅲ ) The Invention of Farm Tools
The invention of farm tools was an important step in the development of
agriculture .The materials from which tools were made underwent a process
・ 6 ・
Chapter One
of change in time ,from wood to bone ,stone and clam ,before the invention
of iron tools . Farm tools for primitive agriculture were divided into three
categories :
1 .Farm Tools for Soil Preparation
1) Ancient fork‐like farm tools (耒)
2) Ancient spade‐shaped farm tools (耜)
3) Spade (铲)
4) Hoe and pick (锄 、镬)
5) Plough (犁)
In comparision with other tools , plough represented a significant
breakthrough in the invention of farm tools , as it could be moved
continuously while the movement of other tools was intermittent or on and
off .In the history of primitive agriculture ,the invention of plough created
the technological conditions for tremendous increase in productivity .
2 .Farm Tools for Harvesting
1) Stone knife (石刀)
2) Pottery knife (陶刀)
3) Clam knife (蚌刀)
4) Stone sickle (石镰)
The invention of stone sickle was important for it improved the
efficiency of harvesting .
3 .Farm Tools for Processing
1) Millstones (石磨盘)
2) Mortar and Pestle (杵臼)
Mortar and Pestle was an important invention for improving the
efficiency of grain processing , especially the stone mortar and pestle ,
because it was durable ,clean ,and easy to move .
( Ⅳ ) The Building of Water Conservancy Works
Water has been one of the essential conditions guaranteeing the
agricultural production , but flood could wreak havoc on the lives and
p roperty of the people .As an agricultural society ,Chinese history has been
a history of struggle ,controlling the flood and eventually making the water
・ 7 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
serve the agriculture for thousands of years . In bringing the flood under
control ,our ancestors had built many water conservancy works of various
kinds , for comprehensive purposes of irrigation , and navigation as well ,
which performed the important roles not only in agricultural production but
also in the unification of the country . Every dynasty attached much
importance to the building and maintenance of water conservancy projects .
As early as the Xia Dynasty (2100 B .C .— 1600 B .C .) , our ancestors had
already known the primitive irrigation technology . In the Western Zhou
Dynasty (1100 B .C .— 771 B .C .) ,a primary system of irrigation and water
conservancy had been constructed , with the retaining , drawing , irrigating
and discharging functions all in one comprehensively .From the Spring and
Autumn and the Warring States Period (770 B .C .— 221 B .C .) to the Qin
Dynasty (221 B .C .— 206 B .C .) , monumental water conservancy projects
such as the Dujiang Weirs ,the Ling Canal and the Zhengbai Canal had been
built ,g reatly enhancing the development of agricultural production in the
Central Plains ,the south of China ,and the west of Sichuan .In the Western
Han Dynasty , most of the water conservancy projects were built in the
north ,but to the south of the Yangtze River ,some water projects had also
been under construction .Through the Wei and the Jin dynasties ,to the Tang
Dynasty ,water conservancy projects had been built all over the country and
the Song Dynasty made even greater efforts to build water projects . In
building large water conservancy works ,the last three dynasties could not be
compared with the previous dynasties , but they built more smaller water
p rojects , evenly scattered all over the country , like the stars in the sky ,
p romoting the agriculture in all regions throughout the nation .
Two important representative water conservancy works are briefly
introduced as follows :
1 .The Dujiang Weirs (都江堰)
The Dujiang Weirs ,the admiration of modern irrigation engineers ,is an
irrigation infra‐structure designed and built in 256 B .C . by the prefect of
Sichuan ,Li Bing and his son , from the Kingdom of the Qin during the
Warring States Period of China . It is located in the Min River (岷 江 ) in
・ 8 ・
Chapter One
・ 9 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 10 ・
Chapter One
the Yellow River (黄河 ) , and the Hai River (海河 ) . Its southern section ,
running between Hangzhou and the Yangtze River ,was named the Jiangnan
River ,meaning the river ‘South of the Yangtze摧 .The Grand Canal as we see
it today was in large part a creation of the Sui Dynasty (581 — 618) ,a result
of the shifting of China摧s economic and agricultural central region away from
the Yellow River valley and toward what are now Jiangsu and Zhejiang
p rovinces .Minor additions to the canal were made after the Sui Dynasty to
cut down on travel time , but on the whole no fundamental differences
existed between the Sui Grand Canal and the Tang Grand Canal .The water‐
level‐adjusting gate , a double‐gate system known as the pound lock , was
invented in the 10th century in response to the necessity of greater safety for
the travel of barge ships along rougher waters of the Grand Canal . This
allowed ships to wait within a gated space while the water could be drained
to appropriate levels and then continue to move either upward or downward
the river ;and the roofed hangars over the space to add further protection
for the ships . During the Yuan Dynasty (1271 — 1368 ) , the capital was
moved to Beijing , eliminating the need for the canal arm flowing west to
Kaifeng or Luoyang . A summit section was dug across the foothills of the
Shandong massif during the 1280s ,shortening the overall length by as much
as 700 km (making the total length about 1 ,800 km) and linking Hangzhou
and Beijing with a direct north‐south waterway for the first time in history .
・ 11 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
agriculture ,and at the same time , p eople learned to control the flood by
building water conservancy works .
3 .The Stage of intensive cultivation :In the Spring and Autumn and the
Warring States period (770 — 221 B .C .) ,this was not only an important age
of social upheavals , where there were numerous schools of thought
contending ,but also a time of technological advancement ,symbolized by the
maturity of iron‐smelting technology and its wide application .With both the
use of animal power and farm tools made of iron , agriculture was pushed
forward with a newly injected vitality .
4 .The forming stage of intensive cultivation technology in dryland of
Northern China : from the Qin and the Han dynasties ,to the Wei ,the Jin
and the Southern and the Northern dynasties (2 21 B .C .— 589 A .D .) ,
agricultural technology in dry‐land of the north became mature , with the
invention of such coordinated farming technology as ploughing (耕) ,raking
(耙) and leveling (耱) land in turns ;and many more complicated farm tools
were invented one after another and used in agricultural production for
increasing the grain output .
5 .The forming stage of intensive cultivation of paddy field in Southern
China :During the Sui , the Tang , the Song and the Yuan dynasties (581 —
1368 A .D .) , with the economic focus of China shifted to the south , the
coordinated technology was also invented ,the use of which was popularized ;
and the growing of cotton was extended all over the country .
6 .The higher stage of intensive cultivation technology :From the Ming
Dynasty to the middle period of the Qing Dynasty (1368 — 1840 A .D .) ,with
the over‐p opulation ,the arable land became scarce ,which made it necessary
to develop further the technology of intensive cultivation to solve the
p roblems resulted from the increasing population and the shortage of land .
During this period ,some new crops were introduced to China from the New
World ,which exerted strong impact on China摧s crop structure .As a result ,
diversified economy (多 种 经 营 ) and multiple cropping (多 熟 种 植 ) have
become the main stream of Chinese agricultural production ever since .
・ 12 ・
Chapter One
・ 13 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
China was one of a few world摧s birth‐p laces of agriculture ,and also one
of the important places of the origin for human civilizations . When many
other civilizations began to germinate ,Chinese agricultural civilization had
already become mature ,like the sun at high noon shining all over the world .
In history , Chinese population had been comparatively large , with the
settled and stable life ensured by comparatively stable agricultural yields .
In ancient times , two Chinese economies , agricultural and nomadic ,
were indivisible like Siamese twins , full of ambivalent feelings of love and
hate , and destined to integrate through blood and fire . All through our
history ,most of the dynasties had been harassed and tortured by the border
skirmishes as well as all‐out wars . Most of those Han emperors and their
generals had usually adopted passive defensive strategy , even humiliatingly
p acified kings of nomadic people by marrying daughters of the Han royal
families to them (和亲 ) ,but peace usually proved transient as this kind of
p eace had solved no problems for which the wars were launched .The Han
Chinese emperors and their courtiers had seldom made a thorough study of
・ 14 ・
Chapter One
those horse‐riding people and their lifestyle ,but only reprimanded them for
conducting themselves immorally and avariciously , even cursed out those
treacherous and faithless “ barbarians” and “ uncivilized men ” in order to
make the Han Chinese emperors and their people psychologically comforted
and balanced . Most of the Han Chinese rulers thus had long been bogged
down in this passive abyss of mentality and could never have worked out any
effective solutions to all these troubles once for all .For thousands of years ,
on the vast east Asian landmass ,a wretched and miserable drama of nomadic
p eople forever chasing agricultural people had been staged continuously .
The Han Chinese had known very little about the real state of existence and
grassland of the nomadic people ,seldom connected their militancy and aggression
with their ways of nomadism ,even nobly and proudly claimed that they had never
coveted their grassland and wealth .The agricultural people摧s mentality had thus
been formed ,reinforced and finally consolidated as a result of their settled ways of
comparatively stable and easy life . Thanks to two major minority regimes , the
Yuan and Qing dynasties ,and many other lesser dynasties of minority which had
had their reigns well established in the Central Plains over the whole country ,the
Han Chinese mentality and their horizons , previously agricultural in nature ,had
been revitalized and broadened , with the repeated “ injections ” of nomadic
elements in the process of integrations of the agricultural people with the nomads
from the grassland .
The ancestors of the Chinese nations ,with unprecedented wisdom and
courage ,had ushered in a new epoch of glorious agricultural civilization in
the remote past of human history , but the mentality resulting from their
early successes in agricultural productions had become deep‐rooted habits and
historical burdens ,negatively affecting the evolution of Chinese society and
their descendants in their future choices and progresses .Of course ,this is no
fault of our ancestors ,to whom we ,as successors of their great civilization ,
owe so much and are extremely grateful .It is rather for us ,the descendants ,
to be committed to the great task of smashing the “ long‐standing mental
shackles” and innovating on our future work ,if we want to prove ourselves
worthy of their splendid achievements .
・ 15 ・
Chapter Two
The Rite and Music System
and China摧s Ethical Culture
礼乐制度与中国的伦理文化
① 杜佑编枟通典 ・ 礼志枠 。
・ 16 ・
Chapter T w o
with politics ,so it could be said that “ The tones of a well‐m anaged age are at
rest and happy : its government is balanced . The tones of an age of turmoil
are bitter and f ull of anger : its government is perverse . The tones of a ruined
state are f illed with lament and brooding : its peop le are in diff iculty . The
way of sounds and tones comm unicates with governance .” ① (“是故治世之音安
以乐 ,其政和 ;乱世之音怨以怒 ,其政乖 ;亡国之音哀以思 ,其民困 。 声音之道与
政通矣 。” 枟礼记 ・ 乐记枠) The music and rites could harbinger the rise and fall
of dynasties ,the order and turmoil of society and the safety and danger of
p eople with their implied meanings revealed ,of which the rulers should not
be fully unaware .Ancient Chinese sages and philosophers had attached such
an importance to the rites and music from such a high plane that they
designed corresponding system of the rite and music for the long‐term
stability of the country , and this way assisting the imperial court with
p olitical education and state administration .
The use of rites and music dates back to the primitive worship of our
ancestors in the remote past .“ Only two things are of p rime im portance f or a
country : sacri f ice‐off ering ceremony and military aff airs .” (枟左 传枠) These
two things were considered equally important to our ancestors in their life .
In ancient Chinese language , all characters with meanings of ancestor‐
worshipping and god‐worshipping had shared the same left side of the
characters as “rites” (禮 ) ,such as “ god” (神 ) ,“ god of land” (社 ) . The
right side of the character “rites” had an upper part meaning a utensil with
two strings of jade in it and a lower part meaning the stool on which the
utensil was placed for sacrifice‐offering ceremony .So the character “ rites”
indicated the ceremony of ancestor‐worshipping or god‐worshipping ,
whereas the jade inside the utensil was the oblation (祭品 ) for ancestors or
・ 17 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 18 ・
Chapter T w o
・ 19 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
his writing ,as he says ,“ Through rites , Heaven and Earth are con joined , the
sun and moon shine brightly , the f our seasons observe their natural
p recedence , the stars and p lanets move in ranks , the rivers and streams f low ,
and m y riad things p rosper . Through them , love and hate are tem pered , and
j oy and anger m ade to f it the occasion . They are used to make inf eriors
obedient and to make su periors enlightened . Through a m y riad
transf ormations nothing becomes disorderly ; but i f one is divided in his
loy alty to them , he will be brought to ruin .Surely it is true that the rites are
indeed perf ection !” ① (“天地以合 ,日月以明 ,四时以序 ,星辰以行 ,江河以流 ,
万物以昌 ,好恶以节 ,喜怒以当 。 以为下则顺 ,以为上则明 。 万物变而不乱 ,贰
之则丧也 。 礼岂不至矣哉 !”枟荀子 ・ 礼论枠) .To Xun Zi ,rites were not only
the social and political rules ,but also that of the universe and nature ,as if
the observation of rites could have enabled the sun , the moon and stars to
move easily ,and the rivers and oceans to flow smoothly .
Ⅱ .The Contents and the Rise and Fall of the Rite and Music System
China is a country rich in the culture of rites and music ,and there had
p roduced three important literatures called “three rites” , namely , the first
literature , “ The Ritual ” was credited to the Duke of the Zhou , to the
disciples of Confucius or to an anonymous writer during the Qin and the Han
dynasties period with the authorship indefinitely established ,for scholars are
still divided regarding the authorship ;the ritual system recorded in the book
was all about the Zhou Dynasty ,but became the canon for later dynasties to
follow in creating their own systems . The second piece of literature ,“ The
Rites of the Zhou Dynasty ” recorded the rituals , p olitical systems and
customs minutely , with clear classifications . The third piece of literature ,
“The Book of Rites” ,completed in the Han Dynasty ,was even richer than
“The Rites of the Zhou Dynasty” in contents ,and became a classic in the
① Xun Zi (II ) , T r . John Knoblock , Hunan People摧s Publishing House & Foreign Languages
Press ,1999 ,Beijing and Changsha ,P611
・ 20 ・
Chapter T w o
・ 21 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 22 ・
Chapter T w o
・ 23 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
“ general decay of the rites and the music” ,which Confucius condemned with
bitter hatred from his Confucian position . During this period , the ancient
music system itself had evolved within the music , symbolized by the
formation of “five notes” system of the ancient pentatonic scale” (“五音”) ,
and the absolute high pitch of “twelve‐tone” (“十二律”) ,the ancient Chinese
standard of pitch .Confucius set his Confucian standards clearly ,advocating
the music system of the Western Zhou Dynasty , eulogized “ the imperial
ceremonial music” (雅乐 ) ,and condemned “ Xin Sheng” (新声 )as decadent
music .As he says ,“ For m usic one would take as model the Succession Dance ,
and would do away altogether with the tunes of Zheng ; one would also keep
clever talkers at a distance . For the tunes of Zheng are licentious and clever
talkers are dangerous .” ① To Confucius ,the music of the time of King Shun ,
the Great Shao ,had been the most refined music ,which could be labelled as
both “ good” and “ beautiful” , appealing to our moral sense and aesthetic
sense .However ,the music reflecting the just war King Wu launched against
the corrupted King Zhou , could be listed as “ mighty” , “ magnificent ” ,
belonging to the “holy music” ,but could not be regarded as “ good enough”
music morally ,which had revealed the psychological tendency of Confucius
as lack of martial spirit and also demonstrated his idea of education through
music as “ transforming the local customs ” (移 风 俗 ) and “ differentiating
human relations”(明人伦) .
Second Period :The Music System after Confucius
Since the Qin and Han dynasties , a special department for the
management of music was set up and only brought to perfection in the reign
of the fifth emperor of the Western Han Dynasty ,Emperor Wu ,symbolized
by the establishment and improvement of the system of official conservatory
for the collection of folk songs and ballads .The well consolidated Western
Han Dynasty inherited the tradition of the music system from the Western
Zhou Dynasty , learning about the opinions and feelings of people , and
・ 24 ・
Chapter T w o
morally cultivating people through music .With boldness of vision ,they took
in all the music from different regions or former kingdoms with no regional
or stylistic discriminations ,and thus reconciling the previous antagonism of
the refined and vulgar music and moving beyond previous antagonism .
The Wei , the Jin , the Southern and the Northern Dynasties ,
maintaining the traditional music system ,absorbed the religious music from
Buddhism and the music of minority people as well .In the Tang Dynasty ,
with an ever increasing tolerance and magnanimity ,there emerged a general
p attern of gradual integration of the music of the Han with that of other
minority people , with the line between the refined and the vulgar music
blurring .The Tang emperor ,Emperor Xuanzong especially indulged in the
minority music intoxicatedly . During the Northern Song Dynasty , there
sprang up a group of musically talented officials ,such as Sima Guang ,Zhou
Dunyi and Zhu Xi ,but the court music was not prosperous as the emperors
did not pay enough attention to the court music .Whenever there were some
court ceremonies and celebrations ,folk artists had to be invited to attend the
occasions for the accompaniment , as the court music was irrevocably
declining .
3 .The Rise and Fall of the System of the Rites and the Music
From the remotest dynasties recorded to the last dynasty , the Qing
Dynasty ,Chinese history had been filled with cyclical dynastic changes ,a
repeated theme of national dramas being staged in the Central Plains of
China .Every dynastic change inevitably wreaked havoc on social economy
and the system of rite and music ,with the people plunged into the abyss of
unbearable sufferings and dire poverty , and of course , also provided
opportunities for the recreation of new systems .After the establishment of
each dynasty ,scholars and experts proficient in the system of the rites and
music were summoned for formulating the new systems .When King Wu ,the
first king ,overthrew the corrupted Shang Dynasty and set up the Western
Zhou Dynasty ,his brother ,the famous Duke of the Zhou was engaged in the
making of the system of the rites and music and opened an entirely new
epoch of the rites and music system .As time passed ,the kings of the Eastern
・ 25 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
Zhou Dynasty no longer enjoyed the reverence from their vassals , with
vassal states warring with each other and the system of the rites and music
degenerating .Into such an age of turmoil ,Confucius was born ,destined for
the historic mission of the restoration of the system of the rites and music of
the Western Zhou Dynasty ,nearly impossible as it was .Confucius ,actually ,
shouldered the responsibility to moralize ,ethicize and even popularize the
system of the rites and music among the common people . After the brief
reign of the Qin Dynasty , a prolonged war broke out between two
conflicting military blocs fighting for the possession of the whole country .It
resulted in the establishment of the Western Han Dynasty .In the beginning ,
a policy of non‐interference and laissez‐faire was adopted ,with the classical
Taoist thinking as the national guiding ideology , for more than half a
century . This was before the fifth emperor , Emperor Wu changed the
national strategy by adopting the new national guiding concept , “ Making
Confucianism supreme as national ideology while banning other schools of
thought” (“ 罢 黜 百 家 ,独 尊 儒 术 ”) , p roposed by a prominent Confucian
scholar Dong Zhongshu . Dong Zhongshu dedicated his life to the
classicization (经学化) of rites and music by elevating them to the level of
“ three cardinal guides and five constant virtues” (“ 三 纲 五 常 ” ) , making
them an essential part of the ancient Chinese political system . Since the
Wei , the Jin , the Southern and the Northern dynasties , as a result of the
introduction of Buddhism into China and the rise of Taoism , the system of
the rites and music was confronted with many challenges . In the Southern
Song Dynasty , the great Confucian master Z hu Xi embarked on a mission
of improving Confucianism and making it Neo‐Confucianism by elevating it
to the holy position of worshipping and incorporating the rites into the
ancient Chinese political system . To sum up , the dynastic change was
always in a dynamic process , in which political turmoil constantly
p arallelled with the collapse of the rites and music followed by great masters
engaged in the recreation of the system of the rites and music and the
elevation of the system to an unprecedented historical plane .The system of
rites and music survived repeated destructions , was reborn just as the
・ 26 ・
Chapter T w o
p hoenix coming back to life from its ashes , and becoming even more
vigorous and ever refined .
・ 27 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
reg ulated by rites , are able to rise above animals .” ① (“鹦鹉能言 ,不离飞鸟 ;
猩猩能言 ,不离禽兽 。今人而无礼 ,虽能言 ,不亦禽兽之心乎 ? 是故圣人作 ,为礼
以教人 ,使人以有礼 ,知自别于禽兽 。” 枟礼记 ・ 曲礼枠) .So the importance of
rites could be measured from such a high plane .Second ,“ rites” were the
important binding rules for regulating the social relations and maintaining
the social order so that everyone knew how to decline out of modesty , give
p recedence out of courtesy , and respect elders and others , making
individuals gentlemanlike and society well‐ordered .Third ,“rites” were even
more social and moral norms for the moral amelioration ,self‐discipline ,and
self‐consciousness of individuals so that they could differentiate the good
from the evil , and what should be done from what should not . Confucius
says ,“ Govern the peop le by the regulations ,keep order among them by
chastisements , and they will f lee f rom y ou , and lose all sel f‐respect . Govern
them by moral f orce , keep order among them by ritual and they will keep their
self‐respect and come to y ou of their own accord .” ② (“道之以政 ,齐之以刑 ,
民免而无耻 ;道之以 德 ,齐 之 以 礼 ,有 耻 且 格 。” 枟 论语 ・ 为 政枠) It was only
through the internalization ,implementation and observation of the “ rites”
that the civilized society was able to make every individual know the “rites” ,
observe the “rites” and be contented with their own social positions to fulfil
objective of harmony , but Confucianists also strongly adhered to their
p rinciples .“ In the usages of ritual it is harmony that is p rized ; the W ay of
the Former Kings f rom this got its beauty . Both small m atters and great
matters depend u pon it . I f things go amiss , he who k nows the harmony will
be able to attune them . But i f harmony itsel f is not modulated by ritual ,
things will still go amiss .” ③ (“有子曰 :礼之用 ,和为贵 。 先王之道 ,斯为美 。
小大由之 ,有所不行 ,知和而和不以礼节之 ,亦不可行矣 。” 枟论语 ・ 学而枠)It
was unadvisable to achieve harmony only for the sake of harmony ,and even
trade in principles .Then what were their principles ? Observing “ rites” was
the principle they followed . Confucianists profoundly understood the
・ 28 ・
Chapter T w o
・ 29 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 30 ・
Chapter T w o
・ 31 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
China has been well reputed in the world as “ Land of Ceremony and
Propriety” ,which has been an essential part of the Chinese political system .
Ancient Chinese sages had already created the system of the rites and music
in the Xia , the Shang and the Zhou dynasties , p ossibly even earlier than
those three dynasties , and attempted to administer the country with the
system of the rites and music admirably .As it was self‐evident that the rites
were extremely important for any society , the Chinese ancestors combined
the music with the rites in administrating the country ,demonstrating their
wisdom and highly administrative power .
Traditional Chinese society was a rigidly stratified one , where it was
taken for granted that “‘ Punishment according to the law’ does not app ly to
the nobilit y , while eti quette is not meant f or the commoners .” (“刑不上大
夫 ,礼不下庶人”) The social status of every individual had been prescribed
before one摧s birth , and the rites had been an unparalleled force in
identifying the social status of the people ,making them contented with their
own fates , quenching their inordinate desires , consolidating the political
p ower and stabilizing the society . Those complicated rites had positively
enabled the people to be gentlemanlike , because “ rites gave the p roper
measure to the peop le摧s minds .” (The Book of Rites) The music ,however ,
p layed a good supporting role ,as “ m usic made harmony in human sound .”
(The Book of Rites) ,in bathing the people in the refined melodious music ,
・ 32 ・
Chapter T w o
・ 33 ・
Chapter Three
Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness
and Chinese Concept of Harmony
“天人合一”与中国人的和谐理念
・ 34 ・
Chapter T hree
and no more wars imposed upon one another in the world . Of course , the
p ursuit of harmony is an extremely important aspect of Chinese culture ,
rather than the whole picture of the Chinese culture . Whenever the whole
Chinese nations are threatened with the national subjugation and genocide ,
and pushed beyond the limit of their endurance , they have the national
strength of character to fight to the last drop of their blood .But the pursuit
of harmony in all relationships has been the mainstream running through
Chinese culture since the ancient times .
