زبان فنی مکانیک خودرو

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Imam Khomeini:
Earlier it was not needed in foreign language; Today is needed.
The living language of the world should be part of the school
advertising program.
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Amplifier ‫تقویت کننده‬
Activity Slack Time ‫زمان مجازی فعالیت‬
Advanced Manufacturing Technology (AMT) ‫تکنولوژی تولید پیشرفته‬
Artificial Intelligence(AI) ‫هوش مصنوعی‬
Automated Guided Vehicles(AGVs) ‫وسایط نقلیه هدایت شده اتوماتیک‬
Automated Layout Design Program ‫برنامه طراحی استقرار اتوماتیک‬
Retrieval System &Automated Storage ‫سیستم ذخیره سازی و بازیافت اتوماتیک‬
Automation ‫خودکارسازی‬
Anti lock brake system(ABS ) ‫سیستم ترمز ضد قفل‬
Air bag ‫کیسه هوا‬
AIR cleaner ‫صافی هوا‬
AIR Filter
element ‫فیلتر هوا‬
Allen
key ‫آچار آلن‬
Aligator clip ‫انبر سوسماری‬
Alternator ‫دینام‬
Anti freeze ‫ضد یخ‬
Axel ( ‫محور ( اکسل‬
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Axle shaft ‫شافت اکسل‬
Buoyant ‫شناور‬
Ball bearing ‫بلبرینگ‬
Bearing ‫یاتاقان‬
Big end bearing ‫یاتاقان میل لنگ‬
Bleed nipple ‫سوزن یا شیر هواگیری‬
Brake disk ‫دیسک ترمز‬
Brake bleeding ‫هواگیری ترمز‬
Brake drum ‫کاسه ترمز‬
Brake lining ‫لنت ترمز‬
Brake pads ‫بالشتک ترمز‬
Bubble ‫حباب‬
Brake shoe ‫کفشک ترمز‬
Biaxial ‫دو محوری‬
Computer Aided Design (CAD) ‫طراحی به کمک کامپیوتر‬
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) ‫مهندسی به کمک کامپیوتر‬
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) ‫ساخت به کمک کامپیوتر‬
Camshaft ‫میل سوپاپ‬
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Circlip ‫خار حلقه ای‬
Crank Shaft ‫میل لنگ‬
Compression ‫تراکم‬
Conveyer ‫ناقل – انتقال‬
Drum brake ‫ترمز کاسه ای‬
Drive shaft ‫شافت محرک – پلوس‬
Double – Over head Cam (DOHC) ‫میل سوپاپ دوتایی‬
Disk Brake ‫ترمز دیسکی‬
Electronic Information System (EIS) ‫سیستم اطالعات الکترونیکی‬
Explosive ‫انفجاری‬
Expels ‫تخلیه کردن‬
Gasket ‫واشر‬
(I.F)Independent Float ‫شناوری مستقل‬
Inference Engine ‫موتور استنتاج‬
(IS)Information System ‫سیستم اطالعاتی‬
Inspection level ‫سطح بازرسی‬
Life Cycle Costing ‫هزینه یابی دوره عمر‬
Line Balancing ‫باالنس خط‬
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(MI)Machine Intelligence ‫ماشین مصنوعی‬
Machine Language ‫زبان ماشین‬
Operator ‫عملگر‬
Periodic ‫متناوب‬
Production Cycle ‫سیکل تولیدی‬
Production Management System (PMS) ‫سیستم مدیریت تولید‬
Polar moment of inertia ‫گشتاور لختی قطبی‬
Polar ‫قطبی‬
Reliability ‫قابلیت اطمینان‬
Repairability ‫تعمیرپذیری‬
Simplex method ‫روش سیمپلکس‬
Slack time ‫ کمبود‬، ‫ کمکی‬، ‫متغیر لنگی‬
Stiffness ‫سفتی‬
Total production Maintenance ‫نگهداری و تعمیرات بهره ور فراگیر‬
Toyota Production System ‫سیستم تولیدی تویوتا‬
Transportation Problem ‫مساله حمل و نقل‬
Wrapping ‫پیچی‬
Spoke ‫پره‬
Races ‫کاسه یاتاقان‬

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1. Mechanical Engineering: is a diverse subject that derives its breadth from the
need to design and manufacture everything.
2. automobile engine: engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into
useful mechanical motion Heat engines.
3. Internal combustion engine: Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the
heat of a combustion process.
4. Toughness: The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in
the process before fracture .
5. Hardness: Hardness is the resistance of a material to localized deformation.
6. Creep: is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently
under the influence of stresses.
7. Bearing: is a machine element that constrains relative motion between moving
parts to only the desired motion.
8. Strain: is the response of a system to an applied stress
9. Stress: is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to a certain cross-
sectional area of an object.
10. Creep: In materials science, creep is the tendency of a solid material to move
slowly or deform permanently under the influence of stresses.
11. spur gear: The teeth that are straight and parallel to the axis. one member of a
pair or series of gear receives input motion from a shaft.
12. Helical gears: The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of
rotation, but are set at an angle.
13. Bevel gears: are essentially conically shaped, although the actual gear does
not extend all the way to the vertex (tip) of the cone that bounds it.
14. Rack and pinion: A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a
sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature.
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15. Flat belts: have been used to transmit power in factories. The belt can deliver
high power at high speeds.
16. round belts: Belt with a circular cross section and v-shaped grooves that are
paid to perform in Zayh 60 degrees are designed.
17. v-belts: This is the same as the belt v belt and rope wedge is known as
generally trapezoidal-shaped cross-sectional area is unrestricted and the problem is
solved by the slippage and alignment.
18. timing belts: Yen with other names such as toothed belts, synchronous belts,
unique and known to be a positive transfer belt that is relative Tvandhrkt.
19. Chain : is a series of connected links which are typically made of metal. A
chain may consist of two or more links.
20. Hydraulic machines: are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do
simple work. Heavy equipment is a common example.
21. Control valves: Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired
actuator.
22. Reservoir: The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to
accommodate volume changes from: cylinder extension and contraction.
23. Accumulators: are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to

