Unit1

CNe Ahe basic coneonents OE data (omonunication

A n s

data CommunicCatlon Sustem has HNe cComponen+s.

Rule 1 Rule 1
pYDtoColRule
2
Rule 2 PYDHOcol

Message Rule n
Rule n

Mecium
RecerveT
Sende3

OMessage
message 1S the infoxmatHon cdata) +o be Commu
The
icidAa nicated popular foxms OF in£oYnmaHon
includ e +ext numbeYSPICHuYes audio and Vdeo

2 Sender
The Sendey is the desiC e tha+ Sends the data me Ssaqe
T Can be computerL wOTKStaHon +elephone hands
+eleviSion and so on

3Transmission Medium
he dronsmission medium is the pnusical PaBh bu4
wnich amessaqe ranels rom senderD Teceve
Some eKamp1es OEAYanSmission media include

wIS+ed-PaiY wINeCoaKIal cable iber-opHiC Cable

and radio uwaNeS
 Recciner
The xecevex iS he device
hat receNes be
message E Can be a compu+eyuooT K
elepnonee hand set eleviSIon and So Sation
on
KS Pyo4DCol.-
A prDtocol is ase+ oEXules
Ahat govern data Comm
unications T H e presents on agYe ement betuween
he CommunicaHng_devices Without A
protOCol,
+uwO devices may be cConnec+ed but not Communi-
Catinq ust AS a person speaking Erench cannOt
be undeysood bu a PexsoM who SpeakS only
Tapane se.

2 Expiain any +wo opology in detail.s

Ans
OMesh
Station

StaHOn S+aHon

StaHon StatHon
 DID amesh
topologueNery
pOint-0-Point evic.e nas a
inK o every Oher
The exm device dedícated
AYaEEc only
YaFEc dedicaed.neans.taat
bettwe en he
wo
ne link coryiees
devices
TO Eind Ahe
number oE physical linKSitinconnects
a Eul1y
connec+ed mesh netuwork
considey that each nod e LOIHn nnodeswegirs+
must be connected to ever
othernode.
@Node 1 must b e
connec+ed+0 n=T nodes, node 2
muS be connected fo
n muS+ be Conne
n=LEnod e s_ Ond Pinaily node
Cted O n-1 npdeg e need nn-)
Physical
links
HoweveyE each physicallink aliouws
on in both dreaions (dupiex mode) communicat-
e can diNide the numbeY DE linKS by
2.Tn mesh
+opology, we need ntn-1D|2 dupiex-mod e inks

Advantages
KO A mesh tOpology iS YobUS+ TE one
link beComes
usuable t does no+ incaPa citate the entre
SuStemn
faluye during a Singie deÍce uwon'+ breaK the
netwoYK
fau1+ idenÍCicaion is sraignt £oruward
T t provídes high prINaCY and secCumty
KSA mesh doesn have a centrolized AuthorittY
 Disadvantaqe.S
D SCOsttYas compayed +o 4he Opposite netuoY
P o i n t - 0 - P O i n t OPOIOG9-
OPoloqLes : e StaY, bus.,
InSHailatton and reconD ecHon 1s extYemeiy
diEeicu1t in the mesn ConnectionS
OExedundant
h e r e is a highYISK
challenginq wth a
a i n t e n a n c e ne ed s axe

mesh

S+Oay
Hub

S+aHon StaHOn StaHon Statlon

Tn a S+ar OpoJOqy each deyice has a dedicated

Point-+0-pont linK onIs 40 a cenhra contho1le,
|usualiy calied ahub
(2 The devices aYe not dIYectty iinkeal io one anothe
3 Unlike ameSh +opoloaya SHaY Poloqy does nOt
alow divec affic beween deviceg
The conhOlleY aCtS aS an e xchange T one
ceyice uwant S O Send daa 6 anothe 1+ Sends
he da+a AO Ahe ContYOIlex uOnich hen
elays the
catg o he Othey Connected device
 pdvamtageS
T Ís VeY eliable 1E One cable crx deviceCaíts then.
uwoYKK
all h e other.s w111 SL ColllSiongcan
T i s high peytONMing as no daba
OccUy

expensive b e c a u s e - e a c h aevice
only ne ed one
Less
conme cted uwlh hub wJt
I O part and wiShes t o be
o n e linK often
detecion becaUSe n e link aye
EasyFaut
easilyidenified.