・ 35 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 36 ・
Chapter T hree
・ 37 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
Autumn Period , that is , heaven , humanized god , reigns over the myriad
things in the universe ;“the will of Heaven ” ,or “mandate of Heaven” (天
命) controls man摧s life and death , and social order and disorder , and
traditional view of supernatural beings ,but he also holds that “ I f one respects
the sp irits and the dead and the gods while keep ing them at a distance , then
he can be called wise .” ① (敬鬼神而远之 ,可谓知矣 。 枟论语枠) , that is , man
should cherish his sincerity and piety for supernatural beings at the sacrifice‐
offering ceremony ,and should not explore the question of their existence ,
because Confucius cared more for human affairs ,emphasized more on man摧s
subjective initiative ,and put top priority on the real problems of human life .
Of course , Confucius摧 view of the mandate of Heaven (天 命 观 ) was
eventually restricted at the level of perceptual knowledge , and never
elevated to the abstract and absolute spiritual level ,or rational knowledge ,
higher into the religious sphere .During his lifetime ,Confucius had explored
the questions of human life within the ethical and political fields ,seldom
from the metaphysical perspective which had been determined by his values
and humanistic care , for his Confucianism was the thought of this‐
worldliness ( 入 世 ) , advocating the spirit of being enterprising and
shouldering the social responsibilities .
Geographical Reason :China is largely in the temperate zone ,with mild
and humid climate , and fertile soil suitable for farming , which enabled
China to develop highly advanced agricultural civilization early in history .
While Chinese ancestors enjoyed all kinds of blessings bestowed by nature ,
leading the life of ease and stability ,they ,of course ,suffered many untold
calamities and disasters as well .They ,therefore ,had an ambivalent feelings
of love and hate towards “ Heaven” , the representative of nature , as they
were ,most of the time , g rateful and even reverent to Heaven , and they ,
sometimes ,complained a lot .But they have always lived in the bosom of
nature ,feeling intimate and even sentimentally attached ,which might help
explain the origination of the idea of “ Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness ”
・ 38 ・
Chapter T hree
geographically .
Patriarchal Reason : From the patriarchal clan system to the state with
patriarchal system ,ancient China ,probably in the Xia Dynasty ,had had the idea
of “Family‐and‐State Oneness” (家国一体) ,which was possibly inspired by the
idea of “Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness” .Since the relationship between man and
heaven is an integral whole ,the relationship between families and state should also
be an organic whole .With the passage of time ,the relationship between families
and state ,through the detailed and systematic designing ,had been strengthened
and implemented , with the cohesive role performed by patriarchal system in
enhancing the idea of “Family‐and‐State Oneness” .
Ethical Reason :From the phallicism and its eulogy ,our ancestors had
gradually evolved their unique ethical thought ,“ Heaven and earth existing ,
all things then got their existence . All things having existence , af terwards
there came male and f em ale . From the existence of m ale and f emale there
came af terwards husband and wif e . From husband and wif e there came f ather
and son . From f ather and son there came ruler and minister . From ruler and
minister there came high and low . W hen high and low had existence ,
af terwards came the arrangements of p ro p riety and righteousness .” ① (“有天
地然后有万物 ,有万物然后有男女 ,有男女然后有夫妇 ,有夫妇然后有父子 ,有
父子然后有君臣 ,有君臣然后有上下 ,有上下然后礼仪有所措 。” 枟周易枠) The
p hilosopher from the Song Dynasty , Zhang Zai , believes that Heaven is
father and Earth is mother ; the Emperor is the eldest son of Heaven and
Earth ,and courtiers are his housekeepers . All people are my compatriots
and all living creatures are my friends . Chinese , thus , have been closely
related with myriad things in the universe in blood , and formed their
distinctive idea of “Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness” .
Of course , certain kind of philosophical thought may have been
p roduced with a variety of factors , under certain special historical
circumstance ,in certain region of the world ,but the individual man ,or the
special nation that had created this thought had surely played an essential
・ 39 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
p art in the process .With innate intimacy with nature ,Chinese ancestors had
been harmoniously related with nature ,which assumed an important feature
of Chinese culture .
・ 40 ・
Chapter T hree
Heaven who does it .When a thing happens without a cause ,then it is Fate
that makes it happen .” ① (“莫之为而为者 ,天也 ;莫之致而致者 ,命也 。” 枟孟
子 ・ 万 章 上枠) He believes that man can understand heaven through the
cultivation of his character .Dong Zhongshu was the first Confucian scholar
who had clearly expressed the idea of “ Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness ” .
Actually , other schools of thought , besides Confucianists , had had their
brilliant interpretations of “ Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness” . Lao Zi says ,
“ Man takes Earth as his model ; Earth takes Heaven as its model ; Heaven
takes Tao as its model ; Tao takes what is natural as its model .” ② (“人法地 ,
地法天 ,天法道 ,道法自然 。” 枟老子枠) And Zhuang Zi also expresses his view
in this way ,“ The heaven and the earth and I came into existence at the same
time ; all things in the world and I are one unif ormity .” Therefore , both
Confucianism and Taoism have quite similar ideas concerning “ Heaven‐and‐
Human Oneness” ,that is ,the idea of harmony between man and heaven .It
may be said that idea of harmony between man and heaven had a
fundamental theme in ancient Chinese philosophy , which diffused into
Chinese life penetratingly .Then how did Chinese demonstrate their idea of
“Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness” or “Heaven‐and‐Man Harmony” in their real
life ?
The idea of “Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness” ,as the highest ideal and the
fundamental spirit , had been the life principle of scholar‐officials in their
thinking , behaviours and personality , and even affected the ordinary
p eople . They had been permeated with the idea of “ Heaven‐and‐Human
Oneness” in their designing of living quarters ,choice of human life ,way of
life ,religious beliefs ,literary and artistic interests .First ,in the building of
their mansions , scholar‐officials attempted to imitate nature , make them
resemble natural hills and rivers ,even little woods ,and in designing royal
gardens ,emperors also preferred the “ naturalness of man‐made gardens” ,
which revealed the sense of “ Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness ” , where they
① M encius ,T r .Zhao Zhentao ,Zhang Wenting ,Zhou Dingzhi ,Hunan People摧s Publishing House
& Foreign Languages Press ,1999 ,Beijing & Changsha ,P213
② “老子道德经” ,辜正坤译 ,中国出版集团 & 中国对外翻译出版公司 ,北京 ,2007 年 ,第 71 页 。
・ 41 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
could live and tour at the same time ,sauntering along the streams among
little hills ,experiencing the beauty of forests without going out .Second ,in
religion ,they believed in Zen Buddhism ,a Sinicized religion ,which holds
that since man is in the universe ,universe is also in the hearts of people ;the
relationship between man and nature is not only mutually participating ,but
also an integral whole . Here Zen Buddhism is not so religious ,but man is
even closer to nature ,which is the kind of religion Chinese scholar‐officials
felt intimate with and at ease .Third ,in Chinese paintings ,p ainters pursued
the state of the loss of both the painters themselves and objects they intend
to paint ,or the merging of the subjective and the objective .Painters are not
drawing the specific mountains ,rivers ,grasses and trees ,but the personified
nature ,nature appeared in their eyes and crystalized in their hearts ; they
finally produced their artistically transformed nature , with their
understanding and feelings on the canvas , where the line between the
objective and the subjective became blurred . Fourth , in literary works ,
writers also intended to capture the ideal image of “ Heaven‐and‐Human
Oneness” or “ Heaven‐and‐Human Harmony” . Cheng Hao , a philosopher
and also a literary man ,wrote a poem entitled “Autumn Days” ,expressing
his philosophical understanding of “Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness” :
In these late years there is nothing that comes
That is not easy and sim p le ;
Each morning through m y window shines the sun ,
As I awake .
All creature run their course in true content ,
As I calmly observe .
The p leasure of each season through the y ear ,
I en joy with others .
Bey ond Heaven and Earth and all that has shape ,
The Tao is there .
The winds and clouds about me shi f t and change ,
My thought is there .
By riches and high estate , I am not to be polluted ;
・ 42 ・
Chapter T hree
・ 43 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
death ,and to pass his emoluments to his children (享禄) after his death .It
was institutionally established that the oldest son born of the wife enjoyed
the heirship , which guaranteed the harmonious relationships within the
family ,by avoiding the internal strife among brothers .
2 ) The political pattern of the Zhou emperor , being the center ,
surrounded and shielded by his kinsmen or other royal family members who
were granted noble titles of dukes :In the Western Zhou Dynasty ,the oldest
son born of the empress enjoyed the heirship to be the next emperor after the
death of his father ,and the rest of the emperor摧s sons would be conferred
the titles of dukes(诸侯) .In feudal estates ,the oldest son born of the wife
had legitimate right to be the heir inheriting the largest share of the duke摧s
manor ,and also the duke摧s title after his father摧s death ,while the rest of the
duke摧s sons would be conferred the titles of senior officials (卿大夫) .In the
fief ,the oldest son born of the wife had the legal right to inherit the title of
senior official and the largest portion of the property after the death of his
father ,and the rest of his sons would be granted the titles of junior officials
(士) .The titles of junior officials would be inherited by his oldest son born
of the wife , but the rest of his sons enjoyed no privilege and became
commoners . This ever‐title‐conferring state , in many ways , resembles an
extended family ,where the relationship between the Zhou emperor and all
his dukes should be harmonious .
Near the end of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty ,also known in history as the
Spring and Autumn and the Warring States period , there sprang up like
mushrooms many newly‐invented systems ,such as the system of prefectures
and counties (郡县制) ,the bureaucracy (官僚制) and the emoluments (俸禄
制) ,which constituted strong challenge to the patriarchal clan system .With
the replacement of the enfeoffment (分 封 制 ) by that of prefectures and
counties , the political power had been further separated from the clan
p ower . The hereditary system of noble family and patriarchal clan had
inevitably given way to the advantage of the royal family ,which had ushered
in the epoch of autocratic empire characteristic of “ structural similarity
between families and the state ” .Since the Warring States period ,Chinese
・ 44 ・
Chapter T hree
・ 45 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
enough money to offer sacrifices to ancestors ,educate clan摧s children and relieve
those poor clansmen , and making the whole clan cohesive and home‐like . All
those advantages mentioned above helped to stabilize and consolidate the local as
well as the national regimes in one way or another .
3 .Harmony between the Suzerain and Tributaries
The Chinese had created the splendid ancient civilization early in history ,far
more advanced than that of surrounding minority nationalities and neighbouring
people .As China was isolated from other great civilizations by lofty mountains ,
boundless deserts ,vast grassland and immense oceans ,it had grown lonely within
this eastern Asian landmass , where it had formed the unique external
relationships ,with China ,the suzerain as the center ,and neighboring minority
people and countries as tributaries .Within these distinctive ancient international
relations in east Asia ,those tributary countries and tribe people came from afar to
pay tribute to Chinese emperors with gifts showing their loyalty .Chinese emperors
would grant them an abundance of material rewards and confer titles of nobility on
their kings in return . The Chinese had actually transplanted the internal
relationship between the emperor and ministers to the external relationship with
both some of our minority people in the frontiers and neighbouring countries .
With their advanced civilization behind ,the Chinese had been in an advantageous
position ,and designed such a suzerain‐tributary relationship with “ harmony” ,
totally out of Chinese innate honesty ,kindness as well as vanity .Chinese emperors
and officials had adopted a variety of measures and policies to encourage and
motivate them to come and admire Chinese culture and at the same time enable
them to benefit from the exchange :
1) “ I f such a state of aff airs exists , yet the peop le of f ar‐off lands still do
not submit , then the ruler m ust attract them by enhancing the p restige of his
culture .” ① (夫如是 ,远人不服 ,则修文德以来之 。 枟论语枠) Efforts had been
made to improve their cultural and moral levels in their governance to attract
them and make them willing to go out of their ways to pay their tribute to
・ 46 ・
Chapter T hree
Chinese emperors in the Central Plains and learn from Chinese culture ,just
like foreign students studying in Changan and their envoys to Chinese capital
city .Among them ,Japanese were the most modest and sincere , and their
learning was the most effective as they had absorbed many of Chinese
systems in creating their own systems . This was what Confucius called
“winning over frontier people from four directions by refined culture and
morality”(文德折服四夷) .
2) The emperors and officials had adopted the generous policy of “fewer
tributary products for more royal rewards” (厚往薄来) ,to make them highly
motivated to come along actively ,and even cross the ocean to pay tribute .
This was the so‐called “conciliation” (怀柔) ,or “winning over” (羁縻 ) ,to
stimulate them with “interests” and make them feel that there was profit to
be reaped .Among the tributaries ,Korea took the initiative to ask for more
opportunities to pay tribute in order to show their “ piety” or “loyalty” to
Chinese emperors ,but actually they could not resist the lure of tremendous
p rofits .Of course ,too frequent tribute‐p aying burdened Chinese economy .
3) Special envoys had been dispatched to foreign countries to solicit
tribute‐p aying missions in order to create the halcyon days of domestic peace
and harmonious external relationships . In the Ming Dynasty , the third
emperor ,Zhu Di ,ordered the great navigator , Zheng He and his fleets to
make seven voyages to the Western Seas , neither for the purpose of
conquest ,nor for economic and trade purpose ,but only for soliciting some
foreign envoys and building more harmonious tributary relations .Some of
those countries , which Zheng He and his crews visited , had sent their
envoys ,even their princes and senior officials , to Beijing to demonstrate
their “loyalty” to the Chinese emperor , and were hospitably treated and
p resented with large amount of material rewards .
In history , Chinese emperors had implemented these measures and
p olicies in order to establish the tributary system with China as the suzerain ,
to build the harmonious relationship between the suzerain and tributaries to
ensure the domestic peace ,and international peace or at least frontier peace .
・ 47 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
In the history of the world ,the first question the ancestors of all nations
encountered was invariably the relationship between man and Heaven
representing nature , and people of different nations designed different
relationships and offered different solutions to the same problem accordingly
as they had different humanistic and historical backgrounds , inhabiting
different geographical regions with different climates and topography .The
Westerners believe in the subject‐and‐object dichotomy (主客二分) ,that is ,
man is the subject ,whereas nature is the object .From the start ,nature and
myriad things in the universe had been placed in the opposite position ,alien
to man ,and become the object of man摧s understanding and conquest . The
Chinese , however , believe in the idea of “ Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness” .
From the start , the nature and man had been put in the harmonious
relationship with “Object‐and‐Human Oneness” (物我一体 ) , and “ Object‐
and‐Human Harmonious Unity ” (和 谐 统 一 ) . The Western idea of the
subject‐and‐object dichotomy resulted in man摧s conquest of nature to such an
extent that it gave rise to a severe ecological crisis , especially after the
Industrial Revolution ,and they had to work out solutions to it .And they ,to
their enjoyment , discovered the idea of “ Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness” in
the ancient Oriental philosophy ,which could be the important resources of
modern ecological ethics .Of course , Westerners could choose to return to
their traditional Christian culture for wisdom and reaffirmation of their
reverence for God and His creatures , alongside the Oriental idea of
“Heaven‐and‐Human Oneness” , in joint efforts to provide solutions to the
common ecological crisis of mankind . The Chinese , however , should build
their new spiritual home ,and search for the metaphysical “Ultimate reality” (最
高实在) for the eternal comfort of their souls ,living poetically and elevating the
quality of their life ,in the process of ,first of all ,survival ,and then embarking
on a life of abundance , while continuing to maintain their harmonious and
intimate relationship with nature .
・ 48 ・
Chapter T hree
・ 49 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 50 ・
Chapter Four
The Mutual Complement of Confucianism‐
Taoism and the Psychological World
of Chinese Scholar‐officials
儒道互补与中国士人的心灵世界
・ 51 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
arch opponent of Confucianism ,in developing the world outlook ,life views and
culturally psychological structures of the Chinese people jointly . In the
psychological depth of the Chinese people ,especially the scholar‐officials ,these
two philosophical elements of different nature had been incorporated as two
interdependent and complementary unity , in which their life was embodied in
Mencius摧 terse and mighty expression as “In obscurity (in a position where they
can do nothing to change the situation ) ,scholar‐officials should maintain their
personal integrity , and in prominence ( in a position where they are able to
influence the decision‐making process) ,they should fulfill their lofty aspirations in
being of help to the people and the society .” (“穷则独善其身 ,达则兼济天下” 枟孟
子枠) .
Kong Zi ,with Qiu as his given name ,and also styled himself as Zhong
Ni ,but known to the west as Confucius (551 — 479 B .C .) ,was a native of the
state of Lu .When he was still a three‐year old child ,his father died at the
age of 67 ,with his mother only 18 years old and family financial situation
declining drastically . As he himself described his early life ,“ When I was
young I was in humble circumstances ; that is why I have many practical
accomplishments in regard to simple ,everyday matters .” ① Confucius had to
look after cows and sheep ,and served as a barn‐keeper for others .Humble
as he was ,he made up his mind to make an exhaustive study of ancient texts
at the age of 15 , and maintained this life‐long spirit of perseverance in
learning (学而不厌) .At the age of 30 ,he was quite an accomplished scholar
(三十而立 ) ready to find an official position where his political ambitions
and ideal might have been realized , and he set out from his native place
travelling from one state to another ,to be followed by his disciples ,only to
find ,to his great disappointment and even despair , that his political ideas
・ 52 ・
Chapter Four
were unpopular , with almost no one accepting his political views , but he
remained even more firm and adamant in frustration ,‘ p ersisting in heading
towards the goal the realization of which he knew clearly to be impossible摧
(“知其不可而为之”) .Since the time of his being well‐established ,he began
to recruit and teach students privately , an undertaking never attempted by
others before ,and treated as his individual way of political involvement and
intervention . Through his private education , he trained political talents
whom he encouraged and recommended to enter politics and many of his
disciples did go in for political careers with differing degrees of success ,
which had been made his life‐long mission that he carried on tirelessly and
even excitingly to the end of his life ,in the process of which he created his
school of Confucianism and taught his students with his essential
p hilosophical doctrines .
There were three important major stages in his educational career as below :
1 .The initiation of his private schools : From the age of 30 to 37 , he
was ambitious in establishing his own school , Confucianism , with his
outstanding intelligence and persistent diligence ,and his great learning and
wisdom derived from his consistent study of ancient literatures .Also during
these short 7 years ,he had already recruited such excellent students as Yan
Lu whose son ,Yan Hui ,later became the best student of Confucius ,and Zi
Lu ,nine years Confucius摧s junior ,became his life‐long student ,always with
his mentor wherever he went until the end of his life .His private school was
known far and wide , with his philosophical ideas spreading all over the
country .
2 .The inter‐state tours seeking official career : From the age of 37 to
68 ,he was constantly on the move ,embarking on an inter‐state tour aiming
at finding an official position to practise his political doctrines , but never
stopped recruiting and teaching students ,with only four‐year official career
during which period he was experimenting with his political ideas ,his only
p ractical political experience of his whole life .This was also the golden time
for his educational career , when his educational ideas became mature ,
teaching methods sophisticated and educational results desirable and
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disciples ,together with their disciples ,had compiled “four books” ,namely
“The Great Learning” , “ The Doctrine of the Mean ” , “ The Analects of
Confucius” and “Mencius” ,which ,together with Confucius摧 revised classics ,
had been universally recognized as the founding classics of Confucianism ,
collectively called the Four Books and Five Classics (四书五经) .
After Qin Shihuang ,the first emperor of China ,unified China with his
mighty military strength and brilliant strategy and tactics , he still adopted
the Legalist thinking as the guiding principles for the quick settlement of the
p eople and the immediate consolidation of his newly‐built empire , but he
was too busy with countless urgent things crying out for solutions to attend to
the question of Confucianism as his dynasty was so short‐lived . In the
ensuing dynasty of the Great Han ,especially in its beginning ,the doctrine
of Taoism had been made the predominant ruling principles for 60 to 70
years so that the country gradually became strong with this policy of
recuperation and rehabilitation (休 养 生 息 ) . In the reign of the fifth
emperor Han Wudi ,it was high time that the guiding principles of the nation
should be reviewed and re‐examined , and Confucianism had been adopted
for the first time as the state ideology of the highly centralized and unified
nation . Dong Zhongshu , the Confucian scholar who made the
recommendation ,also proposed the thinking of “interaction between Heaven
and man” (天人感应) ,which was well received as the orthodox view .In the
Tang Dynasty , Taoism was worshipped for the reason that the founder of
Taoism ,Lao Zi ,had happened to have the same family name with the royal
family of the Tang Dynasty ,and had been treated as their remote glorious
ancestor ,so that Taoism was placed on the equal prominent and respectable
p osition with Buddhism .In the Song Dynasty ,the Cheng brothers and Zhu
Xi ,the great Confucian scholars of the day ,had initiated their Li School of
Confucianism , whose important thoughts were embodied in Zhu Xi摧s
monumental work entitled “ Commentaries on Four Books”(枟四书章句集注枠)
and “ Zhu Zi Y u Lei”(枟朱子语类枠) ,all built on Confucius摧 original thinking .
Both Lu Jiuyuan (陆九渊) and Wang Yangming(王阳明) started their mind
school ,believing that “mind is the source of myriad things” (“心是万物之
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源”) ,and “Outside of the mind ,there are no objects ,no li ,and no things .”
(“心外 无 物 ,心 外 无 理 ,心 外 无 事 。”) So both the achievements of the Li
School of Confucianism and the mind school were the last developments
accomplished during those historical periods , elevated to the level of the
national ideology by the ruling class ,worshipped as classical authority in the
imperial examinations by examinees , approved and encouraged by the
imperial court .
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mission to recruit and teach students ,and did have some students ,but never
many . Among his successors , Zhuang Zi was the most eminent and
remarkable one . Zhuang Zi , a reverent term of address for Zhuang Zhou
whose family name was Zhuang and Zhou his given name ,was a native of
the state of Song (p resent‐day Shangqiu , Henan province ) . Zhuang Zhou
was the most prominent Taoist master next only to Lao Zi , a famous
thinker , p hilosopher and man of letters who had inherited and further
developed Lao Zi摧s Taoism ; and his philosophical doctrine , though all‐
embracing ,reflected different aspects of the social life of his day ,but ,in
p rinciple ,he was a true disciple of Lao Zi ,as both he and Lao Zi were closely
linked together ,called “Philosophy of Lao Zi and Zhuang Zi” (老庄哲学) ,a
synonym for Taoism .Though he served as petty official ,he was poverty‐stricken
and frustrated all his life . Zhuang Zi was noble and distinctive in character ,
indifferent to worldly gains and losses ,believing in the tranquility of mind and
inaction . Zhuang Zi , on the surface , stood aloof quietly from the madding
crowd摧s ignoble strife and behaved willfully ,but he had his strong sense of love
and hate at heart .He wielded his mighty writing brush and his magnificent and
imaginative ideas kept gushing out like a fountain .