store energy by using pressurized gas. One type is a tube with a floating piston.
24. Fluid mechanics: Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that

studies fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them.
25. Coriolis effect: In physics, the coriolis effect is a deflection of moving objects
when they are viewed in a rotating reference frame
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UNIT 1
What is Mechanical Engineering?
Mechanical engineering is a diverse subject that derives its breadth from the
need to design and manufacture everything from small individual parts and
devices (e.g., micro scale sensors and inkjet printer nozzles) to large systems
(e.g., spacecraft and machine tools). The role of a mechanical engineer is to
take a product from an idea to the marketplace. In order to accomplish this, a
broad range of skills are needed. The mechanical engineer needs to acquire
particular skills and knowledge. man needs to understand the forces and the
thermal environment that a product, its parts, or its subsystems will
encounter; to design them for functionality, aesthetics, and the ability to
withstand the forces and the thermal environment they will be subjected to;
and to determine the best way to manufacture them and ensure they will
operate without failure. Perhaps the one skill that is the mechanical
engineer’s exclusive domain is the ability to analyze and design objects and
systems with motion.
Since these skills are required for virtually everything that is made,
mechanical engineering is perhaps the broadest and most diverse of
engineering disciplines. Mechanical engineers play a central role in such
industries as automotive (from the car chassis to its every subsystem—
engine, transmission, sensors); aerospace (airplanes, aircraft engines, control
systems for airplanes and spacecraft); biotechnology (implants, prosthetic
devices, fluidic systems for pharmaceutical industries); computers and
electronics (disk drives, printers, cooling systems, semiconductor tools);
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micro electro mechanical systems, or MEMS (sensors, actuators, micro
power generation); energy conversion (gas turbines, wind turbines, solar
energy, fuel cells); environmental control (HVAC, air-conditioning,
refrigeration, compressors); automation (robots, data and image acquisition,
recognition, control); manufacturing (machining, machine tools, prototyping,
micro fabrication).
To put it simply, mechanical engineering deals with anything that moves,

including the human body, a very complex machine. Mechanical engineers
learn about materials, solid and fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, heat
transfer, control, instrumentation, design, and manufacturing to understand
mechanical systems. Specialized mechanical engineering subjects include
biomechanics, cartilage-tissue engineering, energy conversion, laser-assisted
materials processing, combustion, MEMS, micro fluidic devices, fracture
mechanics, nano mechanics, mechanisms, micro power generation, friction
and wear, and vibrations. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) currently lists 36 technical divisions, from advanced energy systems
and aerospace engineering to solid-waste engineering and textile engineering.
The breadth of the mechanical engineering discipline allows students a

variety of career options beyond some of the industries listed above.
Regardless of the particular path they envision for themselves after they
graduate, their education will have provided them with the creative thinking
that allows them to design an exciting product or system, the analytical tools
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to achieve their design goals, the ability to overcome all constraints, and the
teamwork needed to design, market, and produce a system. These valuable
skills could also launch a career in medicine, law, consulting, management,
banking, finance, and so on.
For those interested in applied scientific and mathematical aspects of the

discipline, graduate study in mechanical engineering can lead to a career of
research and teaching.
Berkeley Mechanical Engineering is the top ranked public mechanical

engineering program in the nation and consistently ranked as one of the top
mechanical engineering departments in the world.
Our teaching and research laboratories are among the most active, innovative
and productive in the nation, and our faculty and students represent the best,
the brightest and the most diverse.
Practicing:
①Read the statements bellow and cheek True or False.
a. In order to accomplish this, a broad range of skills are needed.

True □ False □
b. way to manufacture them and ensure they will operate without failure.
True □ False □
c. Mechanical engineers play a central role in such . True □ False □

d. The role of a mechanical engineer is to take a product from an idea to the
marketplace. True □ False □
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②Read the text carefully and fill in the blank with the words
given.
Banking. human body .mechanical engineering.
Industries analyze
a. Since these skills are required for virtually everything that is made,
…………… is perhaps the broadest and most diverse of engineering disciplines.
b. Mechanical engineering deals with anything that moves, including the
…………..a very complex machine.
c. The breadth of the mechanical engineering discipline allows students a variety
of career options beyond some of the………… listed above.
d. These valuable skills could also launch a career in medicine, law, consulting,
management, ……………..finance, and so on.
e. Perhaps the one skill that is the mechanical engineer’s exclusive domain is
the ability to …………and design objects and systems with motion.
③.Read the statements and answer the question?

a. What is Mechanical Engineering?
b. What is (ASME)?
c. What is Berkeley Mechanical Engineering?
d. What is( MEMS)?
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UNIT 2
What is an automobile engine?
This article is about a machine to convert energy into useful mechanical motion.
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into useful
mechanical motion Heat engines, including internal combustion engines and
external combustion engines (such as steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat
which is then used to create motion. Electric motors convert electrical energy in
mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air and others, such as
wind-up toys use elastic energy. In biological systems molecular motors like
myosins in muscles use chemical energy to create motion.
Terminology:
Originally an engine was a mechanical device that converted force into motion.
Military devices such as catapults, battering rams are referred to as siege engines.
The term "gin" as in cotton gin is recognized as a short form of the Old French
word engine.
In modern usage, the term is used to describe devices capable of performing

mechanical work, as in the original steam engine. In most cases the work is
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produced by exerting a torque or linear force, which is used to operate other
machinery which can generate electricity, pump water, orcompress gas.
In common usage, an engine burns or otherwise consumes fuel, and is