DISadvantages =
cable h g n a ineay
bus
D RequÍres more
connecHng ne-ttooY K devlC e LclS, nod es
IEhe
can'+ p a H C L p a t e -in
atHached are disabled and
netuOYK CommunicaHon_

MOYe expensive h a n iinear bus LoPology due +o

3)
deviCes
Hhevalue _O£ Hhe Conme cHng
douon none
I E hub goes d Ouo n eveyu-hinq 90es
OF the deyICeS_can wOY K uothoUL hub-

3Ahat 1S pYOtOcol
Ans A Protocol 1S a Set Of Yules tha+ g0veYn eata
Communications.a protocol defines what 1S Commu
nicated hou it iS communica ed, and uhen1t is
Communicaed:

ahe Key elements of a protD.COL are syntax,

semanÍcsand timing
 Sun+OX T h e e m synaX xefers +o the
SAYuuYe o Eoyma+ Of h e datameaninghe-
oYdey in uhich e -they are presented

(2 Semantíc s The word semantics eteys to the

meaning OF egch section OF bitSs

Timin9The4eym +iming yepeYS +Otwo Chara

CteyistiCS dhen data shoulo be sen+ and now
fas+ they can be Sent

H)DescYibes Hhe protocol olefined by NetuoYK

1ayey in TCP IP prOtOcol Sute
Ans
the
A+ he netuoYK 1ayeYTCPITP SupPoYtS
fou
In+eme tuworKing pYOHOCO I P in uyn,uses
RARP TCMP and TGMP
suppoyting proto.cols ARP

1)TnteYnetuworKing PYOtOCoL CTP)

OThe TP is the transmission mechanism used by
unYeliable and
the TCP |TP PrOtocolS T+is an
delivery
ConnecHOnlesS PYOtocol-a best eLOYt
Sexvice
pacKets called data
K2The TP +YanSpotS daa in
poy+ed sepayately
9Yam.s eachOf Ohich is AYans
ransmiSSLon funcHonS
3 I P ProvideS bare -bones
those facilities
Ahat EYe e the usey Ho add only
necess aYy fox a qiven applicak1On
and thereby
 alloO Foy maximum eEpiciency

i1)Address ResoluHon_protocol CARP)

i s used 6 associat e d a loqical addYess l h a
physical addYessTH iS uSed to Eind Hhe physical
address Df h e node when 1HS In+eYet address
i s KnOUUn:

i i ReVeYse AddresS ResoluHon PTOtOCO1 CRARP)-

T+a1IOwS_ahost +6 diSCOVeY S Iteynet address
when 1t KnowS Only +S PhySical addressT+iSs
used when a ComPuLeY 1S Conneced o a netuOOYK
CompUter
COY me mS+Hme or Ohen a disKIe ss
i s booted

1N Tnteyne+ContYol MesSage pO-OCol (ICMP)

T+iS amechanism used by hoStS and 9ateuayS O
send noHELcaHon Of daHagran roblemg back +o he
sendeY TCMP Sends query and eOY YepoYHng
message s

VTntexne+ HYOup Message protDcol (TGHMP)

T+1S US edHD faclItaBe Hhe Simultaneous yans
mission of a message +o a qyouP ogrecipientS
 5) GHv e he responsibilltieS bE physical 1ageY
uncHons-
Hns DThe phySLcal 1auey coordingtes the
physiea
required o CarYY a bit StYeam Over a
medium

T dedls wHn the mechanical and electyLCa

Specifications Of the intercace and transmission
mediunm

3 T also deLines he mOce dues and funcions

Hhatpnysical devices and inteyCaces have to
pexform LoYransmission to Ocuy Tn ig.shows
the poSIHOn 6£ Ahe physical layey withXespec+o
Hae ransmíssion medíum and the dat+Q link layey
from datalinK layer o datq link \ayex