Basic ideas of Taoism :Lao Zi ,from the metaphysical perspective ,had
been able to probe the relationship between man and nature , and
p ropounded his own ontology (本体论) and cosmology (宇宙论) in which the
concept of “Tao” (道) was the highest category of his own philosophy ,and
also the highest category of ancient Chinese philosophy . With the “ Tao”
being the core , Lao Zi built the edifice of his philosophical system , and
became the originator of ancient Chinese philosophy . His quest for the
origin of the universe and ontology , his epistemology (认 识 论 ) and rich
dialectical thinking were the most original philosophical thinking of whole
humanity .“It is true indeed that Lao Zi摧s ‘Tao’ marked the beginning of
ontology in Chinese philosophy .In the history of development of ontology in
Chinese philosophy ,‘Tao’ holds a predominant position .” ① (“老子的论道是
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① ② ③ Lao Zi : T he Book of Tao and Teh , T r .Gu Zhengkun ,Peking University Press ,1995 ,
P131‐133 ,182 ,61
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中 国 文 化 专 论
are complementary to each other ,“The difficult and the easy ,the long and
the short , and the high and the low” (“难 易 高 下 长 短”) mutualizes each
other .So there are both myriad things with forms and names , and the
nameless and formless “ Tao ” in the universe . And the third important
concept is “ every thing gets done through inaction” (“无为无不为”) , Lao Zi
said ,“ He who seeks learning m ust increase his k nowledge every day ; He who
seeks the Tao m ust reduce his knowledge every day ; He reduces and reduces
until he reaches the state of inaction . One can succeeds in every thing .” ① “为学
日益 ,为道日损 ,损之又损 ,以至于无为 ,无为而无不为 。” (枟道德经枠第四十八
章) .If one imitates others ,he will get more and more things to do ;but if he
observes the “Tao” ,he will get fewer and fewer things to do ,and ultimately
“nothing to do” (无为) .Lao Zi held that “ The Tao takes what is natural as
its model” (“道法自然”) ,and “Tao” is natural ,and material ,so man should
imitate “Tao” .Man should not interfere with the myriad things and let them
p ursue their natural course ,which seems “inaction” (无为) ,but actually gets
everything done (无 不 为 ) , in another word , the accomplishment of the
results of getting everything done through the inaction .
“Tao” is the core category of the philosophy of Lao Zi and Zhuang Zi ,
but Zhuang Zi摧s interpretation of “Tao” is still within the original meaning
of Lao Zi , as there existed a direct mentor‐disciple relationship between
them two . Zhuang Zi , with his broad‐minded and open vision , held that
man could be elevated to the level or realm where he could enjoy absolute
freedom ,flying without the external assistance ,and man摧s relation with the
universe should be that of “human‐and‐heaven oneness” ,and his view of life
and death was very philosophical and sensible .With the ideas inherited from
Lao Zi ,he could identify and point out the alienation of human nature by
Confucianism . Zhuang Zi had systematized and deepened Taoism just as
Mencius had done with Confucianism . Lao Zi was the founder of Taoism
whose philosophy cared more about ontology ,which ,in a sense ,could be
considered a philosophy of the “ Tao” , with the question of man and the
① Lao Zi :The Book of Tao and Teh ,Tr .Gu Zhengkun ,Peking University Press ,1995 ,P203
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a legend .This shows that founders of two schools had such an open mind and
broad vision in hoping to understand each other , communicate with each
other and learn from each other , which could be regarded as a proper
beginning of the complement of the two schools of philosophical thought .
The late period of Warring States marked the first peak for the complement
of Confucianism and Taoism when classical Taoist school was actively
absorbing positive ideas from almost all schools of the day ,especially such
Confucian ideas as ethics , benevolence , righteousness , and the ‘ rule by
rites’ ,whereas Confucian masters Mencius and Xun Zi had been profoundly
influenced by Taoist views of the world and nature , with Taoist ideas
absorbed into their own school ,as they were fully aware of the inadequacies
and insufficiencies of Confucius ’ classical Confucianism in views of the
world ,the nature , the epistomology and the dialectics at the philosophical
levels . Mencius and other Confucianists , however , had developed their
analytical abilities through their refutation of Taoist doctrines .The second
important period of the complement was the Song and the Ming dynasties
when Neo‐Confucianists the Cheng brothers ,Zhu Xi ,Lu Jiuyuan and Wang
Shouren had absorbed Taoist ideas by introducing many such Taoist concepts
as “Limitless or Wu Ji” (无极) ,“Supreme or Tai ji” (太极) ,“Beingless or
Wu” (无) ,“Being or You” (有 ) ,“The Way or Tao” (道 ) ,“Vessel or qi”
(器 ) into their own doctrines , and made the new system of Neo‐
Confucianism .Through the perfecting and deepening of Neo‐Confucianism ,
Taoism had been completely absorbed into Confucianism as an organic part ,
which constituted the ideological consciousness of Chinese scholar‐officials .
From the sharp contradiction of the classical Confucianism and Taoism
during the pre‐Qin periods through the long process of conflicts and gradual
integration in the ensuing dynasties to the ultimate ‘merger’ of two different
schools with the two doctrines becoming so closely interconnected and
indivisible in the last dynasties of China .
Confucius摧s world outlook had actually contained different elements :
scepticism and enterprising spirits , from which there had developed into
seemingly contradictory but essentially complementary schools :Xun Zi had
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attracted and headed with their enterprising spirits . This was of course a
kind of correct and positive attitude towards life , which had nurtured
generations of loyal and responsible intelligentlemen who had served as the
p illar of the nation both in time of peace and of political turmoils ,ultimately
contributing to the creation of Chinese civilization . But social reality was
after all not always satisfactory ,even brutal sometimes , p osing difficulties
and obstacles to scholar‐officials who constantly faced frustrations and
defeats while moving upward along the social ladders . In such adversity ,
they had to readjust themselves , soothe their minds , and put up with the
temporary ‘obscurity’ while building up their strength with their personal
cultivation in the spirit of being above worldly considerations for future
realization of their lofty ideas . Those Taoist concepts such as ‘ nature’ ,
‘inaction’ ,‘contentment’ ,and ‘never contend with others’ had revealed
ultimate wisdom of Taoism and served as the best spiritual adapter and
psychological stabilizer , for Confucianist life pursuit had not been flexible
enough for adjustment and change ,which should be balanced by Taoism .As
toughness and gentleness should be well proportionate , neither of two
schools could stand by itself and scholar‐officials needed them both and
employed them alternately according to the circumstances they were in .The
representative scholars of both schools improved and perfected their own
doctrines through the introduction and assimilation of beneficial elements
from each other摧s ideas ;and scholar‐officials usually adopted Confucianism
as their guiding principles in defining their objectives while , at the same
time ,cultivating themselves and broadening their horizons by Taoism so that
they could patiently wait for the opportunity to appear and seize it for
realizing themselves . With the strength gathered and willpower tempered
during their ‘obscurity’ ,they could bring their learning and capabilities into
full play .There were some obvious defects in Confucianism as the official
ideology ,for which only Taoism could make up ,with its own advantages in
this regard .Though these two schools of philosophy were utterly different ,
they had different historical positions and different roles in politics
determined by their social ideals and values ,with Confucianism being in the
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orthodox ,official and dominant ideology of the nation ,and Taoism in the
subordinate position for adaptation and mitigation .
From the ancient to modern China ,both the personal and public life of
excellent scholar‐officials demonstrated the alternate adoptions of these two
schools of thought :They could maintain their moral integrity at the time of
‘obscurity’ ,and could also make good use of the opportunity to fulfil their
noble aspirations in managing the state affairs well ;“ Gloriously at court ,
they always empathize with the feelings of the people underneath .
Ingloriously in exile ,they still concern themselves with the emperor above .”
(“居庙堂之高 ,则忧其民 ;处江湖之远 ,则忧其君 。” 范仲淹枟岳阳楼记枠) When
they were unfairly treated ,even put in prisons ,they could remain calm and
composed ;once they were rehabilitated and restored to their rightful places
in the govermental departments ,they never complained about their personal
grievances and soon plunged into the urgent work left undone in their
absence , as those Confucianism‐bred scholar‐officials harbored so lofty
ideals which they considered of prime importance in their lifetime that they
had no time to lose on their ways to pursue their goals , with other ‘ p etty
things’ being brushed aside .
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Nationality Integration and Chinese
Concept of “Great National Unity”
民族融合与中国人的大一统观
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have thus been made , with blood of different ethnic groups and cultural
elements of many nations .
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they had also had frequent diplomatic , tributary , and trade relationships ,
and even intermarriage ,resulted in the further integration of nationalities .
After the Mongolian rulers came to the throne and established the Yuan
Dynasty ,the majority of the officials appointed was the Han people ; and
with the blood mixed , two cultures became integrated simultaneously ;
Mongolian rulers not only inherited the system of the Song and even earlier
dynasties ,and also worshipped Confucius ,adopting Confucianism ,building
Confucius’ Shrine , and protecting all the Confucian archives and related
heritages .Of course ,the Mongolian rulers had also exercised the policy of
racial discrimination against both the Han and other minority people ,which
made the merging of the Nüzhen nationality w ith the Han people possible ,as
these two people shared the same miserable fate as the down‐troden classes .
4 .The Qing Dynasty Period :The Great National Integration of the Han ,
the Manchu ,and the Mongolian Nationalities
In 1644 A .D .,the Manchus ,as invaders ,came all the way down from
the northeast and crossed over the Shanhai Pass in the eastern end of the
Great Wall and established its capital in Beijing before conquering the whole
country .Nearly 300 years of its reign had passed and almost all Manchus had
been sinicized , by adopting the Han language , and giving up their own
native tongue . When the Manchus had first moved their whole nation
southward , they had actually merged the national differences
geographically .As soon as they were among the ocean of the numerous Han
p eople ,their conquered people ,they swaggered about arrogantly ,with some
unpopular policies as “forced land‐enclosure , forced slave‐making measures
and forced haircut ” (“ 圈 地” 、“投 充” 、“剃 头”)being made mercilessly and
implemented coercively , which aroused so strong emotions of ethnic
confrontation that Manchu rulers had to ease the tension between the two
nations ;Emperor Xuan Ye or Kang Xi , the second emperor of the Qing
Dynasty ,took the initiative to side with the Han landlord class and sincerely
offered sacrifices to the Confucius Shrine and reverently showed his respect
by prostrating himself and kowtowing before Confucius’ statue in order to
untie the fast knot on the mind of the Han people as a result of ethnic
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discrimination .
The Qing rulers unprecedentedly strengthened its administration of the
frontiers for the sake of both the national defence and the promotion of the
multinational merging in those border areas dotted with different
nationalities : The central government gave its approval to the Tibetan
religious leaders , and appointed special official resident in Tibet (西 藏 ) ,
also moved minority people from the Heilongjiang and Wushulijiang rivers
valley and resettled them in the central part of the northeast area ,enhancing
the relationship of the frontier provinces with the central government and
the hinterland provinces ; at the same time , for those Han people who
escaped the wars and fled to the frontiers , the central government also
encouraged them to live peacefully with the local people through more
communications and to share the multinational areas . With the
unprecedented national merging of three main nationalities , the Han , the
Manchus and the Mongols , the Qing government had solved the perennial
p roblem of “the external encroachment on the frontier ” (边患) ,which had
never been solved once for all by previous dynasties ,even with the building
of the Great Wall through immense input of man‐power and material
resources in history .
Since the “Opium War” (鸦片战争 ) in 1840 ,the Qing Dynasty was on
the decline ,with the talons of the west powers intruding upon Chinese soils .
Throughout the hundred‐year struggles for national independence and
freedom ,the brotherhood among all Chinese nationalities had stood the life‐
and‐death test ,the national spirit had undergone a process of war baptism ;
with common enemies threatening them all ,the Chinese nations achieved a
great nation‐wide unity ,which could be described as the great merging of all
Chinese nationalities in the real sense of the word and on the higher level .
After these four major national integrations in different historical
p eriods ,an unified multinational country has been formed and consolidated ,
with the principal Han nationality , and many other smaller nationalities ,
being equally recognized for their native languages and colourful cultures .In
the long history of national merging , there were both intense conflicts of
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blood and fire ,and friendly communications and intermarriages . From the
time of the Qin and the Han ,the multinational country was in the making ,
and finally fully consolidated and melted as one indivisible nation in the Qing
Dynasty ,which was a long and arduous course , with endless quests and
trials , resulted in the stable pattern of integral whole with multi‐
nationalities .It is really a world miracle as Chinese nations ,with the largest
p opulation , live harmoniously and equally in this immense east Asian
landmass with remarkable differences in geographical features ,with neither
racial discrimination nor caste system .
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Zhou Dynasty ,as the eldest son in the royal family ,becoming the King of
the land . Second , the legitimacy of rulers clepended on their virtue or
benevolence , and it would follow that the one without it could be
overthrown by the people and this indicates that concerning the legitimacy of
rulers ,early in Chinese history ,moral behaviours of rulers were included in
their overall evaluation .Of course ,this created another problem as it would
give usurpers some excuses to take over the power of rightful rulers .Third ,
since the Xia Dynasty , orthodox thinking had closely related with certain
region ,that is ,the Central Plains which had been regarded as the rightful
p lace for issuing orders to the people in four directions .In the succession of
the Xia ,the Shang and the Zhou in turns , all of them had acquired their
orthodox status ,and recognized as rightful rulers ,only after they captured
and established their reign in the Central Plains . During these three early
dynasties ,the concept of “Great National Unity” was just taking shape ,far
from being systematic and deep‐rooted .
As early as in the pre‐Qin Dynasty period , the Chinese ancestors ,
through their early geographical book ,“ Book of Mountains and Seas” (枟山海
经枠) , expressed their aspiration for the unified country from the
geographical perspective .Considering the limitation of transportation in the
early time , this was a remarkable book of geography despite its
imperfections and imprecisions ,which had recorded mountains in five areas ,
called Central , Western , Northern , Eastern and Southern Mountains
respectively , and their natural environments . In another geographical
literature ,“ The Book of History ” (枟尚书 ・ 禹贡枠) also written during the
p re‐Qin Dynasty period ,a section from this book recorded regional products ,
local agricultural crops ,tributary and taxes ,mountains ,rivers ,soils ,fields ,
and even geographical contour , which was the aspiration of our ancestors
from the economic point of view ; and it also divided China into nine
administrative regions ,called Jizhou (冀州) ,Yanzhou (兖州) ,Qingzhou (青
州) ,Xuzhou (徐州) ,Yangzhou (扬州) ,Jingzhou (荆州) ,Yuzhou (豫州) ,
Liangzhou (凉州 ) and Yongzhou (雍州 ) respectively , which could not be
effectively managed at that time , but could be regarded as a political
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Chapter Five
reign of the fifth emperor Liu Che or Han Wudi ,he ,with his grand strategy
and strong political talents , extended the territory to the “ south of Five
Ridges” (岭南) (In the modern day Guangdong and Guangxi provinces ) in
the south , to Lake Baikal (贝 加 尔 湖 ) in the north (in the modern day
Russia ) ,to the seas in the east and to Balkhsh Lake (巴尔喀什湖)(In modern
day Kazakhstan) and the Pamir Mountains (帕米尔高原)in the west ,laying
the geographical basis of the multi‐national country .Emperor Han Wudi also
adopted the Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu摧s proposal of “ Paying
supreme tribute to Confucianism while banning all other schools of thought ”
(“罢黜百家 、独尊儒术”) ,establishing Confucianism as state ideology ,which
unified Chinese thought at spiritual level and shaped unique Chinese thinking
and national spirit ,and produced the strong cohesiveness of Chinese nations .
From the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty in 220 A .D . to 581 A .D .
when the first Sui Emperor Yang Jian or Wen Di was able to unify the
country again by wiping out all those separatist forces ,there were turbulent
times for 400 years representing a retrogression in the course of unity .The
Sui Dynasty ,like the Qin Dynasty , p roved significant , yet short‐lived ,but
the Tang Dynasty ,the subsequent dynasty ,elevated Chinese civilization to
its peaks , and created the splendid ancient Chinese culture , reaching the
p rime of feudal China ,which consolidated the foundation of “Great Unity”
of the nation .Again ,near the end of the Tang Dynasty ,the turmoil began
and spread nation‐wide .In 1279 A .D .the first Yuan emperor ,Hu Bilie or
Shizu(元世祖) ,rose in the grassland ,unified all the Mongolian tribes first ,
conquered other regimes one by one , and unified whole China , with its
capital established in Dadu (大都)( p resent day Beijing) ,and then the Ming
and the Qing dynasties succeeded one another , with the multinational
country firmly and well established . Throughout the Chinese history , the
mainstream of trend has been towards the unification , of course with
p eriodic disunity ,but the times and duration of disunity have got shorter and
shorter and even during the time of disunity , different separatists had the
same goal of unifying the whole country under their own banners , which
clearly indicates that the idea of “Great National Unity” has struck root in
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the mind of people and every individual has been willing to fight for that
goal .
3 .The Internalization and Recognition of the Concept of “Great National Unity”
Ever since the Qin and Han dynasties ,the pattern of China with “Great
National Unity ” had been fixed , though there were times of disunity ,
conflicts and even coexistence of several regimes . The idea of “ Great
National Unity” , universally recognized and accepted , had little by little
been internalized by every individual Chinese who had all agreed to the
national unification ,but only differed as to who should unify the country .
Their universal recognition of early legendary common ancestors of the
Chinese nations ,the Fiery Emperor and the Yellow Emperor embodied their
strong identification with the concept of “Great National Unity” .Those two
emperors were legendary heroes of the remote past whom all Chinese people
worshipped as the founding fathers of the Chinese nations ,and Chinese ,no
matter wherever they are , p roudly call themselves “ descendants of Yandi
and Huangdi” (炎黄子 孙 ) . In fact , besides the principal nationality , the
Huaxia , there were many other minority nationalities , such as the Yi
nationality and the Man nationality .Before the Unification in 221 B .C .,
those nationalities had been constantly at war with each other , often
developed close relationships through intermarriage ,and ultimately resulted
in complete integrations . Even those minority nationalities , such as the
Xianbei ,the Qidan and the Huns , also recognized the Fiery Emperor and
the Yellow Emperor ,adopted the family names of the Huaxia nationality ,
and identified themselves with the Huaxia civilization .Judging by this ,the
Chinese nationalities as the Huaxia ,the Yi ,the Man and so on are brotherly
nationalities ,and their conflicts quarrels among brothers ,internal disputes
or “household affairs” within the great family of our nations .
In the family of Chinese nations , the Huaxia nationality had first
evolved and formed from the people of the first three dynasties ,the Xia ,the
Shang ,the Zhou people and those who migrated from the frontiers .After
the Qin and the Han dynasties , the Huaxia began to be called the Han
nationality whose culture became the mainstream one continuously absorbing
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and integrating other minority nationalities and tribe people . The Han
nationality , hereafter , opened their mind even more broadly to reach out
and absorb people of different nationalities , just like the sea ready for
receiving all rivers , and created the splendid civilization in the world ,
immensely admired by minority people in the frontiers vying with one
another for paying tributes to and petitioning Chinese emperors for noble
titles and rewards .
4 .The Dissemination and Promotion of the Concept of “Great National Unity”
The Chinese nations originated in the Central Plains and the Middle and
Lower Reaches of the Yellow River ,but the Chinese nations did not follow
the way of external extension by conquests nor the occupation and settlement
of the outsiders in the Central Plains . The ancestors of all Chinese
nationalities ,instead , had actually been merging into the Chinese nations
through a slow and long historical evolution . Chinese sometimes call
themselves “descendants of the dragon” (龙的传人 ) ,because the totem of
Chinese nations , dragon , had collected many totem signs of many
nationalities ,also reflecting the multiple sources of Chinese nations ; and
many of our minority people , such as the Huns and the Manchus , also
worshipped dragon , indicating that they were also the descendants of
dragon . In the later period of Neolithic Age , the primary Chinese
civilizations were too many and varied , dotted in the vast East Asian
landmass .About 6 ,000 or 7 ,000 years ago ,our ancestors began to worship
the dragon ,the making of which took many different animals ,such as the
head of a camel (骆驼头) ,the horns of a deer (鹿角) ,the ears of a bull (牛
耳) ,the eyes of a turtle (龟眼 ) ,the thorny skin of an alligator (鳄鱼皮 ) ,
the scale of a fish (鱼鳞) ,the body of a snake (蛇身) ,the claws of an eagle
(鹰爪) and the belly of a clam (蜃腹) ,symbolizing the varied sources of our
ancestors and consisting of a variety of nationalities . This national totem
gave every individual Chinese , wherever he was , a strong and inseverable
emotional attachment to his motherland .The return of a Mongolian tribe to
its motherland is a case in point . In the reign of Emperor Hong li or
Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty ,the whole Tuerhute Mongolian tribe (土尔扈
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特蒙古部落) returned to China ,braving dangers and risks of all kinds ,after
their whole tribe had left China and migrated to the the bank of the Volga
River (伏尔加河畔) for more than a century ,which denoted that the idea of
“Great National Unity” had already struck root in the heart of the people .
The Central Plains , since the Qin and Han dynasties , had been the
p olitical central stage ,the holy place for the imperial capital affiliated with
the Huaxia Orthodoxy Ideas ,in which countless regimes ,by both the Han
and minority nationalities , had established their capital and regarded
themselves as orthodox ,and naturally recognized by others .In history ,the
founding emperor of each dynasty ,once he overthrew the previous dynasty ,
was sure to take over and control the Central Plains .“ From the historical
records ,it is evident that before the Qin Unification ,the Huaxia called their
motherland China (literally Central Kingdom ) , the collective name of all
Huaxia states ; since the Qin Unification , China had extended to be the
common motherland , including all nationalities within its territory . So
China means their motherland , whereas dynasties were the names of state
established by the ruling class in different historical periods .Dynasties rise
and fall periodically , but China , the motherland , remains eternally and
forever developing .” ① Through joint efforts , all Chinese nationalities in
their common regions created their common cultures ,which ,in turn ,made
them cohesive ,even when they wandered overseas ,and closely related them
all together by their common recognition of “ descendants of Yandi and
Huangdi” , or “ descendants of the Dragon ” , just as the Jewish people ,
roaming in the world ,were closely related by their common religion .
It is universally acknowledged that spoken and written language is the
most effective tools in transmitting ideas and information .In the history of
the great world civilizations , many of them had suffered discontinuity ,
except Chinese civilization . Even during the classic period of world
civilization (1 ,000 B .C .— 500 B .C .) ,China had already unified its written
language .From the earliest written language , the bone scriptions , to the
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The Chinese idea of “ Great National Unity” traces its history back to
the very ancient times because China has a long and continual history of
culture ensured by the continuality of Chinese political history , which
strengthened the Chinese consciousness and concept of “ Great National
Unity” .China has got the most detailed and systematic historical recordings ,
the so called “Twenty‐four Histories” (二十四史) ,with “Historical Records”
(枟史记枠) by Sima Qian being the first ,the tradition of which has never been
interrupted .
First ,the idea of “ Great National Unity” is the origin of important
thoughts for the prosperity of the country and unity of the nationalities .The
recognition of this great idea represents a strong centripetal force attracting
overseas Chinese even if they adopt another language ,because “descendants
of Yandi and Huangdi” or “ descendants of the Dragon ” belong to one
gigantic family whose Chinese hearts could never be changed with the
transformation of their citizenship .
Second ,the idea of “Great National Unity” is the most effective tools
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for cultivating people with political responsibility and historical mission .In
history , most of the ancient Chinese political thinkers were essentially
statesmen ,with political ambition and integrity ,who devoted their lives to
p olitics as the way of actualizing themselves .Confuscius ,the great cultural
master and political thinker , travelled to many different states , searching
for an ideal state to realize his political ambition , many Chinese scholars
after him cherished this political ideal and made every effort with strong
determination ,as they had been brought up and nurtured by this idea of
“Great National Unity” ,which should be highly praised and eulogized as the
p ride of Chinese scholars .
But this idea has had its negative influence upon the scholars , which
made narrow their life choices , and with this idea deep in mind , some of
them were so passionate about politics that they became blind to such worthy
fields of endeavour as science , art , literature and so on . Ever since the
creation of the imperial examination in the Sui Dynasty ,almost all scholars
had limited their personal choice to the narrow sphere of “Reading Classics ,
Taking Examination and Entering Officialdom ” (读书 、科考 、入仕 ) , which
could be delineated as the “trilogy” of the wretched life of scholars ;what is
more ,some scholars even considered “go in for politics”(从政) as a money‐
making enterprise , through which they could become rich quickly ,
compensating the youth lost in reading classics , and avariciously enjoying
life ,once they passed the examination . Of course , this is far from the
teaching of Confucius .In his time ,education was limited to a lucky few and
a great majority of children had been deprived of the opportunity to be
educated .Confucius , aware of the shortage of talents , started his private
education only for training Junzi (君 子 ) , liberal talents for managing the
state ,rather than the specialized experts for specific fields of endeavour .