differentiated from an electric machine (i.e., electric motor) that derives power
without changing the composition of matter.
A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover, a component that transforms
changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy.
An automobile powered by an internal combustion engine may make use of

various motors and pumps, but ultimately all such devices derive their power from
the engine.
The term motor was originally used to distinguish the new internal combustion
engine-powered vehicles from earlier vehicles powered by steam engines, such as
the steam roller and motor roller, but may be used to refer to any engine.
Automobiles:
The first commercially successful automobile, created by Karl Benz, added to the
interest in light and powerful engines. The lightweight petrol internal combustion
engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has been the most successful for
light automobiles, while the more efficient Diesel engine is used for trucks and
buses.
Increasing power:
The first half of the 20th century saw a trend to increasing engine power,
particularly in the American models. Design changes incorporated all known
methods of raising engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the
cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing
the speed at which power is generated. The higher forces and pressures created by
these changes created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more
compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straightline
arrangements.
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Combustion efficiency:
The design principles favored in Europe. Because of economic and other restraints
such as smaller and twister roads, leant toward smaller cars and corresponding to
the design principles that concentrated on increasing the combustion efficiency of
smaller engines. This produced more economical engines with earlier four-cylinder
designs rated at 40 horsepower (30 kW) and six-cylinder designs rated as low as 80
horsepower (60 kW), compared with the large volume V-8 American engines with
power ratings in the range from 250 to 350 hp (190 to 260 kW).
Engine configuration:
Earlier automobile engine development produced a much larger range of engines

than is in common use today. Engines have ranged from 1 to 16 cylinder designs
with corresponding differences in overall size, weight, piston displacement, and
cylinder bores. Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW)
were followed in a majority of the models. Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle
models were built while most engines had straight or in-line cylinders. There were
several V-type models and horizontally opposed two- and four-cylinder makes too.
Overhead camshafts were frequently employed. The smaller engines were
commonly air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios
were relatively low. The 1970s and '80s saw an increased interest in improved fuel
economy which brought in a return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with
as many as five valves per cylinder to improve efficiency. The Bugatti Veyron 16.4
operates with a W16 engine meaning that two V8 cylinder layouts are positioned
next to each other to create the W shape sharing the same crankshaft.
The largest internal combustion engine ever built is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C,
a 14-cylinder, 2-stroke turbocharged diesel engine that was designed to power the
Emma Maersk, the largest container ship in the world. This engine weighs 2300
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tons, and when running at 102 RPM produces 109,000 bhp (80,080 kW)
consuming some 13.7 tons of fuel each hour.
Combustion engine:
Internal combustion engine
Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat of a combustion process.
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel

(generally, fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion
chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature
and high pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies
force to components of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades or a
nozzle, and by moving it over a distance, generates useful mechanical energy.
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External combustion engine:
An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine where an internal

working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source, through the engine
wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding and acting on the
mechanism of the engine produces motion and usable work. The fluid is then
cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle), or (less commonly) dumped, and
cool fluid pulled in (open cycle air engine).
"Combustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat. Engines
of similar (or even identical) configuration and operation may use a supply of heat
from other sources such as nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not
involving combustion; but are not then strictly classed as external combustion
engines, but as external thermal engines.
The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engine, or steam as in a steam

engine or an organic liquid such as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine Cycle. The
fluid can be of any composition; gas is by far the most common, although even
single-phase liquid is sometimes used. In the case of the steam engine, the fluid
changes phases between liquid and gas.
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Gas turbine:
A gas turbine is internal combustion in the sense that the combustion takes place in
the working fluid, but external combustion in the sense that the combustion is not
fully closed in and is outside the actual moving turbine section. Traditionally,
"internal combustion" usually includes gas turbines, jets and rockets.
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A typical axial-flow gas turbine turbojet, the J85, sectioned for display. Flow is left
to right, multistage compressor on left, combustion chambers center, two-stage
turbine on right.
Reciprocating engine:
A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a heat engine that
uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion.
This article describes the common features of all types. The main types are: the
internal combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles; the steam engine,
the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution; and the niche application Stirling engine.
Internal combustion piston engine:
Components of a typical, four stroke cycle, internal combustion piston engine.

E - Exhaust camshaft
I - Intake camshaft
S - Spark plug
V - Valves
P - Piston
R - Connecting rod
C - Crankshaft
W - Water jacket for coolant flow
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UNIT 3
Properties material
Stress:
The term stress (s) is used to express the loading in terms of force applied to
a certain cross-sectional area of an object. From the perspective of loading,
stress is the applied force or system of forces that tends to deform a body.
From the perspective of what is happening within a material, stress is the
internal distribution of forces within a body that balance and react to the
loads applied to it.
The stress distribution may or may not be uniform, depending on the nature
of the loading condition. For example, a bar loaded in pure tension will
essentially have a uniform tensile stress distribution. However, a bar loaded
in bending will have a stress distribution that changes with distance
perpendicular to the normal axis.
Simplifying assumptions are often used to represent stress as a vector
quantity for many engineering calculations and for material property
determination. The word "vector" typically refers to a quantity that has a
"magnitude" and a "direction". For example, the stress in an axially loaded
bar is simply equal to the applied force divided by the bar's cross-sectional
area.
Strain:
Strain is the response of a system to an applied stress. When a material is
loaded with a force, it produces a stress, which then causes a material to
deform. Engineering strain is defined as the amount of deformation in the
direction of the applied force divided by the initial length of the material.
This results in a unit less number, although it is often left in the un simplified
form, such as inches per inch or meters per meter. For example, the strain in a
bar that is being stretched in tension is the amount of elongation or change in
length divided by its original length.
As in the case of stress, the strain distribution may or may not be uniform in a
complex structural element, depending on the nature of the loading condition.
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If the stress is small, the material may only strain a small amount and the
material will return to its original size after the stress is released. This is
called elastic deformation, because like elastic it returns to its unstressed
state. Elastic deformation only occurs in a material when stresses are lower
than a critical stress called the yield strength. If a material is loaded beyond it
elastic limit, the material will remain in a deformed condition after the load is
removed. This is called plastic deformation.
Engineering and True Stress and Strain:

The discussion above focused on engineering stress and strain, which use the
fixed, un deformed cross-sectional area in the calculations. True stress and
strain measures account for changes in cross-sectional area by using
the instantaneous values for the area. The engineering stress-strain curve does
not give a true indication of the deformation characteristics of a metal
because it is based entirely on the original dimensions of the specimen, and
these dimensions change continuously during the testing used to generate the
data. Engineering stress and strain data is commonly used because it is easier
to generate the data and the tensile properties are adequate for engineering
calculations. When considering the stress-strain curves in the next section,
however, it should be understood that metals and other materials continues to
strain-harden until they fracture and the stress required to produce further
deformation also increase.
Toughness:
The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the
process before fracture is termed toughness. The emphasis of this definition
should be placed on the ability to absorb energy before fracture. Recall that
ductility is a measure of how much something deforms plastically before
fracture, but just because a material is ductile does not make it tough. The
key to toughness is a good combination of strength and ductility.
A material with high strength and high ductility will have more toughness
than a material with low strength and high ductility. Therefore, one way to
measure toughness is by calculating the area under the stress strain curve
from a tensile test. This value is simply called “material toughness” and it has
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units of energy per volume. Material toughness equates to a slow absorption
of energy by the material.
A metal may possess satisfactory toughness under static loads but may fail
under dynamic loads or impact. As a rule ductility and, therefore, toughness
decrease as the rate of loading increases. Temperature is the second variable
to have a major influence on its toughness. As temperature is lowered, the
ductility and toughness also decrease. The third variable is termed notch
effect, has to due with the distribution of stress. A material might display
good toughness when the applied stress is uniaxia ; but when a mult uniaxial
stress state is produced due to the presence of a notch, the material might not
withstand the simultaneous elastic and plastic deformation in the various
directions.
There are several standard types of toughness test that generate data for
specific loading conditions and/or component design approaches. Three of
the toughness properties that will be discussed in more detail are 1) impact
toughness, 2) notch toughness and 3) fracture toughness.
Hardness:
Hardness is the resistance of a material to localized deformation. The term
can apply to deformation from indentation, scratching, cutting or bending. In
metals, ceramics and most polymers, the deformation considered is plastic
deformation of the surface. For elastomers and some polymers, hardness is
defined at the resistance to elastic deformation of the surface. The lack of a
fundamental definition indicates that hardness is not be a basic property of a
material, but rather a composite one with contributions from the yield
strength, work hardening, true tensile strength, modulus, and others factors.
Hardness measurements are widely used for the quality control of materials
because they are quick and considered to be nondestructive tests when the
marks or indentations produced by the test are in low stress areas. There are a
large variety of methods used for determining the hardness of a substance. A
few of the more common methods are introduced below.
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Mohs Hardness Test:
One of the oldest ways of measuring hardness was devised by the German
mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812. The Mohs hardness test involves
observing whether a materials surface is scratched by a substance of known
or defined hardness. To give numerical values to this physical property,
minerals are ranked along the Mohs scale, which is composed of 10 minerals
that have been given arbitrary hardness values. Mohs hardness test, while
greatly facilitating the identification of minerals in the field, is not suitable
for accurately gauging the hardness of industrial materials such as steel or
ceramics. For engineering materials, a variety of instruments have been
developed over the years to provide a precise measure of hardness. Many
apply a load and measure the depth or size of the resulting indentation.
Hardness can be measured on the macro-, micro- or nano- scale.
Brinell Hardness Test:

The oldest of the hardness test methods in common use on engineering
materials today is the Brinell hardness test. Dr. J. A. Brinell invented the
Brinell test in Sweden in 1900. The Brinell test uses a desktop machine to
applying a specified load to a hardened sphere of a specified diameter. The
Brinell hardness number, or simply the Brinell number, is obtained by
dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the measured surface area of the
indentation, in square millimeters, left on the test surface.
The Brinell test is frequently used to determine the hardness metal forgings
and castings that have a large grain structures. The Brinell test provides a
measurement over a fairly large area that is less affected by the course grain
structure of these materials than are Rockwell or Vickers tests.
A wide range of materials can be tested using a Brinell test simply by varying
the test load and indenter ball size. In the USA, Brinell testing is typically
done on iron and steel castings using a 3000Kg test force and a 10mm
diameter ball. A 1500 kilogram load is usually used for aluminum castings.
Copper, brass and thin stock are frequently tested using a 500Kg test force
and a 10 or 5mm ball.
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In Europe Brinell testing is done using a much wider range of forces and ball
sizes and it is common to perform Brinell tests on small parts using a 1mm
carbide ball and a test force as low as 1kg. These low load tests are
commonly referred to as baby Brinell tests. The test conditions should be
reported along with the Brinell hardness number. A value reported as "60 HB
10/1500/30" means that a Brinell Hardness of 60 was obtained using a 10mm
diameter ball with a 1500 kilogram load applied for 30 seconds.
Creep:
In materials science, creep is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or
deform permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long-
term exposure to high levels of stress that are below the yield strength of the
material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long
periods, and near their melting point. Creep always increases with temperature.
The rate of this deformation is a function of the material properties, exposure
time, exposure temperature and the applied structural load. Depending on the
magnitude of the applied stress and its duration, the deformation may become so
large that a component can no longer perform its function — for example creep
of a turbine blade will cause the blade to contact the casing, resulting in
the failure of the blade. Creep is usually of concern to engineers and
metallurgists when evaluating components that operate under high stresses or
high temperatures. Creep is a deformation mechanism that may or may not
constitute a failure mode. Moderate creep in concrete is sometimes welcomed
because it relieves tensile stresses that might otherwise lead to cracking. Unlike
brittle fracture, creep deformation does not occur suddenly upon the application
of stress. Instead, strain accumulates as a result of long-term stress. Creep is a
"time-dependent" deformation.
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Practicing:
a. stress is the response of a system to an applied Strain.
True □ False □
b. If the stress is small, the material may only strain a small amount and the
material will return to its original size after the stress is released. True □ False □
c. The ability of a metal to deform elastically and to absorb energy in the process
before fracture is termed toughness. True □ False □
d. One of the oldest ways of measuring hardness was devised by the German
mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1800. True □ False □
e. Brinell invented the Brinell test in Sweden in 1900. True □ False □
f. Brinell testing is typically done on iron and steel castings using a 3000Kg test
force and a 10mm diameter ball. True □ False □
②Read the text carefully and fill in the blank with the words given.
Required. Discussion. deformation. Distribution. strain. Ductility