Physica Phy
Sica
Lauey 11O010Jo0o0o001O 1oOIoj0000000jOl| Lauen

ansmission medium

chaxactexistics o Physícal 1ayer

Pnysical charac+eristícs DE ínter£aces and
medium The physícal layex deEinesthe chaYacte
iSHÍCS O the inter£ace between tne devices
the tyan smission med lum: Tt also de Eine s the
ype o ransmission medium
 2) Repxesentaion
oE bitsThe
ConsitS OE aSream_of bits physic.al 1ayerdataa
on O be u21Hth no interPreiaHH
into síqnals ansmitedbitS auSt be encoded
electTICaL OX OPHLcalTh.e physica
layexdefines he +ype oE encoding
3) Data rate The Yansmissio.n xate-the Oumbez
O biH+S Sent eacn second is also
deEined by th e
physical laye
4 SynchronlzaHon OE bIH S The sendey and Teceive
not Only muSt use heSame bI+ rate bu also muSE
be sunchronized at the bit level
s)Line ConfiguraionThe physical 1ayer is concerned
OIth he connection og devices to the media Tn a
Pointto-Point Configura+tHon,tuDo devices are ConneHe
thorouoh a dedicated inK In a mulHPOin+ CoDEiqura
iona link is Shared among Severoal devices
6) phusical Topologu The pnysical+0 POlDgy defines
hou evices ame connected to make a netuOoYK
Devices can be connecte d by using a mesh sar,
ing bus hubrid Hopology
TramsmisSion mode The pnusical iayey aisO defin
-es the direction of ransmission betune en tuo
deviceS simplex haf-dupieX m full-dupleX: Tn
simplexmode only one devICe_cansend.the othe
Can only xeceive:the Simplex mode íS a one-way
CommunicatHon:Tn the ha1E -dup1ex mode,too device
-S can sena 4 Yec eivex but no+ at the same Hme.
I na full-duplex mod ttw0 devices canSend and
eceiNe a t h e SameHme
 SExplain the xesponsibilitíes_of Session Iayex
Ans he sexvice províded by he fiYSt thYee 1ays-
Phusical,da+a tink and ne+woYK aYe noo
Session 1ayer
SuPEiCIen+ foY Some pYDcesses The
contTolley.T+ establisheS.
Shenetuuo K dialoq
maintains and sunchYoniz e the ineiacHon-
among communicaHng SystemsT o Pres
e n t a Hon i a y e
FYom PYesentation layeN
L6 datq
L 6 dat+a

Sessior HS
SeSS1on 1ayery
1ayey

L5 d a 4
LS
datg
fYom anspoYt 1aYer
TO ranspoy 1auey

chacteyiSHcS Of Session layen

Dialo9 conto1
iayexallows tu0O Sustemg fo e n t e r
The session communicaton
into a dialoq. TH allouwS the ethey
between tuo0 pYoCesses +6 +aKe pjace in
haif-duplex oY full- duple X mode
2 SunchYonizaHon
+0gde check
The session 1ayey allowS a pYocess
POn+S o Synchyon1z0tion POintS+o q Stregm

OE datQ
 Explain tem Analoq
Signal and Diqital
Ans Siqnal
Analog Signa
An analoq Siqnal has
c' Ovex a inEinite many evels OF
Peyiod of Alme As the iDt en-
alue A +o Value B wave moves fYom
paSses thyougn and
inEInLe numbey OE Nalues g includes an.
along 1S path
Nalues

TImg

Digital Signal
A diq+al Sianal,On Hhe Othey hancCan
haVe OnlY a
lImit e d numbex of defined yalue AHhougn
each-
Value Can be any numbey i t i OPten aS Sinmple
as 1 and O
Values

Time
 Both analog and diqi+al siqnals can +aKe one os
wO EoymS
O pexiodic A Perlodic Siqnal coOPLe+eSa pateYn
within_ ameaSuYable ime framecalled a períoel
and xepeatS tha Pattern ovex subsequent identi
cal pexiods The Completlon OP one full pattexn.
i s called a Cycle

onPeyiodic A nonpeiodi signal changes

without exhilblHnq_a patteYn ov cycte tha+
xepe ats_OVeY Hme

8GiNe the parameters defined by sine wave

Ans -
The sine wave isthe moS+ fundamental FoYmoe
a peyiodic analoq signal. hen ue visualíze i+
as aSimple oscillatinq cuYye itS change OVeY
Hhe couYSe Of a cycle is S mooth and consísts OF
e SingLe arC above he Hme axis fOlioLoed by q
Singie ac belouo 1
yadue

TIOme
 A sine wave can be xeesent ed by h r e ePaYamneters
thepeak ampli+ude he Ere quency and the
ohase hes e hYee paame-teYS fulLYdeSCríbe a
s i n eW a v e

peak AmplitudeE
abSolute
Thepeak amplitude of a Siqnal is the
IntensltyPYopoTHOng +o the
NalueOE ItS higheSE
eneyqy t caYLes

i s measured in yol+S
TE
Ameliude

Time

peak amplitud e
a A SIgnal wth high
PmPIEUC

Peak amplude

TIme

peak amplitude
w1Hh \0w)
b)A Signal
 Period and Prequency
period ecexs to he amount oP Hme in Seconds
cycle
a Signal needS to complete 1
Fyequency refeyS +O n e numbey of PeYíods
2
in 1s
is the invey se of Prequency
Períod
fxequencyiS th e inveyse of period
T H 1S epesented in SecondS
G Foymula
ana TS1
T

12 Derto de in 1s >Ereguency s 12 H
Amolaude. 1S

AAA AA Time

Perlod 72D ftiAL.