These people either misunderstood Confucius or were misled by their own
selfish motives .
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Ancient Chinese Education and the
Historical Evolution of Educational Ideas
古代教育与中国历代教育理念演变
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official in China .
Local governmental schools were set up during the Han Dynasty . The
p refect of the Shu Prefecture (p resent day Sichuan ) ,Wen Weng first set up
his official school in Chengdu .This move was highly approved by Emperor
Liu Che or Han Wudi , who ordered that local official schools were to be
built in each prefecture . In the following chaotic dynasties , local
governmental schools fell into disuse ,the only exception being the Northern
Dynasty established by the Xianbei nationality ,where official schools at all
levels were built with a pro‐Confucianism policy . Local governmental
schools flourished until the reunification achieved in the Sui and the Tang
dynasties in the beginning of which , local governmental schools reached
their prime with enough competent teachers recruited . From 907 A .D .in
the end of the Tang Dynasty to 1044 A .D . in the Song Dynasty , local
governmental schools were not restored . During the Yuan Dynasty , there
were no real official schools at all .It was only in the Ming Dynasty that the
first emperor , Zhu Yuanzhang , decreed local official schools to be built .
Soon more than 1 ,700 schools were set up ,of course ,with the purpose of
p reparing students for the imperial examinations .There was no freedom of
academic pursuits as known during the Han Dynasty . This situation lasted
until the last dynasty where the official schools were choked to death by the
imperial examinations .
From 221 B .C .when the first emperor Qin Shihuang unified the whole
China to 220 A .D . when the Eastern Han Dynasty collapsed , the official
schools had reached their zenith , with a record enrollment of 30 ,000
students devoted to the study of Confucian classics at the imperial college ,in
the capital city , Changan , which was a miracle in the history of the
education .As the official candidates were selected through the System of
Observation and Recommendation ,strict examinations had not been brought
on the agenda during this period .Since the beginning of the Sui and the
Tang dynasties , official schools were still flourishing , with the imperial
examinations just created , but as the time passed on , official schools had
gradually turned to the dependency upon the newly created official selection
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中 国 文 化 专 论
devoted himself to the educational cause as part of his political activity ,and
his personal involvement in politics . His private education was actually a
form of political activity , not only because he broke a path for private
education , but also because he was the first to combine education with
p olitics ,and to make education serve politics . Confucius was followed by
Mozi (墨子) ,Shao Zhengmao (少正卯) ,Wang Tai (王骀) and other great
Confucian masters Mencius (孟 子 ) and Xunzi (荀 子 ) who , with erudite
knowledge and political vision ,had commented on the state affairs ,and also
recommended their students to the rulers of different states without any
reservations .With students gathering around them for learning ,people from
different walks of life got educated through the popularization of education .
The Han Dynasty represented the second peak in the development of
Chinese private education , ranging from the elementary (蒙 学 ) to the
p reparatory (专经预备) and higher (高级) stage of private education for the
study of classics .As private teachers were those who had no opportunity to
enter officialdom ,lost their political positions ,or got ready for the official
career , they usually considered teaching as part of their political career .
They had an erudite knowledge in Confucian classics , and taught both
“registered students” (及门弟子) personally and “unregistered students” (著
录弟 子 ) coming now and then to ask questions . There were two famous
p rivate teachers from the Han Dynasty :Zheng Xuan and Ma Rong .Zheng
Xuan ,in his old age ,could teach only a few senior students in person .In
turn those senior students and they taught the rest of his students ,as he had
more than 1 ,000 registered students and 17 ,000 unregistered students . Ma
Rong usually had more than 1 ,000 students . Previously the famous
Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu had adopted this method of teaching
students by senior students . Eminent teachers mainly taught Confucian
classics ,and other schools of thought ,such as Taoism ,legalism ,School of
Positive and Negative forces ,astronomy ,arithmetics and medicine .As the Han
Dynasty was a highly unified dynasty , private teachers could not enjoy absolute
freedom in commenting on politics as scholars did during the Spring and Autumn
and Warring States period . Usually they had to hold identical views with the
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rulers ,though they still regarded their teaching as their personal participation in
politics .
After the Tang and the Song dynasties ,p rivate schools had continued to
flourish ,but the purpose for becoming private teachers was rather different
from that of earlier dynasties .They were making a living through charging
school fees besides the pursuit of the possible official career ,also a way of
earning their living , with the great majority of them having no political
ambitions .Private schools mainly consisted of elementary schools for basic
literacy and secondary schools for advanced study of Confucian classics :in
elementary schools ,the “Three‐Character Canon” (枟三字经枠) ,the “Book of
Family Names” (枟百家姓枠) and the “Essay of One Thousand Characters ”
(枟千字文枠) had been adopted as the basic textbooks ,and then “four classic
books” , the Tang Poems , the writing practice of couplets had then been
taught for making preparations for the imperial examinations . In the
secondary schools , ancient Chinese texts and eight‐legged essays were
taught ,and students were prepared for the imperial examinations . Private
schools , besides preparing students for the exams , had also provided
opportunities for the children of the common people to acquire their basic
literacy ,and promote and disseminate the culture ,which had its historical
contributions .
3 .Education through the Academy of Classical Learning
“Shuyuan” or “Academy of Classical Learning ” (书院 ) first originated
in the Tang Dynasty ,when its primary function was the collection (收藏 )
and calibration ( 校 订 ) of books . During the turmoil of the “ Five
Dynasties” ,some scholars chose the beautiful mountains as the site for their
“ Academy of Classical Learning ” where they began to lecture to their
students , imitating the style of the Buddhist scripture‐delivery in the
Buddhist temples deeply hidden in the mountainous regions . The Song
Dynasty was a militarily weak period in history , with perennial border
troubles ,but economically and culturally prosperous age .It was especially in
the Southern Song Dynasty period ,when “Academies of Classical Learning”
sprang up like mushrooms .The most well‐known were Bailudong Academy
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issues at the debating forum .In the Ming Dynasty ,Wang Shouren ,a senior
official with both administrative and military power , lectured and
disseminated his philosophical ideas in the “ Shuyuan ” he established ,
demonstrating a limited degree of academic freedom ,but the imperial court
could not allow these kinds of lecture to interfere with the implementation of
the official selection through imperial examinations .As Wang Shouren was a
man of integrity and erudite knowledge with high political power , he was
able to promote the system of “Shuyuan” in his time .In the Qing Dynasty ,
the imperial court had finally choked the limited freedom of academic
research in the “ Shuyuan ” by taking over the power of sponsoring the
“Shuyuan” and making it serve the sole purpose of preparing students for the
imperial examinations . The rise , development and fall of the “Shuyuan” ,
with its change of functions , represented the historical tendency of the
feudal China to becoming increasingly autocratic and corrupted .In another
sense ,the “Shuyuan” ,besides the official and private schools ,was really a
special form of education ,with the multiple functions of collection ,lecture
and research all in one , like a quasi‐tertiary education , which was
completely different from the modern European university system , worthy
of systematic study . When he set up his own Hunan Self‐Study University
(湖 南 自 修 大 学 ) , Mao Zedong , in his youth , inherited and carried the
tradition of the “Shuyuan” in the 20 century .
th
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中 国 文 化 专 论
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Chapter Six
① ② M ozi ,T r .Wang Rongpei and Wang Hong , Hunan People摧s Publishing House ,Changsha ,
2006 ,P7 ,17
・ 95 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
① ② ③ ④ Mencius ,Tr .Zhao Zhentao ,Zhang Wenting and Zhou Dingzhi ,Hunan People摧s Publishing
House ,Changsha ,1999 ,P297 ,131 ,61 ,313
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Confucian and Mencian thinking of ruling by rites (礼治) and initiating the
thinking of ruling by laws (法治 ) ,or the Legalist School to be refined and
represented by Han Fei Zi , his worthy disciple . Xunzi , first of all ,
established his educational objective :to train his students as “scholars” (士)
first ,then move on to be “intelligentlemen ” (君子 ) ,and ultimately reach
the summit of entering the rank of “sages” (圣人) .Secondly ,Xunzi strongly
believed in the role of environment (环境) and also the combination of both
external factors and internal efforts . He made great efforts to enable his
disciples to be spiritually noble without “ rank ” , intellectually wealthy
without “ emoluments” ,g radually reaching the levels of personal character
cultivation with “ erudite knowledge , accumulated benevolence and self‐
improvement” for accomplishing the future political ideal of “ making the
country rich , and the people prosperous by implementing laws ” . He also
adopted Confucian classics as textbooks following the teaching sequence of
Book of Songs and Book of History first , and Book of Rites and music
second .In the teaching practice ,he put forward the insightful view of “four
stages” (四阶段) ,“ The learning of the gentlemen enters through the ear , is
stored in the mind , sp reads through the f our limbs , and is visible in his
activit y and repose .” ① (“君子之学也 :入乎耳 ,著乎心 ,布乎四体 ,行乎动静 。”
枟荀子 ・ 劝学篇枠) On the first stage of “entering through the ear” ,learners
must be attentive ,whole‐hearted and concentrated on the contents studied ,
through gathering all the impressions of external things by their sense organ .
On the second stage of “being stored in the mind” ,learners synthesized all
the impressions with those already in their minds , compared and judged
them in order to attain a deep understanding of the knowledge acquired .On
the third stage of “spreading through the four limbs” , learners ,with their
systematic knowledge stored in the minds , achieved a comprehensive
understanding of those unknown areas through deductive methods , and
guided the actions of their four limbs with the general “Way” thus deduced .
① Xunzi(I) ,T r .John Knoblock ,Hunan People摧s Publishing House & Foreign Languages House ,
Changsha and Beijing ,1999 ,P15
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中 国 文 化 专 论
On the fourth stage of “ being visible in his activity and repose ” , learners
were ready to put his newly‐acquired knowledge into practice ,which was the
p rocedure from the theory to practice Xunzi cared so much ,“ Not having
heard something is not as good as having heard it ; having heard it is not as
good as having seen it ; having seen it is not as good as knowing it ; knowing it
is not as good as p utting it into p ractice .” ① “不闻不若闻之 ,闻之不若见之 ,见
之不若知之 ,知之不若行之 ,学至于行而至 矣 。” 枟荀 子 ・ 儒 效 篇枠) Putting
knowledge into practice crowned the whole process of knowledge pursuit and
with Xunzi ,Chinese educational explorations by different schools of thought
before the Qin Dynasty had attained their summit in an unprecedented
manner .
Besides those above‐mentioned philosophers and their educational ideas ,
there was another important treatise on education from The Book of Rites
with the author unknown and the writing time indefinite . Some scholars
made an educated guess by assigning the author to be Yue Zhengke , a
disciple of Mencius ,and the time to the later period of the Warring States .
Anyway ,this treatise was an unusual piece of literature which is worthy of
enough scholarly attention , as it comprehensively embraced almost all
important issues of education , such as school system , the function ,
objectives and tasks of school education , teaching methods and questions
related to teachers .As to this treatise ,it was necessary to list the following
p oints : First , the author , with a broad perspective , regarded school
education , especially college education , as an important function of the
state ,elevated the education to the high plane of “ moral cultivation” and
“ nation building ” , approached all levels of education with a grand
educational view .It requested that officials should be sent for the inspection
of schools ,and the emperor should offer sacrifices at the ceremony of sage
worshipping ,at the beginning of a new school year .Second ,he prescribed
the specific tasks of the 9‐year school curriculum ,including moral cultivation
① Xunzi(I) ,T r .John Knoblock ,Hunan People摧s Publishing House & Foreign Languages House ,
Changsha and Beijing ,1999 ,P197
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Chapter Six
served the senior position in charge of the dissemination of learning (博士) .When
the fifth emperor Liu Che or Han Wudi ascended the throne ,he made up his mind
to readjust the national guiding ideology and the external strategic thinking in
order to change the passive defensive policy adopted since the founding of the Han
Dynasty .Dong Zhongshu appeared on the scene at the right time with his “Three
Discourses on Heaven and Man” (“天人三策” ) and submitted it to the emperor
who ,to his great excitement and appreciation ,immediately adopted his proposal
of “elevating Confucianism to the supreme position over other schools of thought ”
(“罢黜百家 ,独尊儒术”) ,and established Confucianism as the dominant national
guiding ideology ever since .He also put forward his social and political views and
those ideas concerning human nature from his own perspective of theological world
outlook and heaven‐and‐human oneness ,which were all appreciated and highly
approved by the Emperor ,but he was never appointed to any political positions in
the imperial court .As a result ,he devoted his whole life to academic research ,
and his contribution to education was mainly concentrated on the making of
educational policies in the following three aspects :1) Elevating Confucianism to
the supreme position and banning other schools of thought : Dong Zhongshu
believed that unity in ideology could ensure and enhance the political unity of the
country .Confucianism was such an ideology that could serve as glue to unite the
whole nation from within and make China a highly centralized and strong empire .
Confucianism had continuously been adopted by later dynasties as the guiding
principles of the nation ;2) Cultivating people morally and emphasizing the rites
and music : Dong Zhongshu held that the responsibilities of emperors lay in
edifying (教 化 ) the people with the concepts of “ benevolence ” ( 仁 ) ,
“righteousness” (义 ) , “ rites” (礼 ) and “ music” (乐 ) . Emperors , with the
mandate of Heaven ,should rule the country through moral education rather than
punishment . He attached much importance to education as the means of
governance , and approached its function from thence ; 3 ) Creating Imperial
College and emphasizing official selection : Dong Zhongshu , from the point of
view of maintaining the governance , suggested that emperors should not only
eagerly seek political talents ,but should also cultivate them in advance by training
and storing potential official candidate resources . To him , the creation of the
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Imperial College ,with the recruitment of erudite scholars ,was the most important
thing as it would be the base for training the leading talents for the Han Empire .
This proposal was highly approved and adopted by Emperor Liu Che . He also
made the proposal that all local officials were entrusted with the responsibility of
recommending virtuous men with potential political talents (贤 能 之 人 ) to the
central government annually . These men would temporarily be appointed to
certain official posts for a period of probation and carefully evaluated before
formal and official appointments .As he said ,only by eagerly seeking talents ,and
appointing them to their right positions ,could the country be well managed ,with
political talents serving at all national administrative levels .
Wang Chong (王 充 27 — 97 A .D .) , born in a lowly family , loved
reading extensively ,but did not stick fast to the detailed analysis of those
ancient writings from the syntactic and semantic angles . He built his own
independent thinking and materialistic world outlook through his individual
quests on the basis of his interdisciplinary readings .From this newly‐evolved
ideas , he presented his own views in terms of educational functions ,
objectives and methods : 1 ) The most important educational functions ,
contrary to that of Dong Zhongshu , were to facilitate the positive
transformation of men and to purify the evil side of human nature , as he
firmly held that human nature was changeable .Of course ,individual humans
assumed different tendency as a result of nature and nurture interacting
within certain environment , and , without proper education , some minor
evils might gradually grow out of control and develop malignantly .Everyone
could make progress in learning through appropriate education ,just as a jade
could become a work of art through the carving and polishing process .
2) The educational objectives were to bring up the people and make them
different men within the possibility of their natural endowment , by
maximizing the advantages of both nature and nurture .People could usually
be divided into four different categories : (a ) “ Erudite sages” (鸿儒 ) : As
these individuals had a strong power of thought , they could dedicate
themselves to the independent intellectual creations as philosophers ;
(b) “Scholars”(文人) :As these people were learned ,they might be engaged
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“unregistered students” .At his funeral ,more than 1 ,000 students attended
from the prefect downward to the commoners , all clad in mourning
garments . Zheng Xuan was a great scientist‐type educationist or a great
educationist with scientific expertise and spirit . He had , besides his
Confucian views ,two noticeable contributions worthy of attention :1 ) His
contents of teaching :He had annotated and calibrated Confucian classics in
the most accurate and terse ways with the results of his scientific and
exquisite researches by which he had not only provided his students with the
most reliable and trustworthy textbooks , but also preserved classic cultural
heritage . Throughout his teaching , he advocated the acquisition of the
correct knowledge ,while cultivating students摧 character .2) Methodology in
research : Zheng Xuan had influenced his students through his scientific
attitude and methodology , which had also exerted tremendous influence
upon the norm and style of Chinese academic circles for more than 2 ,000
years .Zheng Xuan himself adopted scientific methods ,learning from many
different teachers , and , to be more specific , had three methods , namely
“explore both intensively and extensively into classics ” (博 稽 ) , “ read
extensively varied reference books and related literature ” (粗 览 ) , and
“choose accurate and reliable literatures for citation ” (时睹 ) . His scientific
method of “arrival at succinctness through exhaustiveness ” (由博而约 ) and
“return to exhaustiveness from succinctness ” (由 约 返 博 ) had profoundly
affected his students .3 ) Educational and teaching methods : He paid great
attention to the practical principle ,and asked teachers to set good examples ,
influencing students with their charisma , as he said that if people could
behave according to the rites they would become virtuous men ,and if they
could comprehend the spiritual essence , they might become sages whereas
law could serve as a deterrent to evil‐doers .During his educational process ,
he carried this principle through to the end , with the cultivation of both
intellect and character together , for the general promotion of a healthy
social atmosphere .
This period characterized by the great national unity is extremely
different from the previous epoch “ with hundreds of schools of thought
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中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 106 ・
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emperor and his sons . He was twice promoted to the position of the prime
minister(宰相)and was ambitious enough to launch a campaign of packaged
measures and policies aiming at “ financial management , economic
development , military capabilities enhancement , and national defence
consolidation” (“理财 、整军 、富国 、强兵”) .However ,he failed to realize his
aspirations ,and retired with a deep regret ,due to the lack of support from
the frail and timid emperor and the jealousy of his corrupted and short‐
sighted colleagues .As for the education ,he ,with a broad vision ,was able
to identify and condemn the evils of traditional schools and their
incompetent teachers , and even the uselessness of what students had been
taught .He said ,“ Teachers now only taught words and sentences , instead of
convey ing general truths to students as they did in ancient times . In the p ast
f ew years , students have been taught ‘ p rescribed essays’ which could only be
memorized by rote learning , both mechanical and time‐consuming . W hen
students have once had a good command of those p rescribed essays , they
would become the peop le who could neither p lan and administrate strategically
nor carry the specific measures f or the government .” (“学者之所教 ,讲说章句
而已 ,固非古者教人之道也 。 近岁乃始教之以课试之文章 。 夫课试之文章 ,非
博诵强学穷日之力则不能 。 及其能工也 ,大则不足以用天下国家 ,小则不足以
为天下国家之用 。” 上仁宗皇帝言事书 ,载枟临川文集枠) Thus Students brought
up in these traditional schools could neither manage in a macro way nor do
errands for their superior departments .Wang Anshi at the same time stated
his own creative ideas : 1 ) He held that school education was of prime
importance ,with the functions of regulating the behaviours and cultivating
the character of students , so factors of both education and social
environment should be taken into consideration ;2) The objectives of school
education ,to him , were to train useful talents in “ financial management ,
economic development , military capabilities enhancement , and national
defence consolidation ” . Only knowledge related to those objectives should
exclusively be included in their school curriculum .Under the guidance of this
“usefulness” p rinciple ,he attempted the reform in different specialties in the
Imperial College ,and local schools .He required students not only to learn
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中 国 文 化 专 论
classics ,but also the rites ,astronomy ,military science ,laws and medicine
and so on . In teaching methods , he followed Confucian principles of “ the
initiative and eagerness of students ” , advocated the training of positive
thinking in students and demanded teachers to “ value the essence over the
form” (重 本 轻 文 ) and to nurture students in a natural way with good
examples set by teachers themselves .This could be considered as successful
education and sure to bring up useful talents for the nation .
Zhu Xi (朱 熹 1130 — 1200 A .D .) was a famous philosopher , and an
educationist who served as a local official and even taught the emperor .He
was another great master of Confucian philosophy only after Confucius ,
Mencius and Xun Zi , and one of the founders of the Li School of
Confucianism (程 朱 理 学 ) . In conducting private teaching and recruiting
students ,he had been the third greatest private teacher since Confucius and
Zheng Xuan .He devoted himself to the teaching in such a passionate and
selfless way that he even enjoyed teaching students as if he were spellbound
and enchanted ,with his chronic diseases being cured by his teaching .In his
thirty‐year long private teaching career , he initiated the Tong An County
school and engaged in the education in the prefecture , and stipulated rules
for Bailudong Academy of Classical Learning (白鹿洞书院教条) and he was
invited to deliver lectures and debated with other philosophers of the day at
the “debating Forum” being held in different places .He dedicated his life to
the study of Confucian classics and presented all his research findings in his
well‐written book ,“Commentaries on Four Books”(枟四书集注枠) ,which had
been the only authoritative textbook for more than a thousand years after
him .In education , his major ideas can be summed up as follows :1 ) The
objectives of education were to“eradicate human selfish desires and maintain
the heavenly principles ” (“ 存 天 理 ,灭 人 欲”) , for ordinary man摧s selfish
desire often overshadowed or eclipsed “ the heavenly principles” . Only in
sages the heavenly principles prevailed , but other people needed to be
p urified through the educational process so that the good side of them would
be fostered with the evil side suppressed , restoring them back to the ideal
p ersonality of “heavenly and earthly Naturalness” (天地之性) .2) In family
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the nurture of kind individuals and fostering of social customs of benevolence .2)
The principles of education should be one of the unity of knowing and doing .
There were two kinds of people of whose attitudes Wang Shouren had quite
disapproved :one kept blindly doing without reflections and comprehensions while
the other was abstractly reflecting all day without any intentions of practising .
Teachers should set good examples by their exemplary conducts and deeds
consistent with their words ; and in teaching , he did not like the methods of
mechanical learning and corporal punishments of students , and instead he
advocated the natural method of cultivating students in the way gardeners tended
their flowers and plants in the gradually nurturing process so that they gradually
learned to acquire rites and righteousness without feeling their difficulties , and
achieved harmony without experiencing them .
Yan Yuan (颜元 1635 — 1704 A .D .) was a famous scholar and educationist at
the beginning of the Qing Dynasty .During his lifetime ,he had never served in
any official posts ,and always engaged in physical labor .He was able to face the
gloomy life ,confront the crisis of the reality ,no matter how cruel it was ,never
got into the empty world of the spirit ,and thought of seeking asylum in Buddhism
and Taoism .He severely condemned those scholars who indulged in empty talks
and criticized those ideas of Buddhism and Taoism ,which turned out to be of no
avail in solving the practical problems ,he said ,“ I would rather have no learning
of any kind in the nation than the f ake learning and I would rather have no real
sages than those self‐assumed ones so as to command the real learning and produce
the real sages f or the country .” (“宁使天下无学 ,不可有参杂佛老章句之学 ;宁使
百世无圣不可有将就冒认标榜之圣 。 庶几学则真学 ,圣则真圣云尔 。” 存学篇) .