.Creep. Brinell. resistance. ball
a. a bar loaded in bending will have a stress ……………that changes with

distance perpendicular to the normal axis.
b. amount of…………….. in the direction of the applied force divided by the initial
length of the material.
c .Engineering ………..is defined as the If the stress is small, the material may
only strain a small amount and the material will return to its original size after the
stress is released.
26
d. The………… above focused on engineering stress and strain, which use the
fixed, un deformed cross-sectional area in the calculations.
e. When considering the stress-strain curves in the next section, however, it should be
understood that metals and other materials continues to strain-harden until they
fracture and the stress………. to produce further deformation also increase.
f. A material with high strength and high ductility will have more toughness than a
material with low strength and high……………..
g. Hardness is the …………of a material to localized deformation. The term can

apply to deformation from indentation, scratching, cutting or bending.
h. The oldest of the hardness test methods in common use on engineering materials
today is the …………hardness test.
k. A wide range of materials can be tested using a Brinell test simply by varying
the test load and indenter………….. size.
L. ………always increases with temperature. The rate of this deformation is a

function of the material properties, exposure time, exposure temperature and the
applied structural load.
③. Read the statements and answer the question?
a. Describe Stress.
b. Describe Strain.
c. Describe Toughness.
d. Describe Hardness.
e. Describe Mohs Hardness Test.
f. Describe Brinell Hardness Test.
g. Describe Creep.
27
UNIT 4
Bearing:
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion between moving

parts to only the desired motion. The design of the bearing may, for example,
provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a
fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal
forces that bear on the moving parts. Bearings are classified broadly according to
the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces)
applied to the parts.
The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear" a bearing being a machine
element that allows one part to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest
bearings are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of
control over the form, size, roughness and location of the surface.
Other bearings are separate devices installed into a machine or machine part. The
most sophisticated bearings for the most demanding applications are
very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the highest standards
of current technology.
The invention of the rolling bearing, in the form of wooden rollers supporting, or
bearing, an object being moved is of great antiquity, and may predate the invention
of the wheel.
Though it is often claimed that the Egyptians used roller bearings in the form
of tree trunks under sleds, this is modern speculation. They are depicted in their
28
own drawings in the tomb of Djehutihotep as moving massive stone blocks on
sledges with the runners lubricated with a liquid which would constitute a plain
bearing. There are also Egyptian drawings of bearings used with hand drills.
The earliest recovered example of a rolling element bearing is a wooden ball
bearing supporting a rotating table from the remains of the Roman Nemi ships in
Lake Nemi, Italy. The wrecks were dated to 40 AD.
Leonardo Vinci incorporated drawings of ball bearings in his design for a
helicopter around the year 1500. This is the first recorded use of bearings in an
aerospace design. However, Agostino Ramelli is the first to have published
sketches of roller and thrust bearings. An issue with ball and roller bearings is that
the balls or rollers rub against each other causing additional friction which can be
prevented by enclosing the balls or rollers in a cage.
The captured, or caged, ball bearing was originally described by Galileo in the 17th
century The mounting of bearings into a set was not accomplished for many years
after that. The first patent for a ball race was by Philip Vaughan of Carmarthen in
1794.
Bearings saw use for holding wheel and axles. The bearings used there were plain
bearings that were used to greatly reduce friction over that of dragging an object by
making the friction act over a shorter distance as the wheel turned.
The first plain and rolling-element bearings were wood closely followed
by bronze. Over their history bearings have been made of many materials in
clouding ceramic, sapphire, glass, steel, bronze, other metals and plastic
(e.g., nylon, polyoxymethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene,and UHMWPE) which are
all used today.
Watch makers produce "jeweled" watches using sapphire plain bearings to reduce
friction thus allowing more precise time keeping.
Even basic materials can have good durability. As examples, wooden bearings can
still be seen today in old clocks or in water mills where the water provides cooling
and lubrication.
The first practical caged-roller bearing was invented in the mid-1740s
by horologist John Harrison for his H3 marine timekeeper.
This uses the bearing for a very limited oscillating motion but Harrison also used a
similar bearing in a truly rotary application in a contemporaneous regulator clock.
29
A patent on ball bearings, reportedly the first, was awarded to Jules Suriray, a
Parisian bicycle mechanic, on 3 August 1869. The bearings were then fitted to the
winning bicycle ridden by James Moore in the world's first bicycle road
race, Paris-Rouen, in November 1869.
In 1883, Friedrich Fischer, founder of FAG, developed an approach for milling and
grinding balls of equal size and exact roundness by means of a suitable production
machine and formed the foundation for creation of an independent bearing
industry.
The modern, self-aligning design of ball bearing is attributed to Sven Wingquist of
the SKF ball-bearing manufacturer in 1907, when he was awarded Swedish patent
No. 25406 on its design.
Henry Timken, a 19th-century visionary and innovator in carriage manufacturing,
patented the tapered roller bearing in 1898. The following year he formed a
company to produce his innovation. Over a century the company grew to make
bearings of all types, including specialty steel and an array of related products and
services.
Erich Frank invented and patented the wire race bearing in 1934. His focus was on
a bearing design with a cross section as small as possible and which could be
integrated into the enclosing design. After World War II he founded together
with Gerhard Heydrich the company Franke & Heydrich KG (today Frank GmbH)
to push the development and production of wire race bearings.
Richard Stribeck’s extensive research on ball bearing steels identified the
metallurgy of the commonly used 100Cr6 (AISI 52100) showing coefficient of
friction as a function of pressure.
Designed in 1968 and later patented in 1972, Bishop-Wise carver's co-founder Bud
Wise carver created vee groove bearing guide wheels, a type of linear motion
bearing consisting of both an external and internal 90-degree vee angle.
30
In the early 1980s, Pacific Bearing's founder, Robert Schroeder, invented the first
bi-material plain bearing which was size interchangeable with linear ball bearings.
This bearing had a metal shell (aluminum, steel or stainless steel) and a layer of
Teflon-based material connected by a thin adhesive layer.
Today ball and roller bearings are used in many applications which include a
rotating component. Examples include ultra high speed bearings in dental
drills, aerospace bearings in the Mars Rover, gearbox and wheel bearings on
automobiles, flexure bearings in optical alignment systems and bicycle wheel hubs.
By far, the most common bearing is the plain bearing, a bearing which uses
surfaces in rubbing contact, often with a lubricant such as oil or graphite. A plain
bearing may or may not be a discrete device. It may be nothing more than
the bearing surface of a hole with a shaft passing through it, or of a planar surface
that bears another (in these cases, not a discrete device); or it may be a layer
of bearing metal either fused to the substrate (semi-discrete) or in the form of a
separable sleeve (discrete). With suitable lubrication, plain bearings often give
entirely acceptable accuracy, life, and friction at minimal cost. Therefore, they are
very widely used.
However, there are many applications where a more suitable bearing can improve
efficiency, accuracy, service intervals, reliability, speed of operation, size, weight,
and costs of purchasing and operating machinery.
Thus, there are many types of bearings, with varying shape, material, lubrication,
principle of operation, and so on.
Practicing:
a. A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion between
moving parts to only the desired motion. True □ False □
b. Leonardo Vinci incorporated drawings of ball bearings in his design for a helicopter
around the year 1300. True □ False □
c. Bearings saw use for holding wheel and axles. True □ False □
d. Erich Frank invented and patented the wire race bearing in 1934.
True □ False □
31
Lubrication. Friction. invention. Loads. bronze. bearings
a. Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of operation, the motions
allowed, or to the directions of the…………. applied to the parts.
b. The…………of the rolling bearing, in the form of wooden rollers supporting, or
bearing, an object being moved is of great antiquity, and may predate the invention
of the wheel.
c. The first plain and rolling-element bearings were wood closely followed
by…….....
d. Watch makers produce "jeweled" watches using sapphire plain bearings to