2

a A sgnal wlth a fyequenc Of 12 Hz

Amptiaude
6Peylods in IS 7equeneYS 62

TIme

Period
S bA siangl with a fyequency bE 6 z
 SPhase :
O The texm phaSe
desCYibes
Lwavefoxm relatHVe O ime o the positon o the
I Ewe thnink oE h e
be srLEted backwaYc OY
waveaS somethingithat can
LoYuare alongthe ime
axis Phase oles CYibeS he
amount o ha ShÍE
Phase 1s measUYe din deqre es
OY Yadiang

a odeqreeS- icoe

/T
me
b)go degmeeS

me
C) 180 deqrees
 atHmeo
A Sne wave wth a pha.se of o StaY+S
LOLHh a zexo ampiítude.rhe amplítud
e is inYeasim
staytS at Hme
1) A Sine wave with a phase of go
ime ó uoith a
O Oth a pnase oE goStay+s a t
Peak ampiltude The amplitude 1s olecxeasing
StaY+S at
i ) A Sine uave u0IHh a phase of 180
i m e OwHh a zexo ampiitude t h e amplitude
i s cecyeasing-

g) ha+ is Data Rate Lúmit communica

Ans A very impotant cConsid eraHon in data
per
ionS is houo Cagt we can Send data, in bits
ependS on
Second: oveY a channel Da+a Yate a
thy e e factoYS -
1)The banduldth avaulable.
2)The levelOF h e signals we use
3) The Qugl1ty oE h e Channel

Two heoreHcal FOYMulas wexe developed 40

Calclate h e data r a e
1)By Nyguist foy noiseless
channel

2 By Shannon F o a noiSY chaane|_

Noiseless_ Channel, Nyquist B1+ Rate

O for a noise less Channe1 the nyquis+ bilt Yate
foxmulg degines the heoyeical maximum bi+
Yate
BItRae = 2X bandwldth_X IDg2 L
I o thi.s FOmuia banduoidth 1s the
the channe.lLIShenumbex OE
banduoid th oDE
signai 1e yeis
used +0 xepYe sent daAn and BitRate 1S the bit
Yat e 1n b l t S pey Second
Accoxding tO Ahe Eonmula
QINen SPecieic bandwidth
we can have any bl Yate LOe uoant by LnCTeasing
the leN els oE a Signal my reduce the
reliabilityy
OF Ah e sustem

2) NoiS Channel shoannon capacity

O Tn Yealityuwe cann0t have a noisele ss channel
Ahe Channel is aluoays noiSy
2 Tn 9g4 Caude Shannon Introduced a foy mula
Called Hhe shannon capac+Y 0 oleteymine Hhe
heoreHCal highes datg rate for a nOLSY channel
Capactu=banduoidth x loq2 + SNR)
I n his formula banduuidth is the bandwídth Of
the channei sNR íS he signal-+o-noise atio
capac+YIS the
capacity OF he chann.el in bl-+S_
pex Second
The Poxmulg defineg a characLeyistHC OF he
Channel no+ the method OF tYansmission
 1 hat is +xan.smis.sion ímpaimen+ 2 EXpain any
wo
Ans This means that the sígna a t the beqiming o
the medítum ís no+ the same asHhe signai at
the end oc the nmedium
Tore e cauSes oE impaiiment are.attenuaHon,
distoHon and NOiSe

impaixment
CauseS

AHenuaHon Distox tion NoISe

OAttenuation-
) Attenuation mean.s a losS DE emeygu
2)lhen a siqnal simple ox composit-e avels
through amediumilt IDses some DetS enegy-
medium.
i novexcoming the mesistance OP the
3,Tha+ is why, a wire caYying electic Signals
getS uoarm_if no+ hot afte a while
HSome of the elec+mieal eneYgy in the sianal is
ConyeY+ed o heat
S TO Compensate Poy fhiS IDSS, amplifiers aYe
used o amplify Hne signal.
 Oigina teuaked Prmelitude

A UU
Amplfe
POInEL TTasTO
Oedlra
Point 2 Pord3
6)The decibel CdB) measuyes the YeiaHye Strength
diffeyen+
two
-S OF wo signals oY One_signal at
pointS
d8 1ologio P2
P1
2DistoYtion
Changes lts
1 DistoYHon means tha+ the Siqna
fOYm OY Sha pe
composIte signal made
2) Dis0YHon can OccuY ina
OF difEeyent fyequencies
propagaHOn
B Eacn Signalcomponent haS 1tS Ouwn
SPeedHhrough a medium and there
Foy e,its Own
gmVing at the final deStination
delay i n
adiEference in
H)DIEEeyences in delay may create
same as the
phase i f the delay 1S nOt exactly the
period durgHon
a t h e rece
S)Tn Othey wOrd.S SIgnal compone ntS
diEFeyen+ From LuhoLA h e y had
Iver have phases
a t the sende
there Fere
GThe Shape OF he CompoSIte signa| is
no+ be sanme

Cornosr ona
Eeived

UUUUU
Comooner
UUUU
in phose Compoe
i n Phos e
A+ the sender A the yeceNer.