He urged the return to the true learning of the Duke of the Zhou and Confucius ,
and called on people to obtain the practical knowledge of administering state
affairs .For the very idea of Dong Zhongshu from the Han Dynasty ,“ Uphold
justice without making personal profit and understand truth without seeking
official positions .” (“正其宜不谋其利 ,明其道不计其功” 。) He refuted ,“Is there
anyone in the world who has worked hard in the field but never expected of the
harvest ?Is there anyone who has gone to the riverside with nets and hooks but
thought of no fish ?” He believed that Confucianists of the Song Dynasty
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misunderstood Confucius and his doctrines .To him ,with the “six arts” learned
from Confucius , one may obtain emoluments if he is successful in his official
career ,but he can make a living at least if he is not .His educational views are as
follows :1) He severely criticized the school education since the Song and Ming
dynasties , because he thought that students had been taught to do four things ,
namely reading books , writing books , sitting quietly and talking idly about
Buddhism and Taoism ,characterized by the “uselessness” in terms of managing
state affairs .He condemned the “eight‐part essays” (“八股文”)in the imperial
examinations as the number one of the four “ nasty things” , to be with “ the
monks ,the Taoist and the prostitute” ,as this kind of education only produced the
frail scholars who read books to harm themselves and wrote books to harm others ,
never contributing positively to the nation .2) He put forward his own ideal school
education and its talent‐training model when he emphatically pointed out that rites
and music should be learned at the same time ,and culture and military prowess
must be cultivated together , in order to bring up talents for enriching ,
empowering and managing the country ,for they must be strongly built ,with both
military ,practical abilities and strategies to administer the state affairs .3) As to
the teaching contents ,he included the following :(a) “Six aspects” :gold ,wood ,
water ,fire , earth and grain (金 、木 、水 、火 、土 、谷 ) ; (b ) “ Three things” :
“ Benevolent administration ” , “ Resources and Talent Maximization ” and
“Enrichment of the people” (正德 、利用 、厚生) ;(c) “Three Sixes” ,namely “Six
Virtues” ,knowledge (知) ,benevolence (仁) ,sagacity (圣) ,righteousness (义) ,
loyalty (忠) ,and harmony (和) ;“Six Conducts” , piety (孝) ,friendship (友) ,
good‐neighborliness (睦 ) , marriage (姻 ) , shouldering responsibility (任 ) ,
solicitude (恤) ;and “Six arts” ,rites (礼) ,music (乐) ,shooting (射) ,driving
(御) ,calligraphy (书) ,arithmetics (数) .Among these ,he believed that military
science ,agriculture and the rites and music were the most practical and useful
knowledge : military science included art of war and fighting skills for
strengthening the country ; agriculture included reclaiming wasteland , water
conservancy ,equal fields and agronomy for making the state wealthy ; and the
rites and music referred to the knowledge for settling the people in a contented and
tranquil state .4) Teaching methods :He emphasized the importance of “learning”
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(习) and “movement”(动) ,he said ,“ The legendary f ive em perors and three kings ,
the Duke of the Zhou , and Conf ucius all taught people to move , so they made
their history . The Han and the Tang dy nasties f ollowed them in moving , and
created their historical achievements . But the Jin and the Song dynasties merely
dragged out their ignoble existence , indulging in the ‘ void’ of Buddhism and
‘ non‐being’ of Taoism , with their philosophers sitting quietly and talking idly ,
and never moving , as a result , their dynasties collapsed , with no talents moving
and helping . I f irmly hold that a person becomes robust with his personal
movement , a f amily becomes strong with their f amily members moving , and a
country becomes powerf ul with their whole people moving , and the world becomes
mighty with all their people moving collectively .” (“五帝三王周孔 ,皆教天下以动
之圣人也 ,皆以动造成世道之圣人也 。 汉唐袭其动之一二以造其世也 。 晋宋之苟
安 ,佛之空 ,老之无 ,周程朱邵之静坐 ,徒事口笔 ,总之皆不动也 ,即人才尽矣 ,世道
沦矣 。 吾尝言 :一身动则一身强 ,一家动则一家强 ,一国动则一国强 ,天下动则天
下强 。” 枟 言 行 录 枠) He attached such an importance to the combination of
knowledge and practice for the purpose of putting their knowledge into practice .
For effective learning ,he held that three things(Superfluities should be simplified
to save energy ,excessive readings should be reduced to cultivate manners and work
assignments should be lightened to avoid complexities ) should be deleted so that
students could learn more professionally and profoundly .
Wang Fuzhi (王夫之 ,1619 — 1692 A .D .) was a great philosopher and
educationist in the Qing Dynasty .As a scholar with strong moral courage ,
Wang Fuzhi held aloft the banner of righteousness to rally the people against
the Manchurian army when the “Eight‐Banner” soldiers (八旗兵 )from the
northeast of China invaded and occupied Beijing ,and went all the way down
southward to his native province Hunan .While disappointed with his failed
armed rebellion against the Manchurians , he turned to academic research
and devoted himself to education as his life pursuit .At his old age ,he lived a
secluded life in the Stone Boat Mountain in the west of Hunan ,also called
himself “Boat Mountain Old Man”(船山老人) ,where he had buried himself
for 40 years in writing his academic books , completed 70 books in total .
Most of them are lost ,but many of his students had accomplished a lot .As
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for politics ,he had his own ideal ,that is ,a highly unified nation with the
government representing the real interests of people ,rather than a dynasty
by an individual family . He believed that the one who ruled the country
should have a benevolent feeling towards his people .For education ,he had
the following views :1 ) The importance of education and environment for
the cultivation of individual personality :Only after basic material needs of
students had been satisfied together with their family members ,could they
be fostered into ones with such virtues as piety , friendliness ,kindness and
obedience . He compared the uneducated students to the logs not yet
carpentered , as both were useless , because only education could produce
useful individuals and carpenters useful logs through their ‘ carving’ and
‘ p olishing’ p rocess .2 ) Great attention to ‘ movement’ and ‘ acquisition’
(“动” , “ 习 ”) : He held that man摧s mind kept thinking day and night ,
inevitably coming up with new ideas ,with skills sharpened ,so ‘movement’
was positive in developing man摧s talents and cultivating their virtues . In
training individuals ,Wang Fuzhi thought highly of ‘acquisition’ ,as he said ,
“ It is human nature that every one can be kind , and it is through the
acq uisition that some people become unkind , which p roves that acq uisition is
of p rime im p ortance to m an . Man摧s innate hearing abilit y is limited by his
actual range of hearing , j ust as his innate sight is restricted by his actual
distance of sight . Children usually are inf luenced by their f athers and brothers
the moment they toddle and lisp , and also by their f ellow villagers and
relatives as soon as they are able to di ff erentiate between the good and the evil .
Once they have develo ped their own mind and sense organs , they might
neither see Mount Tai nor hear the crash of thunder , as their acq uisition over
the years has conditioned them so . They could never be m ade to give u p their
habits , once f ormed and f ixed , even with the admonition and encouragement
of strict teachers and good f riends ; and they could never even be enabled to
recti fy their erroneous concep tions , once evolved and deep‐rooted , by both
plent y rewards and severe p unishments .” (“人之皆可为善者 ,性也 。 其有必不
可为善者 ,习也 。 习之于人大矣 。 耳限于所闻 ,则夺其天聪 ;目限于所见 ,则夺
其天明 。 父兄熏之于能动能言之始 ,乡党姻娅导之于知好知恶之年 ,一移其耳
・ 114 ・
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① Xunzi(I ) , Tr . John Knoblock , Hunan People摧s Publishing House & Foreign Languages House ,
Changsha and Beijing ,1999 ,P295
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Chapter Seven
The Imperial Examinations and
Ancient China摧s Official Selecting System
科举考试与中国古代的选官制度
・ 118 ・
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Qing Dynasty .Over 1 ,300 years during which time the imperial examination
was being held ,100 ,000 Jinshi (进士) ,or national level talents ,and 1 ,000 ,
000 Juren (举 人 ) , or provincial level talents had been identified and
appointed to different levels of official positions , which provided
governments with plenty of highly educated official candidates for the
effective administration of the whole country and exerted tremendous
international influence over such neighboring countries as Korea , Vietnam
and Japan .
After the other six states were annexed by the State of Qin in 221 B .C .,
China was unified by Qin Shihuang ,the First Emperor ,though it was short‐
lived ;and then subsequently the Han Dynasty was founded by Liu Bang ,a
man of humble birth in the wake of an internal turmoil near the end of the
Qin Dynasty . With the unification of whole China , the political system
adopted was totalitarian in nature with emperors at the core of political
p ower ,and aristocracy as the basis .As the highly centralized government
needed continuously to strengthen its control of both officials and ideology ,
they found that imperial examinations were effective measures in its control
of officials and their minds , and also the means through which talented
official candidates could be identified fairly .
Before the adoption of imperial examinations in 605 in the Sui Dynasty ,the
governments had experimented with Observation and Recommendation System ,
and the Nine Rank System in which examinations were also demanded ,but not so
strictly and rigorously practised .With imperial examinations ,however ,it became
so strict theoretically that candidates摧 success or failures depended solely on their
paperwork .In the Tang Dynasty ,a very open society ,imperial examinations had
such obvious characteristics as follows :
1 .The arrangement of subjects :The Tang Dynasty ,which started the
tradition of attaching much importance to literary creation ,had provided so
broad subjects (including both comprehensive subjects and practical subjects
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such as laws and arithmetics ) for candidates to choose , and even designed
some subjects temporarily to meet the practical needs .The subject for Jinshi
was one of the most important ones ,which included the Tiejing or cloze (帖
经) for testing the knowledge of classics and literary creation ,and writing
p olitical essays (策 论 ) . In the beginning of the Tang Dynasty , official
candidates were still required to answer political questions orally as it was a
tradition ,argumentative essays (经义 )focused on the testing of the ability
and the use of cloze in testing the familiarity with classics represented the
standardization of the examinations .
2 .The rules of examination rooms :Dishonest examiners and examinees were
punished but a detailed rules for both prevention and punishment had not yet been
devised . It was prevalent in the Tang Dynasty that examinees could make
themselves known in advance by sending their own writings to potential
examiners ,usually well‐known literary men ,before the examinations ,and it was
recognized as a practice of making prospective examiners have a full understanding
of prospective examinees(行卷) .Positive as it was in certain sense ,this practice
could be abused and was prohibited in later dynasties .
3 . The Imperial Examinations and education : As an official selecting
system ,the imperial examinations had exerted immense influence upon both
official and private education . In the beginning of the Tang Dynasty ,
official schools were assessed by the success rates of their students in imperial
examinations and successful candidates felt so honored that they were
students from official schools , which made those self‐made and privately
educated candidates shame‐faced for lack of official school education . Private
schools ,however ,were an important part of national education system ,which
government could not afford to ignore ,and attempted to “domesticate” to serve
the official ideology . Imperial examinations was also a process of channelling
private schools into the main stream of national education system .
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dynasty ,established the Song Dynasty through a coup d摧etat and put an end
to the political chaos since the collapse of the Tang Dynasty . The Song
emperors never succeeded in unifying the whole country and was the weakest
dynasty politically and militarily in Chinese history , but it was an
economically prosperous and politically tolerant dynasty .In 1127 A .D .,the
State of Jin (金国) ,a powerful minority regime from northern China ,came
to plunder the country and capture two emperors of the Song Dynasty from
its capital city ,Bianliang (nowadays Kaifeng City ) ,and one of the sons of
the captive emperor ,Zhao Gou ,managed to escape from the ruined capital
city and flee all the way down to the south .In 1127 A .D .,the same year ,
Zhao Gou reestablished the Song Dynasty , historically known as the
Southern Song Dynasty ,in Lin摧an (nowadays Hangzhou ) . During both the
Northern and Southern Song dynasties , imperial examinations were
improved and perfected and became mature in such ways as follows :
1 . The arrangement of subjects : From 605 to 1071 , imperial
examinations mainly followed the normal practice of the beginning of the
Tang Dynasty , but in 1071 , Wang Anshi , the Prime Minister , started to
reform the examination radically :number of subjects was drastically reduced
and only the subject for Jinshi remained .When the dominant role of literary
creation in the subject for Jinshi was challenged , examinees lodged their
complaints against the designer . As a result of careful review of their
complaints ,the subject for Jinshi was divided into two parts : the one for
testing examinees摧 ability of literary creation , the other for testing their
ability of comprehension and analysis of Classics .In the Jin Dynasty ,a third
subject for political essays ,besides the other two ,was added .So far under
the name of Jinshi , three different subjects for literary creation ,
understanding classics and political analysis respectively became
independent . Two ways , the cloze ( The one testing knowledge of the
classical works followed the method of filling in blanks .Usually one page of
a book was chosen and several lines would be omitted .The examinees were
required to fill the missing lines .) and the test of understanding classics
(Examinees might be required to explain some of the lines in the book .
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Therefore the need to be able to recite the work was important .)had existed
side by side for 200 years during both the Tang and the Song dynasties ,but
now cloze was eliminated once for good .
2 .The rules of examination rooms :In the Northern Song Dynasty ,the
Tang practice of sending their writings to potential examiners for more than
200 years was banned thoroughly and any violators could be punished
severely .Many other measures ,such as sealing (弥封) and recopying (誊录)
the examination papers , were adopted , in order to prevent examinees摧s
names from being recognized . What is more , examiners were divided into
inside and outside groups ,entrusted with different responsibilities ,separated
by a curtain and prevented from personal exchanges .During the time when
examinations were being carried out , any acts of passing on information
through pieces of paper or orally were strongly prohibited . Rules and
measures had been stipulated in great detail and enforced strictly .
3 . The Imperial Examinations and education : There were always
contradictions between imperial examinations and official school education
as there was a big difference between the education of officials and contents
of examinations . In the Northern Song Dynasty , there were three great
education promoting campaigns in order to push official school education
forward together with imperial examinations when such famous personages
as Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi became prime ministers in turns and even
supported by then emperors . Owing to many factors , they failed to
accomplish their expected results ,but their efforts were not made entirely in
vain as the complete official school system was evolved and consolidated
during this period ,with universal recognition that official schools were the
talent‐cultivating garden ,an important source of bringing talents ,whereas
imperial examinations were the talent‐identifying and selecting system .
The Yuan Dynasty was the first important Chinese dynasty established
by a national minority ,Mongolians .When the Mongolian rulers came to the
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中 国 文 化 专 论
was followed by the Ming and Qing dynasties without any innovations .By
the time of those last three dynasties ,contents of examinations became even
more clearly qualified , forms of examinations highly standardized and
evaluation of papers objective and fair ,with almost no room for examinees
to demonstrate their individualized views . The exam form of cloze in the
beginning had gradually evolved into a kind of special essays with
standardized explanation of classics ,and finally resulted in an eight‐legged
essay (八股文) ,a rigid and ossified essay which could be evaluated easily and
objectively ,and also heralded the decline of this official selecting system .
2 .The rules of examination rooms :In the last three dynasties ,sealing
and recopying of exam papers became even more rigorous and examination
work was further divided into administrative and evaluative ones separated
by a curtain ,so‐called “inside curtain”and “outside curtain”system ,in order
to prevent examinations from being influenced by interested people . This
had extended to all levels of imperial examinations , even to local
examinations ,with clearly defined responsibilities of each of examination‐
related officials , administrative rules and examination‐related flow of
examinations . Until the Qing Dynasty , the last dynasty , any standards
concerning imperial examinations could not be more detailed and
sophisticated .
3 .The Imperial Examinations and education :In the Liao ,the Jin and
the Yuan dynasties , they were all minority regimes , which held different
views of education from that of the Han people . In the Liao Dynasty ,
Chitans ,their own people ,were generally not allowed to take part in the
imperial examinations ,they used examinations only as a way to buy off the
hearts of the Han people .In the Yuan Dynasty ,imperial examinations were
suspended for 35 years , half of its whole dynasty , official schools ,
therefore , had nothing to do with the imperial examinations . Once they
restarted the examinations , they adopted a policy of racial discrimination ,
and combined school education with imperial examinations , until schools
were reduced to the position of a dependency .In the Ming Dynasty ,the first
emperor ,Zhu Yuanzhang ,thought highly of school education and regarded
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中 国 文 化 专 论
being created . With a hundred years cooling off , Chinese people are now
more rational than they were ,are able to stand aloof and evaluate it more
objectively and fairly ,though they still cherish a love‐hatred feeling towards
this emotion‐loaded system .
As a thousand year old system ,it certainly has many advantages ,with
following three being major advantages :
1 .An Official Selecting System : This system ,in the spirit of fairness and
equality ,bestowed upon everyone ,rich and poor alike ,even foreigners ,regardless
of their age and nationality ,a chance to change their life .Undoubtedly ,it was a
revolutionary advance on the former mechanism which was based exclusively on
kinship .Before the imperial examination system ,personal relations played a very
important role in the appointment of officials . So , the sons of the rich and
powerful could easily get official positions .Since the adoption of this new system ,
examinees摧s written papers had been marked objectively and they had been selected
solely by the results of their examinations .As history has already proved , this
open and equal examination system for a long time gathered the best talents to
serve their country . Through this path , talented people obtained the chance to
facilitate social development and push the country to the peak of ancient
civilization .Among those selected ,there were many famous statesmen ,generals
and literary men .
2 . A Culture Disseminating System : In the long history of imperial
examinations ,Confucian classics and literature had always been compulsory ,
though subjects examined had been changed constantly . Because of this
requirement ,all examinees had been quite familiar with Confucian classics
and had absorbed the core values of traditional Chinese culture . Most of
them became well‐educated and dedicated scholar‐officials who could
shoulder the responsibility of the nation when the country was in the national
crisis ,such as General Wen Tianxiang who braved the death calmly and
never turned a traitor to his emperor while being captured by the enemy ;and
in the time of peace , those scholar‐officials , such as Han Yu , Liu
Zongyuan ,Su Shi and so on ,taught people and disseminated culture in the
remote and uncivilized frontiers under their administration .
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・ 128 ・
Chapter Eight
Tributary System and Ancient
China摧s External Relations
朝贡制度与中国古代的对外关系
The Huaxia people ,later called Han people ,originated in the Central
Plains in East Asian landmass , started to spread outwards and integrated
with the people around ,which made the Chinese nation the most populous in
the world .In the early history ,the ancestors of Chinese created the splendid
civilization ,which the neighboring people so admired and were eager to
imitate . They came from afar to pay their tribute to Chinese emperors ,
which made the Huaxia people feel so proud of themselves ; and hence the
tributary system was gradually formed , with China as the centre , the
suzerain (宗主国 ) , and the neighboring minority regions and countries as
tributary states (朝贡 国 ) . This tributary system , a relationship with both
domestic and international nature ,or something in between ,was the major
system of ancient China摧s external relationship , which had , as a dynamic
p rocess ,embraced both the relationship of the central government with the
neighboring minorities and also with foreign countries , traditionally called
tributary countries ,but gradually regarded as “other countries” in the Qing
Dynasty .With the development of this tributary system ,Chinese conception
of managing “tribal affairs” or “tributary affairs” became so deeply‐rooted at
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According to the legend ,in the time of King Yao and King Shun ,the
chieftains of neighboring tribes had already started to pay tribute to them .
In the Xia Dynasty (2100 B .C .— 1600 B .C .) , there evolved a system of
Wufu (五服) ,or Five Hierarchical Orders ,that is ,subjects were classified
into five grades according to the intimacy of their relationships to the
emperor ;whole China was divided into nine administrative prefectures ,with
the constant tributary relationship between the central and local governments
established ;vassals or prefects offered their local products to the emperor
and acknowledged the principle of “Paying local products as tribute” (任土作
贡 ) , symbolizing their obedience and loyalty . Emperor Cheng Tang
overthrew the Xia Dynasty and established the Shang Dynasty ;he extended
his territory , and issued the decree in which the specific local products
offered as tributes were stipulated , and , for the first time , neighboring
minority came all the way from afar to pay their tributes to the emperors of
China .
In the Zhou Dynasty ,there practised the system of enfeoffment and the
“ Wufu” or the Five Hierarchical Orders ,“ Those who are en f eoffed within the
roy al domain do roy al service . Those who are en f eoffed without the roy al
dom ain do f eudal service . Those who are in the f eudal marches zone do guest
service . The Man and Y i nations do service according to treat y obligations .
The Rong and Di do irregular service . Those who do roy al service p rovide
off erings f or the sacrif ices of thanks ; those who do f eudal service p rovide
・ 130 ・
Chapter Eight
off erings f or the cult sacrif ices ; those who do guest service p rovide f or the
drinking ceremonies ; those who do service according to treaty p resent tribute
off erings ; and those who do irregular service come to p ay their respects at the
succession of the new king .” ① (“封内甸服 ,封外侯服 ,侯 、卫宾服 ,蛮 、夷要服 ,
戎 、狄荒服 。 甸服者祭 ,宾服者享 ,要服者贡 ,荒服者王 。 日祭 ,月祀 ,时享 ,岁
贡 ,终王 。” 枟荀子 ・ 正论篇枠) ,this was designed by the Duke of Zhou ,for the
p urpose of establishing the relationship between the emperor and his vassals .
With the first three orders being the closest vassals or dukes , they were
either intimate with the royal family in blood or close with them politically
who were required to attend the sacrifice‐offering ceremony and whose
relationship might be rightly defined as that of central government and local
governments . In the fourth order , they were the tribe people (minority
p eople) to the east and south of Central Plains , whose ways of life were
quite close to the Huaxia people because they were also agricultural people
who were required to come once a year to pay the tribute to the emperor .
The fifth order included those horse‐riding people engaged in animal
husbandry to the north and west of the Central Plains whose ways of life
were rather different from agricultural Chinese , and they were militant ,
aggressive , and hard to control . For those people , the emperor only
expected their new king to come once upon the time of his coronation ;these
two relationships might be rightly defined as that of the Huaxia people and
the minority people .
As early as in the Shang Dynasty , the position of “ guest (宾 ) affairs”
was set up to be entrusted the responsibility of dealing with both emperors摧
meeting of courtiers and the tributary affairs .In the Zhou Dynasty ,special
organ for managing tribal affairs was set up , responsible for providing
reception , interpreting service , looking after the accommodation of those
delegates whose mission was to pay tribute to Chinese emperors .The Zhou
Dynasty paid much attention to the rites in receiving delegates , which
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Chapter Eight
throughout the long history until the end of the Qing Dynasty when this
system was finally ‘dead’ of the old age .Also during this period ,China set
up tributary relationships with some south and south‐east Asian countries ,
besides resuming tributary relationships with certain countries in the Western
Regions .
In the Tang Dynasty ,China was the strongest and the most prosperous
country in the world and tributary system was made even more rational and
standardized ,many countries came to establish tributary relationships with
China , which made it necessary to set up the frontier prefectures for
ushering tributary emissaries and carrying their tributes ,with clearly defined
responsibilities .Emperors of the Tang Dynasty enjoyed the respects from the
tributary countries and experienced the satisfaction derived from the tributes
from so many countries , and they also felt the financial burden of awards
they had to give to those tributary states in return ,wealthy and affluent as
the Tang Empire was . Though there were more than 70 countries with
tributary relations with the Tang and the royal awards proved burdensome ,
the emperors still maintained the principle of “ more royal gifts for fewer
tribute articles” ,as a matter of face .
The Song Dynasty ,the weakest one in Chinese history ,lost one battle
after another to the minority power , but it made great efforts to “invite”
other countries to “ p ay tribute” to its emperors even in the wake of defeats
for saving face . It was understandable and acceptable for the prosperous
Tang to grant more awards to the tributary countries for vanity摧s sake or
face摧s sake ,but it was absurd and ridiculous for the weak and even defeated
Song court to “ invite” and even pleaded with some overseas countries to
come over and pay their so called “ tributes” for saving face , when they
themselves had already become the tributary country under some militant
northern horse‐riding minority people . The Yuan Dynasty of Mongolian
rulers ,however , gave up the tradition of previous dynasties摧 p rinciple of
granting “ more royal awards for fewer tribute articles ” (厚 往 薄 来 ) ,
demanded too many tributes from tributary countries and interfered with
their internal affairs ,just like greedy and brutal colonialists in modern times
・ 133 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
with strong military backing . This was some new and different cultural
elements injected into Chinese culture as a result of Mongolian rule of the
whole country .
With the Ming Dynasty ,the political power of China was restored to the
Han Chinese again ,the rulers ,on the one hand ,inherited the tradition of
p revious dynasties摧 p rinciple of offering “more royal awards for fewer tribute
articles” ,and ,on the other ,increased the number of tributary countries to
the unprecedented level , with the tributary management greatly improved
and enhanced . The first emperor Zhu Yuanzhang or Hong Wu sent his
envoys overseas to announce the dynastic change in China and were willing ,
and even eager to resume the tributary relations with them by following the
p eaceful foreign policy .