reduce………….. thus allowing more precise time keeping.
Erich Franke invented and patented the wire race bearing in 1934.
e. Today ball and roller ………….are used in many applications which include a
rotating component
f. there are many types of bearings, with varying shape, material, ………….,
principle of operation, and so on.
a. Describe a bearing.
b. Describe rolling bearing
c. Describe bolling bearing.
32
UNIT 5
Gear
Gears play such an important part in machine .by classifying Gear According
to the shape and arrangement of their teeth we discover four basic types. General
The smaller gear in a pair is often called the pinion; the larger, either the gear, or
the wheel.
A) spur gear:
The teeth that are straight and parallel to the axis. one member of a pair or series of
gear receives input motion from a shaft.
B) Helical gears:
Helical gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are
not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved,
this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. The angled teeth
engage more gradually than do spur gear teeth. This causes helical gears to run
more smoothly and quietly than spur gears.
Helical gears also offer the possibility of using non-parallel shafts. A pair of
helical gears can be meshed in two ways: with shafts oriented at either the sum or
the difference of the helix angles of the gears.
These configurations are referred to as parallel or crossed, respectively. The

parallel configuration is the more mechanically sound. In it, the helices of a pair of
33
meshing teeth meet at a common tangent, and the contact between the tooth
surfaces will, generally, be a curve extending some distance across their face
widths. In the crossed configuration, the helices do not meet tangentially, and only
point contact is achieved between tooth surfaces. Because of the small area of
contact, crossed helical gears can only be used with light loads.
C) Bevel gears:
Bevel gears are essentially conically shaped, although the actual gear does not
extend all the way to the vertex (tip) of the cone that bounds it. With two bevel
gears in mesh, the vertices of their two cones lie on a single point, and the shaft
axes also intersect at that point. The angle between the shafts can be anything
except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes
at 90 degrees are called miter gears.
The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be cut
in a variety of other shapes. 'Spiral bevel gears' have teeth that are both curved
along their (the tooth's) length; and set at an angle, analogously to the way helical
gear teeth are set at an angle compared to spur gear teeth.
'Zero bevel gears' have teeth which are curved along their length, but not angled.
Spiral bevel gears have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their
straight-cut cousins as helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are
generally used only at speeds below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000
rpm.
34
D) Rack and pinion:
A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an
infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by
meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line.
Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering
wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s).
Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth
shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite
radius), and the tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii then derived from
that.
35
E)Hypoid gears:
Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears, except that the shaft axes are offset, not
intersecting. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset
shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of revolution.
Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees.
Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth,
contact between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than
with spiral bevel gear teeth.
Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with
the result that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are "entirely feasible" using a single set
of hypoid gears.
36
Practicing:
a. Gears play such an important part in machine.