For the national security , the first emperor had his own judgement ,
“ Those countries sep arated by the ocean and mountains constituted no real
threats to China , but the militant nom ads f rom the northern and north‐west
grassland encroached the f rontiers constantly , and best soldiers and generals
should be chosen and trained f or the saf eguarding of the country .” Those
remnant forces of the overthrown Yuan Dynasty and other aggressive
minority people , he thought , must be dealt with seriously , whereas the
Japanese pirates could be eliminated through imposing the ban on the
maritime trade and intercourse with overseas countries .As the government
imposed a ban on maritime trade , the only legal official trade route was
through tributary system ,and it really set the highest record . Against this
background of imposing strict ban on maritime trade and other intercourse
with overseas countries , foreign countries were vying for the only Sino‐
foreign intercourse route — p aying tributes to Chinese emperors . Many
countries ,therefore ,were actively engaged in all kinds of trade transactions
with China under this disguise of tributary relationships . In the Ming
Dynasty , tributary system reached its prime with the largest number of
・ 134 ・
Chapter Eight
・ 135 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 136 ・
Chapter Eight
Starting from the Central Plains where Huaxia people originated ,they
spread outward in four directions and met the neighboring tribesmen who
were backward and less developed , which enhanced their sense of cultural
superiority ,even when they were defeated by those so called “babarians” and
became their subjects , Huaxia people could still comfort themselves by
seeking refuge in their cultural superiority . This cultural superiority was
deeply rooted in the Hua‐xia Centric Consciousness and the Concept of Great
National Unity , which was evolved and fixed as essential parts of Huaxia
p eople摧s national psychology .Before Qin Shi‐huang , the first great unifier
of China ,unified China in 221 B .C ., Huaxia people had already had this
idea of Great National Unity , of course in mind or psychology ; national
unification in reality had been made true only in the Qin and the Han
dynasties , p reviously only an idea of people yearning for unification , and
now a reality .Traditional Chinese society was a rigidly stratified one ,with
p eople being placed or predestined in different strata or classes .State was
modeled upon family , as state was the magnified family and family the
reduced state .With this idea in mind ,Chinese rulers designed their external
relations with neighboring people and adopted tributary system with rigid
strata , demanding them to acknowledge allegiance to Chinese emperors
p olitically ,and in return bestowing upon them a lot of financial awards as
stimuli .For many tributary states ,their relationship to the suzerain ,China ,
was only nominal , and Chinese emperors were greatly satisfied with their
merely acknowledging the nominal position as “ Emperors of the World ” .
This aspect of Chinese culture , valuing face above everything else , was
inherited by posterity and further strengthened as “Chinese Idea of Face” or
“Excessive Considerations of Face” to the extent that they were even willing
to make great sacrifices to save face .
・ 137 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
dead ,existing either explicitly or implicitly . The idea behind the system
p roved perennial and even everlasting ,affecting modern Chinese diplomatic
behaviours and international communications and exchanges .
As to the features of tributary system ,there are three as follows :
1 . The tributary system reflects the introversion or inwardness of
Confucianist culture : Confucius believed that Chinese emperors should
improve their morality so that they would win over minority people in the
frontiers who might come over to pay the tribute to Chinese emperors .Our
ancestors seldom thought of reaching out and contacting them in their land .
What is more ,they had strong prejudices against those people in the distant
land .Ban Gu ,a great historian from the Han Dynasty says ,“ The Rong and
the Y i peop le , with their weird hairst y le and strange garment , are greedy
beasts in human shape , who live by hunting and cattle‐herding in the cold
northern grassland , with clothes , customs and languages rather di ff erent
f rom ours . They are sep arated f rom us by mountains and deserts as Heaven
will the di ff erence between the outside and the inside . So f ormer wise kings
considered them so lowl y as beasts that they neither concluded treaties with
them nor con q uered them , f or they believed that they might be cheated i f
signing treaties , and would spend more money in vain in attacking them ,
which might invite more troubles ; their grassland is not suitable f or f arming
and their peop le can not be m ade submissive sub jects . Those peo ple should
never be considered as close and intimate as ours , f or our political education
in Con f ucianism never reached them , and they are not p art of us . They
should be resisted if they came down to invade , and military def ensive
p rep aration m ust be m ade af ter they lef t . W hen they off ered tribute in the
name of admiration , they should be received with due rites . This has been the
established policy ancient sage kings adop ted .” ① This fully reveals the
suspicion of minority people ,lack of confidence ,and timidity of Chinese in
dealing with the nomads or alien people : They tried to keep those alien
p eople far away from them ,never concluded treaties with them for fear of
① 枟汉书 ・ 匈奴传赞枠
・ 138 ・
Chapter Eight
being cheated ,seldom fought them for fear of courting more troubles ,and
always had to join the war passively only when the war was imposed on
them . They never had the avarice to occupy their land and sometimes
thought of educating their people with our values . The Italian Catholic
missionary Matteo Ricci (1552 — 1610 ) came to China in 1582 , lived for
nearly thirty years and died in Beijing in 1610 ,who had a thorough study of
Chinese and their culture .He once says ,“ They are never allowed to see their
em perors , and their di p lomatic and other f oreign aff airs are dealt with by
special im perial commissioners . All people f rom the high‐ranking off icials
down to the com mon masses are f orbidden to have any contacts with f oreigners
excep t in the specially designated place and time .” ① Thus ,there was only one
route left for Sino‐foreign interactions : tributary relations . In comparison
with modern European international relations ,within this tributary system ,
Chinese rulers emphasized the moral education of “babarians” and treatment
of them with courtesy , and keep them safely away , as a means of
safeguarding national security , whereas European colonialists simply
conquered ,slaughtered the aboriginals ,even shipped them to Americas and
sold them into slavery . Chinese aim was defensive , whereas European
colonialist offensive ,in pursuit of maximum profits .Chinese never felt at ease
even when they had normal relations with minority or alien people , how could
they be expected to go out of their ways to develop commercial relations with
them ,deep in the desert ,far over the mountains and distant across the oceans ?
They had only one way as their natural choice ,establishing and fostering tributary
relations with minority and neighboring people .
2 . Chinese vanity and tributary avarice are embodied in tributary
system :Within the tributary system , Chinese had not only restricted what
they considered as “troublesome problem” — dealing with alien people to the
controllable degree , but also maximized the satisfaction of their vanity
derived from these contacts .Those minority or alien people came from afar ,
carrying with them all kinds of rare treasures , kneeling down before our
・ 139 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
emperors , submissively pleading for rewards and titles , with piety and
loyalty ,which greatly satisfied the vanity of our emperors and even their
subjects . Of course , Chinese emperors were fully aware of their real
intentions of paying tributes under the disguise of ‘ great admiration of
Chinese culture摧 ,and continuously encouraged and even motivated them with
abundant material awards and benefits ; those tributary states also took
advantage of offering tributes to maximize their benefits : both emperors摧
bounty grants and profits made from the tributary trade within the specially
designated places , which greatly satisfied their strong desire for profits .
Driven by the tremendous profits , some tributary states , such as Korea ,
applied for more opportunities to pay tributes to Chinese emperors ‘in order
to express their loyalty and piety摧 .In this sense ,it is mutually beneficiary ,
otherwise it is hardly thinkable that this system should have lasted more than
a thousand years . “ For Chinese rulers , the moral value is the most
im portant , f or the tributary states , m aterial value f rom trade most
attractive .” ( J .K . Fairbank ) ; Chinese rulers understood clearly that
tributary states sought material benefits in the name of admiration for the
magnificence and profundity of Chinese culture ,and still welcome them to
come and pay tributes because they knew that this system was built on the
interdependence and mutual benefits .The highest national interests of China
were to build peaceful and stable neighborly relations , ensuring the peace
along the frontiers , whereas the maximum profits were what they were
after .
3 .The tributary system indicates the Chinese psychology in suppressing
the commercialism and tributary psychology in fostering mercantilism :
China had never been a country with any tendency of mercantilism ,instead
it suppressed trade .In Chinese history ,businessman was considered as the
last among four social strata ,after scholar‐officials ,farmers and craftsmen ;
during certain dynasties ,they were even discriminated against and forced to
wear certain clothes as a mark of disgrace ; they were excluded from the
eligible candidates for imperial examinations ,for their participation in the
examination were thought to be insults to all other examinees if they were
・ 140 ・
Chapter Eight
allowed to take part in the examinations .From the time when the tributary
system was established , the inclusion of trade within this system itself was
actually an act of restriction on trades , rather than the encouragement of
trades ; trades and other business activities were originally beneficiary to
both the people and the country , but they were made ‘ baits’ to attract
overseas countries to pay tributes in order to create an atmosphere of peace
and prosperity reigning across the nation . Tributary states from around
China , however , displayed a general tendency of mercantilism , taking
advantage of Chinese craving for vanity ,and harvesting their profits as they
had a better understanding of Chinese culture and their people . Thus a
century‐old ‘win‐win摧 system had been built ,with both sides being satisfied
as each got what it wanted .This was admittedly an unequal political system ,
but it was only nominal or symbolic ,without any legal validity . Though it
was unequal ,it is different from the unequal treaties in modern world in that
modern unequal treaties have the legal validity , harming the national
interests and integrity of colonized countries .Tributary System was unequal
p olitically but it gave tributary states real material benefits and Chinese
emperors only satisfied their own vanity .
Tributary System was a mixture of ancient international and trade
relations , connecting many Asian countries and regions politically ,
economically and culturally before the advent of Western colonialists .As a
thousand‐year‐old system ,it became inevitably dead in the 19th century .But
the idea behind this system is still alive , persistently , affecting Chinese
international interactions , communications and exchange in many ways .
Modern Chinese feel the burden of this heritage , the difficulty in its
eradication and the necessity in its total abandonment .If they are to create a
new future ,they have to clean up this cultural “Augean Stable” .
・ 141 ・
第一章
两种经济与中国古代的农业文明
一 、两种经济并存
・ 143 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
二 、农业文明的社会理想和人生追求
・ 144 ・
第一章 两种经济与中国古代的农业文明
三 、中国古代农业的诞生及演变
・ 145 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 146 ・
第一章 两种经济与中国古代的农业文明
・ 147 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 148 ・
第一章 两种经济与中国古代的农业文明
2 .京杭大运河
京杭大运河 ,或称中国大运河 ,可谓世界上最长的人工运河 。 北起通州 ,流
经天津 、山东 、江苏 、浙江 ,南达杭州 。 运河最古老的部分可追溯到公元前 5 世
纪 ,但其他部分多是在隋朝贯通 。 大运河是一项大规模的综合水利工程 ,它集
运输 、灌溉和排洪于一体 。 运河两岸是皇家大道和信息传递通道 ,历代王朝还
在运河两岸植树 ,以美化两岸环境 。
大运河的早期历史 :早在春秋晚期 ,吴王夫差企图向北征服临近的齐国 ,
于是他命人挖凿运河 。 此举既有通商的目的 ,又有在他征战宋国和鲁国时运
送军需的计划 。 这段运河被称作“邗沟” 。 公元前 486 年在江苏扬州开始此
项工程 ,三年后 ,邗沟通过现成水道 、湖和沼泽地把长江与淮河相连 。 邗沟事
实上是大运河第二古老的部分 ,因为鸿沟的挖掘很可能早于它 。 它在开封城
边将黄河与泗水和汴水连接 。 鸿沟开凿的准确时间难以断定 ,战国时期的外
交家苏秦讨论国家之间边界时首次提到鸿沟 。 司马迁认为它比公元前 4 世
纪早多了 ,应该是传说中的大禹的杰作 。
大运河的竣工与维修 :隋朝开国皇帝隋文帝开始这一浩大工程 ,但工程
的完全建成是从公元 604 年至 609 年 ,在第二代皇帝隋炀帝时全线完工 。 它
首先连接洛阳与扬州和长江流域 ,然后向南扩展到杭州 ,向北到达北京 。 当
运河全线贯通时 ,它沟通了钱塘江 、长江 、淮河 、黄河和海河五大水系 。 杭州
和长江之间的南方河段称作江南河 ,意思是长江以南 。 今天看到的大运河的
大部分河段是隋朝人挖凿的 ,这是中国经济和文化中心从黄河流域向今天江
浙地区转移的结果 。 隋朝之后 ,各代为了缩短时间都对河道有小的增添 ,但
总的来说与隋时期并无本质区别 。 公元 10 世纪发明了双闸门 ,以利于大船
安全行走 。 船可以在大闸门内等待 ,当水位降或升到比较合适的位置 ,船方
可上行或下行 。 船闸门上还加有顶篷 ,为船只提供更加安全的 保障 。 元朝
时 ,都城迁至北京 ,这样船只就不必向西到开封或洛阳 。 13 世纪 80 年代 ,在
山东截弯取直 ,使整个运河长度减少了 700 千米 (使运河全长成了 1800 千
米) ,首次把杭州和北京通过直接的南北水路连接起来 。
四 、中国农业的重要发展阶段
・ 149 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
五 、中国古代农学重要成果
中国古代不仅有发达的农业生产实践 ,同时也产生了许多世界级农学家 。
・ 150 ・
第一章 两种经济与中国古代的农业文明
・ 151 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
总而言之 ,枟齐民要术枠首先提出了农业耕作精湛技艺和精耕细作完整结构
体系的农学大全 ;其次 ,它是提高经济效益的农业经营指南 ,其三 ,它还为农产
品加工方面的研究提供了理论依据 。
(二) 宋应星与他的枟天工开物枠
宋应星(1587 — 1661 年) ,江西奉新县人 ,明朝杰出科学家 ,被赞誉为“中国
的狄德罗” ,曾任江西分宜县教谕 。 在为官期间 ,勤于著述 ,完成多部著作如枟论
气枠 、枟谈天枠 、枟原耗枠 、枟美利笺枠 、枟杂色文枠 、枟天工开物枠等 ,可惜大多失散 。 他的
研究兴趣广泛 ,文学造诣深厚 ,并具有朴素的唯物主义思想 。
枟天工开物枠是他最有影响的著作 ,17 世纪末传入日本 ,后逐渐传播到欧洲 ,
现有两个日文全译本 ,两个英译本 ,还有法 、德 、俄 、意大利等文的摘译本等 。 作
者在继承发扬前人优秀研究成果的基础上 ,进行了自己独创性研究 。
1 .在作物分类学上 ,提出一些新的方法与标准 ,其方法与标准和今人有令
人惊奇的相似 ,如他将古代农业归纳为乃粒 、乃服 、彰施 、粹精 、甘嗜 、膏液 、曲蘖
七大类 ,这完全是他自己的独创 。 他提出将水稻列在五谷之首 ,稻下分水稻和
旱稻 ,麦下分大麦和小麦 ,认为荞麦不是麦等观点 。
2 .在水稻栽培技术上 ,比较早地阐述秧龄与早穗之关系 ,提出再生秧技术 ,
以及冷浆田中以骨灰 、石灰包秧根技术 ,对提高产量意义重大 ,还记述了早稻在
干旱条件下变异的问题 ,在世界生物变异理论史上具有重要意义 。
3 .在麦类田间管理上 ,首先提出以砒霜拌豆麦种子 ,防治病虫害 ;在养蚕技
术上 ,最先提出“早雄配晚雌”的杂交优势培育新品种 ,以及防治家蚕“软化病”
的方法等 ;还记述山羊绒可用于织造之事 。
4 .在金属冶炼方面 ,空前绝后地提出串联式炒炼法 ,记述了明代灌钢工艺
的发展 。 在铸造技术上 ,以图文并茂的方式记述了大型器物的铸造工艺 ,图示
了活塞式鼓风箱的使用 。 在金属加工方面 ,记述了响铜的合金成分以及有关响
器的成型工艺 ,钢铁拉拔工艺等 。
5 .在煤炭技术方面 ,较早提出了煤的分类问题 ,以及煤井排除瓦斯的方法 。
在化工技术方面 ,记述了银朱生产过程中的质量互变关系 ,这可以说是“化合
物”观念的萌芽 。
总之 ,枟天工开物枠洋洋十八卷 ,内容包括农业技术 、金属冶铸技术以及其他
相关知识与技术 ,但农业技术是其主要部分 。 作者的目的是向世人介绍农业 、
手工业的生产知识 。 作者认为 ,知识都要靠别人口授 ,或自己亲自观察实践 ,那
・ 152 ・
第一章 两种经济与中国古代的农业文明
・ 153 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
六 、中国农业文明简论
中国是世界上少数几个农业起源中心之一 ,也是人类文明的重要发祥地之
一 。 在人类大多数文明还处在萌芽状态时 ,中国的农业文明已如太阳升起在东
方一样开始普照大地 ,这个古老的东方文明已经成熟了 。 由于农耕社会的相对
稳定和生活基本有保障 ,中国人口一直都比较众多 。
但是 ,在中国古代 ,农耕文化与游牧文化如连体婴儿一样不可分离 ,互相斗
争 ,又互为依存 ,注定要通过血与火融为一体 。 在数千年的历史上 ,大多数王朝
都饱经边患 、游牧民族侵扰之苦 。 中国大多数朝代和大多数时候都采取被动防
御 ,甚至采用“和亲”等屈辱之策 ,以换得短暂的和平 。 对于游牧民族的侵扰 ,汉
民族历来只作道德谴责 ,认为这些“化外之民” ,不谙“圣人之教” ,汉人以此逻辑
对他们鄙视一番 ,赢得了心理优势 ,也就得到自我安慰 ,但是 ,现实是残酷的 ,于
是年复一年 ,或小股骚扰 ,或大举南下 ,在中原地区和边关上 ,这一幕幕“捕猎
者”与“猎物”的追逐不断上演着 ,形成了中国历史上一道“凄惨”亮丽的风景线 。
在数千年的历史上 ,除了道德谴责和诅咒外 ,汉人很少对游牧民族的生存
形态 、状况作更进一步思考 ,也几乎没有深入到他们的草原了解一番 ,因此也就
不可能得出任何真正解决问题的有价值的结论 。 农耕民族的思维定势就这样
牢固形成 ,并随着历史发展而愈加巩固 ,两个少数民族入主中原的王朝(元朝和
清朝)以及历史上多次少数民族建立的小朝廷逐渐改变了中国历史的走向 ,加
速了民族融合的步伐 ,给汉民族的思维定势注入了新鲜血液 ,使之视野开阔 。
历史进入近代 ,当西方列强以坚船利炮打进国门 ,清政府也予以道德谴责 ,
并未认真研究这些国家 。 对于外部世界发生的事情 ,一味以自己的“一厢情愿”
的思维思考 ,因此 ,总是缺乏积极有效的应对之策 。 如果我们能跳出自己的思
维定势 ,站在对手的视角看问题 ,甚至跳上太空 ,俯视这“小小环球” ,获得更加
开阔的视野 ,弄清那些困扰我们民族生存与发展问题的症结所在 ,问题也就容
易解决了 。
中华民族的先祖以无与伦比的智慧与勇气 ,开创了人类历史上灿烂辉煌的
农业文明 ,但是他们在农耕时代形成的思维定势却成了后代人难以摆脱的历史
积习和包袱 ,影响了中国历史的发展进程 。 当然 ,后代中国人决不能以此怪罪
先祖们 ,认为他们的荣耀成了后世的积习 ,而应与时俱进 ,不断打碎“思想枷
锁” ,卸掉“思想包袱” ,以先祖的勇气和智慧开创现代的“不世之功” 。
・ 154 ・
第二章
礼乐制度与中国古代的伦理文化
一 、礼乐制度的产生
① 杜佑编枟通典 ・ 礼志枠 。
② 章太炎枟检论枠 ,转引自枟中国古代文化史讲座枠 ,王力等著 ,广西师范大学出版社 ,2007 年 10 月 ,
第 104 页 。
・ 155 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
① 枟汉书 ・ 礼乐志枠 。
・ 156 ・
第二章 礼乐制度与中国古代的伦理文化
二 、礼乐制度的内容及兴衰
・ 157 ・
中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 158 ・
第二章 礼乐制度与中国古代的伦理文化
3 .西周初年礼乐 :乐本于德
西周创建 ,以殷商为鉴 ,在乐制方面也一反商之淫风 ,兴正礼乐 ;在祭祀上 ,
也一改殷人“尚声色”的传统 ,注重祭品之馨香以慰先祖之灵 ,逐渐将祭品馨香
气味内化提升为内在的道德精神 ,从中可以看出 ,周人在制乐中充分体现了“以
德为乐本”的思想 。
4 .东周末年“新声” :礼坏乐崩
东周末年 ,诸侯争霸 ,天下大乱 ,其特点则是“礼坏乐崩” ,天下无道 。 孔子
对此痛心疾首 ,并以自己儒学的正统思想对此进行了无情的鞭笞 。 这一时期 ,
就音乐自身的发展 ,古音乐体系基本形成 ,其标志是“五音” (宫 、商 、角 、徵 、羽)
阶体系与“十二律”(黄钟 、大吕 、太簇 、夹钟 、姑洗 、仲吕 、蕤宾 、林钟 、夷则 、南吕 、
无射 、应钟)的绝对高音的形成 。 孔子就礼乐制度提出儒家明确的标准 ,推崇西
周乐制 ,赞美“雅乐” ,反对“新声” ,孔子曰 ,“乐则枟韶枠 、枟武枠 ,放郑声 ,远佞人”
(枟论语 ・ 卫灵公枠) 。 他认为 ,舜帝时代的枟大韶枠是最为雅正的音乐 ,尽善尽美
的音乐 ,而反映武王伐纣的枟大武枠虽行“霸道” ,“以暴易暴” ,但属于正义的讨
伐 ,不能说是尽善之音乐 ,但也可归于壮美 、雄奇的“圣乐”之列 。 这里相当明确
地体现了孔子的以雅乐“正风俗 、明人伦”的乐教思想 。
第二阶段 :孔子之后 ,即秦汉之后 。
秦汉建立乐府 ,专门管理音乐 ,至武帝改制 ,基本健全完善了乐府制度 。 大
一统巩固后的西汉在音乐方面呈现两个特点 :汉朝乐府既继承周朝的乐制 ,关
注音乐所反映的民情民意 ,以及发挥音乐的教化功能 ,又以宏大的气魄兼收并
蓄各国如赵 、秦 、楚等的音乐 ,甚至也吸收了新声 ,不似前朝那样“雅乐”与“新
声”截然对立 。
魏晋南北朝时期 ,一方面继承传统乐制 ,另一方面也吸收佛教的“法曲”和
少数民族的“胡乐” 。 唐朝以空前的开放使胡 、汉文化交融 ,传统的“雅乐”更是
与西域少数民族音乐实现前所未有的交融 ,真正模糊了雅音与郑声的界线 ,唐
明皇更是沉溺于“夷音” 。 北宋初年皇帝还比较重视雅乐 ,整个宋朝也还是产生
了一大批精通声律的大臣 ,但他们大多不被朝廷重用 ,竟出现宫廷音乐衰落 ,古
代雅乐衰亡难以挽回 ,以至于宫廷活动还得请民间艺人代为表演 ,民间艺人开
始出现专业组织 ,到唐宋之后 ,古代雅音的衰亡已是很难挽救了 。
(三) 礼乐制度的兴衰
从夏商周三朝至秦统一六国 ,再从秦汉至末代王朝清的被推翻 ,中国历史
上王朝更迭 ,此兴彼亡 。 每一次王朝兴替 ,对于社会经济都是一次大的破坏 ,生
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三 、礼乐制度对于构建伦理文化的重要作用
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四 、礼乐制度与伦理文化评价
中国以礼乐之邦闻名于世 ,盖其礼乐制度是政治制度的重要组成部分 。 中
国先贤们早在夏商周 ,甚至更早 ,就已经在创造着礼乐制度 ,并将其与国家管理
密切结合起来 ,令人赞叹 ,令人仰慕 。 礼仪对于一个社会的重要性是不言而喻
的 ,而能将乐与之配合 ,发挥谐和作用则是中华民族先贤的高度智慧和治世能
力的体现 。
传统中国社会是一个等级森严的“礼不下庶人 、刑不上大夫”的社会 ,且认
为“惟上智与下愚不移也” 。 “礼”明确规定了社会各个等级的尊卑贵贱 ;礼在定
位人们的社会地位 、使人们安于其位 、勿生非分之想 ,巩固社会秩序 、稳定社会
人心等方面起到了无与伦比的作用 ,正所谓“礼节民心” ,而那些繁复的礼仪又
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第三章
“天人合一”与中国人的和谐理念
一 、“天人合一”文化内涵
“天人合一”是中国传统哲学的一个重要概念 ,不同哲学流派对此都有具体
阐发 。 先秦时期已经产生了这一思想 ,即天与人存在“互通”的关系 ,中医名著
枟黄帝内经枠认为 ,人“与天地相应 ,与四时相副 ,人参天地” (枟灵枢 ・ 脉要精微
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第三章 “天人合一”与中国人的和谐理念
二 、中国文化哲学中的和谐理念
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① 洪修平 、吴永利枟禅学与玄学枠 。
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性 ,才使他们设计出这以“和谐”为中心的宗藩关系 。 为了鼓励周边少数民族和
邻国朝贡创造和谐的宗藩关系 ,达到中外和谐 ,周边安宁 ,共享太平 ,中国朝廷
采取了种种有效的激励政策和措施 ,使他们更加仰慕中华文化 ,同时又感到有
利可图 。
首先 ,“远人不服 ,则修文德以来之” ,努力提高宇内治理的“文德”和教化水
平 ,苦修“内功” ,使“远人”感到更加仰慕和向往中国发达先进的文明 ,愿意跋山
涉水 、不辞辛劳远赴中原 ,学习借鉴中国文明 ,其中在唐朝就有许多国家的留学
生或遣唐使远赴长安学习中国文化和制度 ,日本是其中学习最为虔诚 ,而且效
果最好的 ,他们深入研究并吸收了唐朝的许多制度 ,以创制日本自己的制度 。
这是以“文德”折服四夷 ,使他们倾心中华 ,为其吸引 。
其次 ,朝廷以“厚往薄来”的恩惠政策 ,以优厚的物质赏赐激励“远人”积极
主动前赴中原 ,通过朝贡获得丰厚物质赏赐 ,外加朝贡贸易利润 ,他们当然愿意
不惜一切代价 ,甚至远涉重洋 ,进行朝贡 。 这是所谓“怀柔” 、“羁縻”政策 ,以“利
益”驱动四夷 ,使他们感到有利可图 ,“不虚此行” ,其中高丽国经常要求增加朝
贡次数以表达“孝敬之心” ,其实主要还是物质诱惑难以抗拒 ,这让宗主国有时
都感到不堪重负 ,难以承受 。
其三 ,朝廷主动赴海外去招徕“藩属国”前来朝贡 ,以营造宇内一统 、天下太
平 、万国来朝的盛世景象 ,明成祖曾派遣郑和以庞大的舰队七下西洋 ,既不征服
所访国家 ,也不与他们进行贸易活动 ,毫无经济目的和征服野心 ,仅仅为了招徕
一些藩属国前来朝贡 ,建立和谐宗藩关系 ,这些国家也确实派遣了人员前来朝
贡 ,有些甚至派遣王子等高级别贵族前去北京称臣纳贡 ,皇帝也以慷慨的赏赐
回赠他们 。
历史上 ,中国朝廷曾采取的这一系列政策和措施 ,建立了以中国为宗主国
的宗藩体系 ,其目的是缔造和谐的宗藩关系或和谐的中外关系 ,以求宇内和睦 ,
四海安宁 ,天下太平 。
三 、“天人合一”思想评价
世界各种文化的先民们首先遇到的问题都是人与天所代表的人与自然的
关系问题 ,因为地理 、人文 、历史等种种原因 ,不同文化设定了不同的关系 ,也就
给出了不同的解决方式或者相处方式 。 西方人设定出主客二分的关系 ,即人是
主体 ,而自然万物是客体 ,自然从一开始就处于人的对立面 ,是人要认识与征服
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第四章
儒道互补与中国士人的心灵世界
在中国众多的哲学流派中 ,就其对中国文化以及中国士人的心灵建构所产
生的深远影响而言 ,任何一个流派都无法与儒家和道家相比 。 儒家和道家两派
看似互相对立 ,实则互为补充 ,在塑造和影响中国士人的心灵建构方面发挥了
不可替代的互补作用 。 孔子以及他所创立的儒学在塑造中国国民性格和文化
心理结构上的历史地位是毋庸置疑的 ,孔学甚至成了中国文化的同义语 。 孔子
以理性主义精神阐释中国古代原始文化 ,不作抽象的玄思 ,以理性观照现实生
活 、伦理情感和政治理念 。 孟子和荀子承继孔子的理性精神 ,沿着孔学的基本
思路 ,完善了儒学体系 ,形成了儒家无神论 (怀疑论)的世界观和积极入世的人
生观 。 道家 ,作为儒家最主要的对立学派 ,有效地平衡和补充了儒家学说 ,相辅
相成地塑造中国人的世界观 、人生观 、文化心理结构 。 在中国士大夫的心灵深
处 ,完美地体现了儒道两种哲学思想的兼容并蓄 ,互相依存 ,互为补充 ,“达则兼
济天下 ,穷则独善其身”就是他们人生的真实写照 。
一 、孔子其人及儒家思想
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倦”是他真实的人生写照 。
儒学基本内容 :儒学为孔子首创 ,由孟子 、荀子等儒学大师发展完善 ,到汉
代 ,董仲舒的“天人三策”得到汉武帝赏识 ,遂“罢黜百家 ,独尊儒术” ,成为国家
主流和主导意识形态 ,以后虽有短暂衰落 ,但其主导性地位始终未能撼动 。 宋
代的“程朱理学”以及宋代陆九渊和明代王阳明的“心学”则是儒学发展到封建
社会末期的最后辉煌 。 纵观中国两千多年的封建历史 ,自孔子创立儒学以后 ,
它基本上成为了中国封建社会的官方意识形态 ,受到历代统治阶级的高度重视
和特别推崇 。
孔子的儒学核心是“仁” ,所谓“仁者爱人” ,主张以爱人之心调节各种社
会关系 ,其思想应用到治国方面就是“以德治国” ,反对滥用民力 ,滥施杀伐 。
面对春秋末年 ,天下大乱的局面 ,孔子感到痛心疾首 ,称之为“礼崩乐坏” ,主
张“克己复礼”(枟论语 ・ 颜渊枠) ,维护周礼 ,其主要思想渗透在他晚年审编的
枟诗经枠 、枟尚书枠 、枟易经枠 、枟礼记枠和枟春秋枠中 。 孟子在战国时期 ,发展了孔子
的“仁政”思想 ,提出“民贵君轻” (枟孟子 ・ 尽心下枠)的民本思想 ,荀子则从唯
物论的角度提出“制天命而用之”的思想 ,他认为 ,自然规律完全可以被人认
识 ,并能为人带来福祉 。 除孔子修订的五经 ,孔子的弟子以及再传弟子们编
写了枟大学枠 、枟中庸枠 、枟论语枠和枟孟子枠四书 。 这“四书五经”遂成了儒学的开
山之作 。
秦始皇以武力扫平六国 ,定鼎天下 。 为了尽快安定人心 ,统一思想 ,他仍
以法家思想 ,雷霆手段 ,“焚书坑儒” ,秦王朝的短命使统治者无暇考虑儒学的
问题 。 汉初 ,以黄老之学 ,与民休息 ,经六七十年 ,国力强盛 ,武帝乃采纳一代
鸿儒董仲舒“罢黜百家 、独尊儒术”的建议 ,把儒学提升为国家统治思想 。 董
仲舒还提出了“天人感应”的思想 。 唐朝皇帝以老子姓李而尊道家思想 ,出现
了儒道佛并驾齐驱的局面 。 宋朝出现以二程和朱熹为代表的“程朱理学” ,朱
熹则是“理学”的集大成者 ,他的主要思想都记载在枟四书章句集注枠和后人编
的枟朱子语类枠里 ,这些重要思想都是以儒学为基础的 。 宋朝的陆九渊和明朝
的王阳明创立了“心学” ,他们认为“心是万物之源” ,“心外无物 ,心外无理 ,心
外无事 。”“理学”和“心学”都是儒学在封建社会的后期不同的历史阶段的发
展 ,为当时的统治阶级所尊崇 ,成为科举考试的经典范本 ,也是主流的国家意
识形态 。
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二 、老子其人及道家思想
老子作为道家创始人被后代敬仰 ,但他的生平事迹一如他的哲学思想扑朔
迷离 ,令人很难捕捉到他的踪迹 。 想象当年他的生活必定是闲云野鹤 ,居无定
所 ,终日以自然为伴 ,谛听天籁之声 ,参悟着其中的玄机 。 老子的生平并不是因
为年代的久远 ,在今天变得模糊 ,其实在司马迁的时代就已经是个传说 ,“老子
者 ,楚苦县厉乡曲仁里人也 ,姓李氏 ,名耳 ,字摐 ,周守藏室之史也 … … 或曰 :老
莱子亦楚人也 … … 或曰儋即老子 ,或曰非也 ,世莫知其然否 。 老子 ,隐君子也 。”
司马迁这里已经认为有三个可能的老子 ,后世更是众说纷纭 ,莫衷一是 。 据枟史
记枠记载 ,孔子曾向老子请教 ,回来说“其犹龙邪” ,可见老子有龙之雄奇 ,高深莫
测 ,孔子都敬若神明 ,可见老子应该早于孔子 。 从传说中的老子个性 ,他肯定不
像孔子那样以授徒讲学为己任 。 虽有弟子 ,但为数不多 ,其后世主要代表人物
为庄子 。 庄子 ,名周 ,战国宋国蒙人(今河南商丘东北) ,是老子之后最著名的道
家学派代表人物 ,著名思想家 、哲学家 、文学家 。 庄子继承和发展了老子的思
想 ,他的哲学思想虽包罗万象 ,反映了当时社会的各个侧面 ,但他的基本思想还
是与老子一脉相承的 ,后世称“老庄哲学” 。 庄子一生潦倒 ,但却不接受楚威王
的聘请 ;他虽做过漆园小吏 ,生活仍很贫穷 。 庄子品德高洁 ,个性鲜明 ,言语犀
利 ,天性淡泊名利 ,主张清静无为 。 庄子表面平静 ,与世无争 ,也很率性 ,骨子里
有着强烈的爱憎 ,其文汪洋恣肆 ,博大雄奇 ,非常富有想象力 。
道家主要思想 :老子高屋建瓴 ,从形而上的角度探索人与自然的关系 ,创立
了他的本体论和宇宙论 。 “道”的概念是老子哲学的最高范畴 ,更是中国古代哲
学中的重要概念 。 以“道”为核心 ,老子创立了自己的哲学体系 ,甚至可以说 ,老
子是中国哲学的开创者 。 老子对于宇宙起源和本体的探求 ,他的认识论和丰富
的辩证法思想 ,都是他学说中最具有“独创性”的人类哲学思想 。 “老子的道论
是中国哲学本体论的开始 ,这是确然无疑的 。 在中国哲学本体论的发展过程
中 ,道家学说居于主导地位 。” ① “道”是老子思想中最为重要的命题 ,老子说 ,“有
物混成 ,先天地生 。 寂兮寥兮 ,独立而不改 ,周行而不殆 ,可以为天地之母 。 吾
不知其名 ,强字之曰道 ,强为之名曰大 。 大曰逝 ,逝曰反 。 故道大 ,天大 ,地大 ,
人亦大 。 域中有四大 ,而人居其一焉 。 人法地 ,地法天 ,天法道 ,道法自然 。”
① 张岱年枟道家在中国哲学史上的地位枠 ,刊于枟道家文化研究枠第六辑 。
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三 、儒道学派异同及其互补
(一) 儒道学派之异同
从表层看 ,儒 、道是完全对立的 ,一个主张入世 ,一个主张出世 ;一个乐观进
取 ,一个消极退避 ;但在哲学的深层上两家相互补充 、相得益彰 。 老子和孔子哲
学思想的差异是十分广泛的 ,但就其最主要的方面而言 ,莫过于理论上各有偏
重和价值观念的不同 。
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1 .关注点不同
老子仰望浩渺太空 ,专注形而上的问题和人与自然的关系问题 ,建立的是
本体论和宇宙论 。 孔子则注视烟火人间 ,思索人与人的关系问题 ,建立的是伦
理学 。 如果就本体论和宇宙论而言 ,孔子在这方面基本上是没有进行探究 ,因
而也就没有建树 ,而如果就伦理学而言 ,老子基本上没有发表过什么见解 ,到了
庄子 ,他从“道”出发 ,关注人 ,也更多是关注个体生命的生存问题 ,人生的终极
思考 ,迥然不同与儒家所关注的人与人的关系问题 。 老子和孔子由于所关注和
思考的主要问题的不同 ,形成了他们在哲学思想上各有偏重就是自然而然的 。
2 .价值观念不同
孔子的儒学价值观以人文主义为其基本特征 ,关注人们的道德完善和人格
提升 ,主张积极进取 ,献身社会事业 。 老子的道家则以自然主义为其基本特征 ,
珍重人们天然的真朴之性和内心的宁静和谐 ,主张超越世俗 ,顺应自然 。
儒道两家由于关注点和价值观念不同 ,所以为人们和社会设计出的道路也
就不同 。 儒家主张个人“修身 、齐家 、治国 、平天下” ,个人的价值只有在社会群
体中才能实现 ,因此必须以天下为己任 ,积极进取 。 道家对于文明发展持一种
谨慎的态度 ,老子和道家大师们深刻洞悉人性异化问题 、文明进步扭曲人的心
灵问题等 ,采取自然主义策略以避免 、预防和矫正 。 相比之下 ,有人就认为老庄
等道家学派不如儒家那么有责任感和事业心 ,其实恰恰相反 ,老子和庄子都是
一些具有强烈社会责任感和历史使命感的知识分子 ,只是他们关注社会和解决
问题的方式不似儒家那么直截了当 。 孔子与孟子等儒学先贤虽有“知其不可而
为之”的精神 ,但面对社会的黑暗也常怀超然物外的心态 ,孔子在“道不行”之
时 ,也曾萌发“乘桴浮于海”(枟论语 ・ 公冶长枠)之念 ,也曾说 ,“天下有道则见 ,无
道则隐 。”(枟论语 ・ 泰伯枠)浩气凛然的孟子不也主张“穷则独善其身 ,达则兼济
天下”吗 ? 孔 、孟 、老 、庄毕竟是达人 ,哲学见解不同 ,但都具有强烈的社会责任
感和历史使命感 ,都能以旷达洒脱的精神面对社会现实 ,提出各自不同的解决
方案 。
(二) 儒道思想互补
儒道互补指在两种学说的发展过程中互相借鉴 、不断完善自身发展 ,从开
始的截然对立 ,逐渐发现自身之不足 ,从对方汲取学养 ,丰富和弥补自己的学说
体系 。 当然 ,儒道互补也指中国士大夫对于两种哲学体系的综合运用 ,当人生
得意 ,仕途顺利 ,即将大展宏图之时 ,他们都踌躇满志 ,奉儒学为圭臬 ,积极进
取 ,一旦仕途失意 ,进取受挫 ,则立刻调整自己思想 ,转入道家 ,以超然物外的态
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四 、儒道思想简评
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第四章 儒道互补与中国士人的心灵世界
值观对于古代士大夫的心灵建构和人生追求的影响无疑是无与伦比的 。 但
是人生失意 、仕途多舛 ,士大夫在追求建功立业 、大展宏图的宦海沉浮中多数
时候处于逆境 ,如何调节自己心理 、抚慰心灵 、承受打击 、锤炼意志 、以图东山
再起 ? 对于逆境中的士大夫 ,道家学说的超然物外 、老庄的人生智慧方能让
他们醍醐灌顶 、豁然开朗 、笑傲人生 ,因此 ,两者都是他们不可须臾离开的重
要思想法宝 。
儒家学说主张士人必须以天下为己任 ,君子必须能担当 ,这种责任意识甚
至扩展到了每一个普通人 ,所谓“天下兴亡 ,匹夫有责” 。 因此 ,儒家为士人设计
的是一条安邦定国 、济世安民的人生道路 ,“士不可不弘毅 ,任重而道远” ,士就
应该以这种自强不息 、百折不挠的进取精神 ,实现远大的理想 ,实现自己人生价
值 ,这儒家人生态度无疑是积极的 、正确的 ,以此精神哺育士人 ,为国家培养和
造就了一代代仁人志士 ,他们在治世和乱世都曾发挥了中流砥柱的作用 ,缔造
了中华文明 。 然而 ,社会和政治的现实是残酷的 、复杂的 ,士人在积极进取的道
路上需要面对挫折和失败 ,不断调节自己的心理 ,抚慰自己的精神 ,以超然和洒
脱的态度 ,忍受一时之“穷” ,积聚力量 ,修炼自己 ,道家哲学中诸如自然 、柔弱 、
无为 、知足 、知止 、淡泊 、居下 、处顺 、静观 、谦让 、取后 、不争等观念都体现了高度
的人生智慧 ,道家这些思想是最好的精神调节器和心理稳定器 。 儒家式的人生
设计缺乏足够的回旋余地 ,“刚”有余而“韧”不足 ,太刚则容易折 ,必须辅之以道
家的人生态度以平衡之 ,但太柔则容易废 ,仅有道家的人生态度是远远不够的 。
这两种哲学思想通过他们的主要代表人物 ,实现学说互补 ,将道家许多重要概
念引入儒家学说 ,形成新儒学 ,使之刚柔相济 ,更加合理 ,同时士大夫在他们的
人生追求过程中 ,既以儒学作为自己的指导思想 ,设计远大的人生目标 ,并孜孜