True □ False □
b. The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears.
True □ False □
c. Hypoid gears The teeth that are straight and parallel to the axis.
True □ False □
d. Helical gears offer a refinement over spur gears. True □ False □
Hypoid gears .bevel gear .Pinion. rack
a. General The smaller gear in a pair is often called the…….; the larger, either the
gear, or the wheel.
b. The teeth of a …………may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be
cut in a variety of other shapes
c. A…………. is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with
an
infinitely large radius of curvature.
d……….. are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees.
a. How are the teeth in spur gear?

b. What is a pinion?
c. What is a Helical gears?
d. What is a Bevel gears?
37
UNIT6
Types of belts and Chain
Flat belts:
These Flat belts are widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries, many of
which have been used to transmit power in factories. Applications in the fields and
mines Such as sawmills, threshers and conveyors Are. The belt can deliver high
power at high speeds. (500 hp at 10,000 feet on a minute rate, which applies to the
Great Belt) . The actuator has a large need Fsharbsyar, leading to a robust cargo
occurs not apply to closed systems. Flat belt made of leather, textile, rubber,
polymer.
round belts:
Belt with a circular cross section and v-shaped grooves that are paid to perform in
Zayh 60 degrees are designed.
These slots are for round-the-wheel belt pulley toward the tips are rounded and are
used when the belt-type "ring (o-ring)" exist. Wedge V-shaped grooves transmit
torque through friction increases, so the round belts are only used in situations that
are relatively low torque. These belts are manufactured in various sizes and lengths
for connecting the straps of a major component or connection or weld metal may
be used.
38
v-belts:
This is the same as the belt v belt and rope wedge is known as generally
trapezoidal-shaped cross-sectional area is unrestricted and the problem is solved by
the slippage and alignment. Trapezoidal belts best combination of traction, speed
and load bearings that provides long life due to the band gap Headquartered full
Karbrdtrnd flat.
The center distance is larger than the largest diameter of less than 3 times the sum
of money, but money is both desirable and belt speed range 1000-7000 ft / min is.
These straps for larger thickness than flat belts, require larger payments and
adjustable in length and capable of disassembly is needed in appurtenance.
timing belts:
Yen with other names such as toothed belts, synchronous belts, unique and known
to be a positive transfer belt that is relative Tvandhrkt. Timing belts, chains and
gears are often used in place so that it will produce less noise and require no
39
lubrication. Auto camshaft, timing systems for small and stepper motors often
utilize these belts. They are the least in need of timing belt tension straps are
among the most efficient. These belts can be up to 200 hp (150 KW) at a speed of
16000 Ft / min tolerated.
Chain :
A chain is a series of connected links which are typically made of metal. A chain
may consist of two or more links. Chains are usually made in one of two styles,
according to their intended use
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another.
It is often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle,
particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of machines
besides vehicles.
Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive
chain or transmission chain, passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear
meshing with the holes in the links of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls
the chain putting mechanical force into the system.
Another type of drive chain is the Morse chain, invented by the Morse Chain
Company of Ithaca, New York, USA. This has inverted teeth.
Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be used to
lift or drag objects. In other situations, a second gear is placed and the power is
recovered by attaching shafts or hubs to this gear. Though drive chains are often
simple oval loops, they can also go around corners by placing more than two gears
along the chain; gears that do not put power into the system or transmit it out are
generally known as idler-wheels.
40
By varying the diameter of the input and output gears with respect to each other,
the gear ratio can be altered, so that, for example, the pedals of a bicycle can spin
all the way around more than once for every rotation of the gear that drives the
wheels.
Practicing:
a. These Flat belts are widely used in the 18th and early 19th centuries.
True □ False □
b. Belt with a circular cross section and v-shaped grooves that are paid to perform
in Zayh 60 degrees are designed. True □ False □
c. These belts can be up to 200 hp (150 KW) at a speed of 16000 Ft / min tolerated.
True □ False □
d. invented by the Morse Chain Company of Ithaca, New York, USA. This has
inverted teeth. True □ False □
41
speed. Belt. cross section. Timing. Chain. transmitting
a. The……… can deliver high power at high speeds.

b. Belt with a circular …………….and v-shaped grooves that are paid to perform
in Zayh 60 degrees are designed.
c. The center distance is larger than the largest diameter of less than 3 times the
sum of money, but money is both desirable and belt ………..range 1000-7000 ft /
min is.
d………….. belts, chains and gears are often used in place so that it will produce
less noise and require no lubrication. Auto camshaft, timing systems for small and
stepper motors often utilize these belts.
e. A ………. is a series of connected links which are typically made of metal. A
chain may consist of two or more links
f. Chain drive is a way of ………….mechanical power from one place to another.
a. Describe a Flat belts
b. Describe a round belts
c. Describe a v-belts
d. Describe a timing belts
e. Describe a Chain
42
UNIT 7
Hydraulic machines:
Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do
simple work. Heavy equipment is a common example. In this type of
machine, hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout the machine to
various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders and which becomes Pressure
according to the resistance present. The fluid is controlled directly or automatically
by control valves and distributed through hoses and tubes. The popularity of
hydraulic machinery is due to the very large amount of power that can be
transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the high power density and
wide array of actuators that can make use of this power.
Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the
powering medium.
Force torque multiplication:
A fundamental feature of hydraulic systems is the ability to apply force or torque