以求 ,百折不回 ,又兼修道学 ,让他们的视野更加开阔 ,学会等待时机 ,在逆境中
更要善待自己和这境况 ,使这不利的境况成为修炼自己的绝好机会 ,一旦从
“穷”转“达”之后 ,积聚的能量和修炼的真功方可有用武之地 。 儒道互补 ,即儒
家思想作为封建时代的主导思想 ,其不足之处是显而易见 ,道家的思想和人生
态度恰恰可以弥补这一不足 ,使之相辅相成 ,相得益彰 。 两种哲学思想是完全
不同的 ,他们的价值体系和人生理想设定决定了他们的历史地位和所发挥的不
同作用 :儒学居于正统的 、官方的 、国家意识形态地位 ,而道学则处于辅助 、调节
和缓冲地位 。
从中国古代优秀的士大夫人生轨迹中 ,都能发现这两种学说的交替运用 :
他们既能在“穷”之时“独善其身” ,更能在“达”之时“兼济天下” ;“处江湖之远”
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第五章
民族融合与中国人的“大一统”观
一 、中国民族大融合的历史进程
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第五章 民族融合与中国人的“大一统”观
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二 、中国人“大一统”思想观念的形成与强化
正如中国的民族融合一样 ,中华民族的“大一统”思想的形成也经历了一个
漫长的发展过程 ,期间古代的先贤们 ,包括哲学家 、贤明的君王以及被历史所忽
视的那些普通人 ,都曾作出了他们卓越的贡献 ,只是历史不能把他们一一记录
下来而已 。 中国的民族融合与“大一统”思想观念形成几乎是并行不悖的 ,没有
“大一统”的思想观念 ,很难实现民族大融合 ,而民族大融合的现实又为“大一
统”的思想观念提供了有力的支撑 ,它们两者是相辅相成的 。
(一) “大一统”思想意识的萌发与肇始
早在秦始皇统一六国前 ,在今天中国版图上 ,所谓大江南北 ,就居住着华
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第五章 民族融合与中国人的“大一统”观
夏 、夷 、蛮等民族 ,有学者认为他们就是秦汉时期中国人的三个主要来源 。 随着
国家的统一不断融合 ,最后融入到中华民族这个大家庭中来了 。 夏 、商 、周时期
“大一统”观念还比较模糊 ,正在形成之中 ,已经具有三个特点 :首先是以血缘关
系为纽带的王朝世袭 ,靠父子相继的嫡长子继承制 ,周朝用分封制把宗族组织
扩大为政治组织 ,周天子以天下大宗同时兼天下共主 ,诸侯以一国的大宗兼该
国的共主 ,以此类推 ,“血缘上称‘宗’ ,地缘上称‘君’ ,一身二任 ,既是族长又是
君主 ,恰好体现了族权与政权的合一 。” ① 其次 ,有德者得天下的王统理论 ,王在
德方面有失 ,人们有权利推翻他 ,另立新君 ,可见 ,“关于国家统治合法性的观
念 ,在中国早期国家发展过程中 ,已经融进了关于统治者德行的评价内容 。” ② 当
然 ,这也给了僭越者以借口 ,成为他们篡权的挡箭牌 。 其三 ,正统观念与某一特
定地域联系 ,这主要是从夏朝开始 ,以后任何一个王朝要想取得全国承认 ,它必
须取得这一特定地域 ,即中原地区 ,以此为中心 ,便可向四周发号施令 ,夏 、商 、
周三代的更迭 ,都是在取得中原之后才获得正统地位的 。 当然 ,三代时期“大一
统”观念仍是相当朦胧的 ,远远没有形成系统 。
在公元前 221 年 ,秦统一前 ,这些先民们就已经通过我国最早的一本地理
著作枟山海经枠 ,表达了他们对于一个统一国家的自然地理的展望 ,这是一个相
当开阔的视角 ,可以想见 ,当时的人们由于受到交通条件的限制 ,对于自然地理
的认识也有不够准确的地方 ,其中枟山经枠部分 ,以今天山西西南隅和河南西部
为中心 ,称中山经 ,其西 、北 、东和南分别称作西山经 、北山经 、东山经和南山经 ,
描述了这些地域的自然环境等 。 在先秦另一篇地理文献枟尚书 ・ 禹贡枠里 ,记载
了中国各个区域物产 、农作物 、贡赋 ,山川 、河流 、土壤 、田野 ,以及各区域大致轮
廓和地理情况 ,这是先民们从经济的角度渴望天下一统的愿望的表述 。 文中还
把中国划分为冀州 、兖州 、青州 、徐州 、扬州 、荆州 、豫州 、凉州 、雍州等九个地区 。
当时虽然很难实施有效管理 ,但这个国家统一的政治蓝图已经绘就 。 枟国语 ・
周语枠记载 ,“夫先王之制 ,邦内甸服 ,邦外侯服 ,候卫宾服 ,夷蛮要服 ,戎狄荒
服 。”这与枟尚书 ・ 禹贡枠表达的五服概念基本上是一样的 ,这种“任土作贡”的构
想为以后管理庞大国家提供了富有想象力的方案 ,这两者可以说是先民们在畅
想政治统一后的区域划分与管理 。 秦始皇统一六国正是在这样一种全民族对
国家统一的心理倾向基础上 ,代表各个民族和各个诸侯国人民的意愿 ,将他们
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对于国家统一的渴望变为现实 。
(二) “大一统”政治现实的缔造与反复
公元前 221 年 ,秦始皇以无与伦比的雷霆手段实现了国家的统一 ,并进行
了一系列影响深远的制度再造工程 。 相比以前的制度 ,秦制度可谓是崭新的 ,
甚至具有革命性意义 ,但是秦朝却是短命的 。 代之而起的是强盛 、长久的大汉
朝 ,一个令国人振奋的朝代 。 尤其是汉武帝居功至伟 ,堪与始皇帝比肩 。 他开
疆拓土 ,南抵岭南 ,北达贝加尔湖 ,东临大海 ,西至巴尔喀什湖和葱岭 ,以此奠定
统一国家的地理基础 。 他又采纳董仲舒“罢黜百家 ,独尊儒术”的建议 ,在思想
和精神层面上把儒家学说确立为国家意识形态 ,统一了人们的思想 。 秦汉历经
400 年 ,确立了国家统一的政治和地理的重要基础 。 到东汉末年 ,开始天下大
乱 ,直至隋朝统一 ,这统一又遇到了反复和倒退 。 公元 581 年 ,隋文帝杨坚荡平
分裂势力 ,再一次实现国家统一 ,可惜又是一个如秦朝般的短命王朝 ,接踵而来
的是大唐王朝 ,在各个方面都达到了封建社会的全盛 ,创造了最为灿烂的古代
文化 ,巩固了大一统的成果 ,包括政治 、经济 、文化和地理等方面 。 从唐朝末年
到宋建立 ,可以说是一个混乱 、多个政权并立的时期 ,1279 年 ,以忽必烈为代表
的蒙元帝国崛起于草原 ,入主中原 ,继承大统 ,接着是明和清两个王朝的兴废更
迭 。 可以说 ,国家大一统是历史的潮流 ,民族的融合是中国历史进程中的重要
组成部分 ,期间的各种分裂活动是愈来愈少 ,愈来愈小 。 即使在国家分裂期间 ,
在各个并立的政权中 ,他们都是以统一国家为奋斗目标 ,这就说明中国的大一
统不仅在观念和思想层面深入人心 ,而且每个中国人在行动上也都愿意为实现
国家统一而努力 。
(三) “大一统”国家理念的内化与认同
自秦汉以来 ,“大一统”的国家政治格局完全固定下来 ,虽有多次的分裂 、冲
突和多个政权并立 ,但是对于国家一统人们是没有异议 ,所争的是由谁来统一
的问题 。 所以 ,经过两千年的“一统江山”实践 ,“大一统”国家理念内化到每一
个中国人的内心 ,流淌在他们的血脉里 ,得到普遍认同 。
对于“大一统”国家理念的认同 ,首先是对中华民族共同始祖炎帝和黄帝的
认同 。 炎黄都是中国远古传说中的英雄 ,当时 ,他们所率领的部落就生活在黄
河流域 ,经过彼此间战争 、结盟 ,战胜其他部落 ,形成华夏族主体 ,中国人一般都
称自己是炎黄子孙 。 其实 ,在华夏族之外仍有大量其他少数民族 ,有称夷和蛮
的 。 秦统一前 ,这些华夏 、夷 、蛮之间频繁战争 ,也经常结亲 ,最后完全融合在一
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第五章 民族融合与中国人的“大一统”观
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三 、中国“大一统”思想评价
中国“大一统”思想观念源远流长 ,更因为中国政治史的连续性保障了文化
史的连续性 ,因而也就不断强化了中国人的“大一统”思想观念和意识 ,中国有
世界上最为详尽和系统的历史记载 ,所谓“二十四史” ,从司马迁写作第一部纪
传体通史枟史记枠开始 ,中国史书从未间断 ,直至今日 。
首先 ,“大一统”思想是国家兴盛 、民族团结的重要思想资源库 :对于“大一
统”理念的认同是一种重要的向心力 ,旅居和侨居海外的华人 、华侨们心向祖
国 ,无论身在何方 ,无论他们操着那一种语言 ,全球“龙的传人”是一家 ,世界“炎
黄子孙”心系祖国 ,这是中华民族历经两千多年锻造出的民族魂 ,国籍和语言都
没有办法改变的中国心 。
其次 ,“大一统”思想是造就具有政治责任感和历史使命感的有力武器 :中
国古代的政治思想家基本上都是政治家 ,他们有济世安邦之志 ,有胸怀天下之
情 ,他们把投身政治作为实现他们人生价值的重要手段 ,从孔子周游列国 ,寻求
实现自己政治抱负的国度 ,历代学者大多怀有这样的情怀 ,这“大一统”观念造
就的知识分子都有这样的历史使命感和政治责任感 ,应该说 ,这是中国知识分
子的骄傲和自豪 。
但是 ,在“大一统”的思想观念下 ,士人的人生理想和道路选择呈现狭窄化
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第五章 民族融合与中国人的“大一统”观
和极端化倾向 。 他们这种对政治的热情和情有独钟发展到后代几乎走到了极
端 ,眼里只有政治一途 ,心无旁骛 ,不知还有更加广阔的可供选择的人生道路 ,
逐渐失去了对于科学 、艺术 、文学等其他学科的兴趣 ,隋唐之后的科举考试更是
将他们的人生选择限定在非常狭小的天地 ,终生不能走出 ,“读书科考入仕”成
了整个群体的共同的人生追求 ,这不能不说是一种悲哀 。 更有甚者 ,把从事政
治作为一种好的营生 ,认为可以从中发财致富 ,遂使“仕途”变成了通往富裕人
生的坦途 ,这就更加从本质上远离了先贤们的教育理想 。 可以说这几乎是单一
的人生选择和对于投身官场的超常热情也令孔子始料未及 。 在孔子的时代 ,教
育尚不普及 ,能受教育的人是极少数的 。 他创办私学 ,以培养济世安邦的君子
为己任 ,他的目标不是培养具有专门技能的技术人才 ,而是管理国家的通才 ,因
此才有“君子不器”和“有教无类”的教育原则 。 他希望不要漏掉治世的贤人 ,尽
可能地教育他们 ,而且是培养君子 ,不传授“具体技能” ,即所谓“器”之类 。
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第六章
古代教育与中国历代教育理念演变
一 、中国古代教育的历史发展
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第六章 古代教育与中国历代教育理念演变
(一) 官办教育
逮至商朝 ,中国文字高度成熟 ,学校形式有“教” 、“序” 、“庠” 、“学” 及“瞽
宗” ,有专门从事教学工作的人 ,有德有位称“国老” ,有德无位称“庶老” ,这些执
掌教学者都尊称为“师” ,其中也有出身奴隶的佼佼者如伊尹担任“师” ,主要受
教育的对象是奴隶主子弟 ,学习典册(文史 、自然和社会等方面知识) 、学习“戒”
(习武与习乐)和敬天 、拜祖 、服从与效忠奴隶主的礼仪等 。
西周官办教育形成了完整的体系 ,既有在国都设立的包括小学和大学的国
学 ,也有诸侯在自己封疆内设立的乡学 ,即乡 (一万二千五百家)有“庠” ,州 (二
千五百家)有“序” ,党 (五百家 )有“校” ,闾 (二十五家 )有“塾” ,由“庠” 、“序” 、
“校” 、“塾”形成乡学系统 。 教育的主要内容包括德 、行 、艺 、仪四个主要方面和
“礼 、乐 、射 、御 、书 、数”的“六艺” ,小学学“书数” ,大学重“礼乐” ,还有书籍作为
教育的专门教科书 。
在整个中国封建史上 ,官学有中央官学 (又称国学 )与地方官学 (又称乡
学) ,中央官学主要有最高学府 、专科学校和贵族学校三类 :1 .太学和国子监是
国家最高学府 ,为封建社会培养人才的重要场所 :历代太学和国子监都很重视
考试 ,汉初有“岁试” ,后有“二岁一试” ,考试有“口试” 、“策试”和“设科射策” ;以
后唐朝有“旬试” 、“毕业试”等 ,宋还有“三舍试法” ,明清有“积分试法” ,朝廷重
视这些课试 ,并以试取士 ,对打破世卿世禄制度有积极意义 。 太学 、国子监鼓励
学生自修和自由研究 ,由于学生人数激增 ,教学采取大班制 ,或高足子弟再传授
等法 ,后代多承继汉代这一传统 ,培养出不少鸿儒 。 2 .专科学校各朝都有 ,东汉
有鸿都门学 ,唐宋有书学 、算学 、医学 、画学等 ,都是培养专门人才的学校 ,科举
兴起 ,这些专科学校随之凋零 。 3 .贵族学校专为贵族子弟开办的学校 ,东汉四
姓小侯学 ,唐朝弘文馆 、崇文馆 ,宋 、明的宗学 ,清朝的宗学 、旗学 ,汉朝贵族学校
影响大 ,匈奴人亦送他们的贵族子弟来求学 。 据史记载 ,唐 、明 、清各朝都有外
国留学生 ,其中唐朝最盛 ,日本遣唐留学生多人 ,最有名者如用汉字偏旁创片假
名的吉备真备和在中国学习生活 、朝廷任职达 54 年的阿倍仲麻吕 。
地方官学 ,产生于汉代 。 蜀郡郡守文翁先在成都建学馆 ,武帝深为赞许 ,乃
下诏令天下郡国皆设学馆 。 魏 、晋 、南北朝政治混乱 ,地方官学更是衰败 ,不过
北朝鲜卑人建立北魏 ,采取重儒政策 ,开办了各级官学 ,地方官学略有起色 ,直
到隋唐 ,国家一统 ,尤其是唐初至开元盛世 ,地方官学兴盛一时 ,各学官依学生
人数配备博士 、助教若干 ,每 60 人可设博士 1 人 ,助教 2 人 。 唐朝灭亡后 ,直到
宋仁宗庆历四年(1044 年) ,地方官学始可设立 ,宋朝专门任命主管地方教育的
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第六章 古代教育与中国历代教育理念演变
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二 、中国历代教育思想的演变
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・ 196 ・
第六章 古代教育与中国历代教育理念演变
先秦诸子首先是一批具有强烈历史使命感的“士人”教育家 ,他们的教育目
标是培养治国安邦 、德才兼备的君子 ,具有凛然豪气 、气宇轩昂的国士 ,可以赴
汤蹈火 、舍生取义的兼士 ,他们的门徒须先成为“士” ,而后进入“君子”行列 ,终
生以“圣人”之境界作为追求目标 ;其次 ,他们坚信教育的力量几乎是无所不能
的 ,因此他们在“仕途失意”之时都选择了以开办私人教育这种形式参与政治活
动 、影响国家政治决策 ,通过培养学生“入仕” ,以实践他们的政治主张 ;其三 ,他
们在教育与教学方面都进行了富有成效的探索 ,形成他们各自不同的教学模式
和特色 ,对于普及教育 、“启民智” 、“化民成俗”发挥了不可替代的作用 。
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第六章 古代教育与中国历代教育理念演变
① 枟存学篇枠 ,颜元著 。
② ③ 枟言行录 ・ 教及门枠颜元著 。
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① ② 枟存学篇枠 ,颜元著 。
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第六章 古代教育与中国历代教育理念演变
三 、古代中国教育评价
中国古代教育无疑对于九州万方人民文化水平提高 、文化的普及都作出了
重要贡献 ,对于中华文明的创造作出了不可替代的贡献 ,更为世界文明史的发
展作出了独特的贡献 ,主要有以下两个特点 。
1 .古代教育特别重视道德养成和道德教化 :从这意义上 ,中国古代的教育
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表现的是一种特别关注和精心构建全体社会成员道德的大教育观 ,这一道德关
怀贯穿在教育的全过程 ,在官办教育 、私人教育和书院制度中 ,甚至也渗透在国
家管理的过程中 ,各级官员总被教导着应该教化人民 ,先施行教化 ,然后才能动
用刑法惩治违法者 ,故荀子说 ,“故不教而诛 ,则刑繁而邪不胜 ;教而不诛 ,则奸
民不惩 。”(枟荀子 ・ 富国枠) ,在历朝历代 ,“不教而诛”是要受到谴责的 ,是一种不
负责任的态度 ,所以可以说 ,古代中国是一个泛道德的社会 。
2 .古代教育特别重视通才培养和全人教育 :从孔子提出“君子不器”以来 ,
古代教育一直重视通才教育和全人培养 ,虽然有些朝代如唐朝也曾试图设立一
些专门的学校如律学 、医学 、天文等 ,甚至还有此类专门的科举课目 ,但社会上
响应者寥寥无几 ,最后只有进士一科独秀 ,其他全部凋零 ;学校教育中 ,也试图
使学生通“六艺” ,全面教育 ,而对于一些具体技能则比较轻视 ,孔子就很反感学
生请教种田方面的问题 ,尽管他自己从小也学习掌握了这些方面的技能 ;封建
社会鄙视劳动和劳动人民 ,教育则是以儒家经典的全部知识全面培养学生 ,包
括道德修养 ,其目的是培养后备官员队伍 。
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第七章
科举考试与中国古代的选官制度
在科举制度创立之前 ,中国古代的选官制度已经历了一个漫长的发展历
程 ,早在西周(公元前 1100 年 — 公元前 771 年)时 ,中国实行世卿世禄制度 ,基
本上不存在选官 ,都是世袭制 。 随着封建大一统王朝秦朝 (公元前 221 年 — 公
元前 206 年)和汉朝 (公元前 206 年 — 公元 220 年)的建立 ,在各个方面进行了
制度创新 ,以便有效地管理这个庞大的国家 。 肇始于战国 ,全面实行于秦朝的
举贤制 ,到了汉朝则完全成熟 ,形成了察举制 ,为新兴王朝提供官僚队伍合格的
候选人员 。 到东汉末年 ,察举制已经不能保障所选人才的素质 ,基本上丧失了
为朝廷选举高素质人才的功能 。 东汉形成的世族是一个重要力量 ,尽管曹操主
张“唯才是举” ,但也还主要是从世族大姓里选拔 ,因为这些世族正是曹魏政权
统治的基础 ,所以就出现了“九品中正制” ,带有明显妥协的选举制度 。 到了南
北朝 ,它几乎进入衰亡期 ,很难发挥选举称职官员的作用 ,同时在南北朝社会内
部正孕育一个崭新的选举制度 ——— 科举制度 ,它就是此后绵延古今 1300 年(公
元 605 — 公元 1905 年) ,曾通过考试选举出十万进士 、百万举人 ,为隋唐以来的
中国封建统治集团提供了具有高度儒学文化素养 、娴熟语言应用能力的各级行
政官员 ,有人称之为中国的第五大发明 ,深刻地影响了中国文化和社会的各个
层面 ,也曾产生重大国际影响 ,影响到中国的邻国日本 、朝鲜 、越南等 。 当然 ,科
举制度也带给我们许多负面影响 。
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一 、科举制度的创立
① 枟册府元龟枠卷六百四十枟贡举部 ・ 条制二枠 。
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二 、科举制度的成熟
宋朝的建立结束了唐末以来半个世纪的混乱局面 ,但宋太祖赵匡胤并未真
正统一全中国 ,从一开始就只有半个国家 ,后代君王不仅没有能够收复全部失
① 王定保 :枟唐摭言枠卷一 。
② 吕思勉 :枟隋唐五代史枠 ,上海古籍出版社 ,1984 年版 ,第 1270 — 1271 页 。
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① 枟续资治通鉴长编枠卷四枟太祖枠 。
② 枟宋史枠卷一百五十六枟选举二枠 。
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第七章 科举考试与中国古代的选官制度
三 、科举制度的衰落
① 枟范文正公文集枠卷八 。
② 枟宋史枠卷一百五十七枟选举志三枠 。
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第七章 科举考试与中国古代的选官制度
四 、科举制度评价
① 枟明史枠卷六十九枟选举志一枠 。
② 孙鼎臣 :枟论治枠 ,枟经世文续编枠卷六十六枟礼政六 ・ 贡举枠 。
③ 汤成烈 :枟学校篇枠 ,枟经世文续编枠卷六十五枟礼政五 ・ 学校下枠 。
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・ 215 ・
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① 枟新唐书枠卷四十四枟选举志上枠 。
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第八章
朝贡制度与中国古代的对外关系
一 、朝贡制度的肇始与确立
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二 、朝贡制度的发展与完善
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三 、朝贡制度的鼎盛与衰落
明王朝的建立又使国家的主宰归于汉人政权 ,也在承继“厚往薄来”的朝贡
传统的同时将这一制度推到了极致 ,使朝贡国家数量 、规模达到了前所未有的
程度 ,组织管理也臻于完善 。 从洪武开国伊始 ,既诏告四夷 ,宣布了大明愿与诸
夷“共享太平之福”的和平外交政策 。 同时 ,对于当时危害国家的边患 ,太祖朱
元璋认为 ,“四方诸夷皆限山隔海 ,僻在一隅 ,得其地不足以供给 ,得其民不足使
令 。 若其不自揣量 ,来扰我边 ,则彼为不祥 ,但胡戎与西北边境互相密迩 ,累世
战争 ,必选兵练将 ,时谨备之 。” ① 对于退回漠北但仍具一定实力的蒙元残余 ,他
认为必须认真对付 ,而那些跨海而来的倭寇则不足为虑 ,只消实行海禁则可荡
平 。 在实行严格海禁的大背景下 ,中外交往只有朝贡一条道 ,遂使各藩国络绎
不绝 ,在纳贡称臣的幌子下进行着他们梦寐以求的各种贸易 。 明朝处于我国历
史上一个重要时期 ,伴随着开国就存在的两大问题 ,即北方的蒙元残余势力和
南方的倭患 ,始终没有解决好 。 在洪武 、永乐时期 ,这些祸患虽得到有效遏制 ,
但并未能根除 。
明朝的对外交流达到了空前的程度 ,不仅表现在朝贡国家的数量和规模
上 ,而且在组织管理上也臻于完善 。 1407 年 ,明成祖下令设立四夷馆 ,中国首次
成立了自己的专职翻译机构 ,“置馆于 (南京)长安右门之外处之 ,内分八馆 ,曰
鞑靼(蒙古) 、女真 、西番 、西天 、回回 、百夷 、高昌 、缅甸” ② 。 各馆“置译字生 、通
事 ,通译语言文字 。” ③ 成祖时期 ,对于译字生的选拔非常重视 ,一般从国子监监
生中选择 ,“遇开科 ,令就试 ,仍译所做文字 。 合格 ,准出身 。 登第后 ,仍官馆
中 。” ④ 后来 ,出现“私自学习 ,滥求进用”的现象 ,朝廷下令“今后敢有私自教习 、
走漏夷情者 ,皆重罪不宥” ⑤ 。 明朝两类通事分别属于不同机构 ,承担不同职责 :
1 .在四夷馆中负责教习 、翻译的通事 ;2 .译审 、伴送外国和少数民族使臣的通
事 ,隶属会同馆 ,由提督会同馆主事负责管理 。 后期 ,吏部进一步加强了对译字
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第八章 朝贡制度与中国古代的对外关系
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四 、朝贡制度的观念与制度基础
民族自我中心意识是全世界普遍存在的一种文化现象 ,各个民族都有 ,绝
不是中国独有的 。 古代各大文明古国都曾以人类文明中心自居 ,波斯君主的称
号是“宇宙的中心” ,中国的皇帝称“天子” ,希腊人将德尔菲神庙称作“地球的中
点” ,甚至认为希腊人与其他民族 (他们称之为“蛮族”)的关系是主人与奴隶的
关系 。 将自己看得高于其他民族的思想观念是具有普遍性的 ,认为别的民族是
野蛮人 ,需要教化 ,或需要将“上帝”的“福音”传播给他们 ,使他们脱离“蒙昧无
知”的苦海 ,享受“上帝”赐给的“荣光”与“幸福” 。
随着文明的发展 、各民族之间频繁冲突 、各民族之间天然屏障的打破 ,许多
文明古国逐渐看到了更加广阔的世界 ,自我中心意识也随之淡化了 ,而中华文
明由于地理上的相对封闭 、周边少数民族文化相对落后 ,加上中华文化从古至
今 ,一以贯之 ,在与周边文化较低的“夷狄蛮戎”的冲突与交流中这一文化优越
感反而不断得到强化 ,甚至在少数民族成功入主中原 ,夺取天下 (如元朝和清
朝)之后 ,汉人的文化优越感并没有受到任何影响 ,而是以先进的文化同化了这
些比较落后的民族 ,造成征服者被征服的现实 ,入主中原的少数民族最后经过
长期的与汉族交往和交流实现了民族融合 ,先前截然不同的民族界限模糊了 ,
语言也采用被征服者的语言 ,彼此之间在通婚的基础上 ,形成统一的民族 。 这
一民族融合的历史给汉人以完全不同于其他民族的观念 。
这一观念就是“华夏中心意识” ,有人称之为“天朝心态” ① ,它是长期积淀形
成的一种普遍的文化心理 。 这中心意识包含地理中心和文化中心两个层面的
・ 222 ・
第八章 朝贡制度与中国古代的对外关系
五 、朝贡制度的评价
首先 ,朝贡制度反映中国儒家文化的内敛性 :孔夫子所谓的“远人不服 ,则
修文德以来之” ,远人不服 ,皇帝就应该修文德 ,德治成功就一定能吸引远人 ,这
是孔子儒学的逻辑 。 再说 ,我们怎么就不能到“远人”那里与他们交往呢 ,为什
① J .K .Fairbank ,ed ,T he Chinese World Order ,Harvard University Press ,1968 ,p2 .
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中 国 文 化 专 论
・ 224 ・
第八章 朝贡制度与中国古代的对外关系
的商业利益驱使着他们多次申请 ,请求增加朝贡次数 。
其三 ,朝贡制度透露出传统中国社会的抑商倾向 :在中国历史上 ,商人是
“四民之末” ,有些朝代还规定商人穿特定服装 ,以示歧视 。 在科举考试中 ,他们
也被排斥在外 ,认为他们如果与天下读书人一起参加考试 ,则有辱斯文 。 因此 ,
在建立朝贡制度之初 ,将对外贸易纳入其中 ,与其说是重视 ,不如说是抑制 ,是
限制对外贸易 ,将本来是利国利民对外贸易作为诱饵 ,吸引藩属国远道而来 ,进
行朝贡 ,营造“万国来朝” 、“歌舞升平”的盛世景象 。 这从另一个方面反映出那
些藩属国人具有“重商”主义倾向 ,也很懂得与中国打交道 。 只要充分满足了中
国皇帝的虚荣心 ,其他事情都比较容易办 ,进行贸易自然也就不是什么难事 。
因此就形成了这样一种历千年而不衰的朝贡制度 ,中国皇帝在朝贡制度下满足
了自己的虚荣心 ,也让自己在臣民面前光彩照人 ,而朝贡者也在朝贡的名义下 ,
打着“仰慕中华文化”的“义”之名 ,行“进行贸易”的“利”之实 ,双方各得其所 ,真
可谓是旷古未有的“双赢” 。
朝贡制度是东亚古代形成的以中国为核心的独特的国际关系和贸易关系
的混合体系 ,在欧洲殖民者到来之前发挥着联结亚洲各国及地区之间政治 、经
济 、文化等关系的作用 。 作为一个存在上千年历史的制度 ,它有着自身的局限
与不足 ,它在 19 世纪的“寿终正寝”是历史的必然 。
・ 225 ・
参 考 文 献
・ 226 ・
参 考 文 献
・ 227 ・
后 记
・ 228 ・
后 记
入英美文学殿堂之时对我严格的语言训练 ,让我在遇到任何翻译困难时总能想
方设法找到克服的路径 。
汉语文本承蒙师兄邱瑞祥教授审读 ,提出许多宝贵意见和建议 ;英文文本
亦经英语专家 M ona M oufahim 博士审阅 ,并提出中肯修改意见 ;学兄方克平教
授应邀将枟礼记枠的一些经典引文译成精美典雅的英文 ,为本书增色不少 ,在此
对他们的宝贵建议与帮助深表谢意 。 本书顺利出版 ,得到了浙江大学出版社责
任编辑杜玲玲女士的鼎力相助 ,在此对她表示衷心感谢 。
另外 ,书中难免有不尽人意之处 、错讹之处 ,恳请各位专家不吝赐教 ,提出
宝贵批评意见 。
作 者
2010 年 12 月
宁 波
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