multiplication in an easy way, independent of the distance between the input and
output, without the need for mechanical gears or levers, either by altering the
effective areas in two connected cylinders or the effective displacement (cc/rev)
between a pump and motor. In normal cases, hydraulic ratios are combined with a
mechanical force or torque ratio for optimum machine designs such as boom
movements and trackdrives for an excavator.
43
Hydraulic circuits:
For the hydraulic fluid to do work, it must flow to the actuator and/or motors, then
return to a reservoir. The fluid is then filtered and re-pumped. The path taken by
hydraulic fluid is called a hydraulic circuit of which there are several types. Open
center circuits use pumps which supply a continuous flow. The flow is returned
to tank through the control valve's open center; that is, when the control valve is
centered, it provides an open return path to tank and the fluid is not pumped to a
high pressure.
Otherwise, if the control valve is actuated it routes fluid to and from an actuator
and tank. The fluid's pressure will rise to meet any resistance, since the pump has a
constant output. If the pressure rises too high, fluid returns to tank through
a pressure relief valve. Multiple control valves may be stacked in series. This type
of circuit can use inexpensive, constant displacement pumps. Closed center
circuits supply full pressure to the control valves, whether any valves are actuated
or not. The pumps vary their flow rate, pumping very little hydraulic fluid until the
operator actuates a valve. The valve's spool therefore doesn't need an open center
return path to tank. Multiple valves can be connected in a parallel arrangement and
system pressure is equal for all valves.
Hydraulic pump:
Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the
system develops in reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is
capable of maintaining flow against a load of 5,000 psi.
Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor (by
volume). They are powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected through
gears, belts, or a flexible elastomeric coupling to reduce vibration.
Common types of hydraulic pumps to hydraulic machinery applications are; Piston
pumps are more expensive than gear or vane pumps, but provide longer life
operating at higher pressure, with difficult fluids and longer continuous duty
cycles. Piston pumps make up one half of a hydrostatic transmission.
Control valves:
Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator. They usually
consist of a spool inside a cast iron or steel housing. The spool slides to different
positions in the housing, intersecting grooves and channels route the fluid based on
the spool's position.
44
The spool has a central (neutral) position maintained with springs; in this position
the supply fluid is blocked, or returned to tank. Sliding the spool to one side routes
the hydraulic fluid to an actuator and provides a return path from the actuator to
tank. When the spool is moved to the opposite direction the supply and return paths
are switched. When the spool is allowed to return to neutral (center) position the
actuator fluid paths are blocked, locking it in position. Directional control valves
are usually designed to be stackable, with one valve for each hydraulic cylinder,
and one fluid input supplying all the valves in the stack.
Tolerances are very tight in order to handle the high pressure and avoid leaking,
spools typically have a clearance with the housing of less than a
thousandth of an inch (25 µm). The valve block will be mounted to the machine's
frame with a three point pattern to avoid distorting the valve block and jamming
the valve's sensitive components. The spool position may be actuated by
mechanical levers, hydraulic pilot pressure, or solenoids which push the spool left
or right. A seal allows part of the spool to protrude outside the housing, where it is
accessible to the actuator. The main valve block is usually a stack of off the
shelf directional control valves chosen by flow capacity and performance. Some
valves are designed to be proportional (flow rate proportional to valve position),
while others may be simply on-off. The control valve is one of the most expensive
and sensitive parts of a hydraulic circuit.
Reservoir:
The hydraulic fluid reservoir holds excess hydraulic fluid to accommodate volume
changes from: cylinder extension and contraction, temperature driven expansion
and contraction, and leaks. The reservoir is also designed to aid in separation of air
from the fluid and also work as a heat accumulator to cover losses in the system
when peak power is used. Design engineers are always pressured to reduce the size
of hydraulic reservoirs, while equipment operators always appreciate larger
reservoirs. Reservoirs can also help separate dirt and other particulate from the oil,
as the particulate will generally settle to the bottom of the tank. Some designs
include dynamic flow channels on the fluids return path that allow for a smaller
reservoir.
Accumulators:
Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to store
energy by using pressurized gas. One type is a tube with a floating piston. On one
side of the piston is a charge of pressurized gas, and on the other side is the fluid.
45
Bladders are used in other designs. Reservoirs store a system's fluid. Examples of
accumulator uses are backup power for steering or brakes, or to act as a shock
absorber for the hydraulic circuit.
Hydraulic fluid:
Also known as tractor fluid, hydraulic fluid is the life of the hydraulic circuit. It is
usually petroleum oil with various additives. Some hydraulic machines require fire
resistant fluids, depending on their applications. In some factories where food is
prepared, either an edible oil or water is used as a working fluid for health and
safety reasons.
In addition to transferring energy, hydraulic fluid needs to lubricate components,
suspend contaminants and metal filings for transport to the filter, and to function
well to several hundred degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.
Filters:
Filters are an important part of hydraulic systems. Metal particles are continually
produced by mechanical components and need to be removed along with other
contaminants.
Filters may be positioned in many locations. The filter may be located between the
reservoir and the pump intake. Blockage of the filter will cause cavitation and
possibly failure of the pump.
Sometimes the filter is located between the pump and the control valves. This
arrangement is more expensive, since the filter housing is pressurized, but
eliminates cavitation problems and protects the control valve from pump failures.
The third common filter location is just before the return line enters the reservoir.
This location is relatively insensitive to blockage and does not require a
pressurized housing, but contaminants that enter the reservoir from external
sources are not filtered until passing through the system at least once.
Tubes, pipes and hoses:

Hydraulic tubes are seamless steel precision pipes, specially manufactured for
hydraulics. The tubes have standard sizes for different pressure ranges, with
standard diameters up to 100 mm. The tubes are supplied by manufacturers in
lengths of 6 m, cleaned, oiled and plugged. The tubes are interconnected by
different types of flanges (especially for the larger sizes and pressures), welding
cones/nipples (with o-ring seal), several types of flare connection and by cut-rings.
46
In larger sizes, hydraulic pipes are used. Direct joining of tubes by welding is not
acceptable since the interior cannot be inspected.
Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available. Generally
these are used for low pressure. They can be connected by threaded connections,
but usually by welds. Because of the larger diameters the pipe can usually be
inspected internally after welding. Black pipe is non-galvanized and suitable
for welding.
Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, temperature, and fluid compatibility. Hoses
are used when pipes or tubes can not be used, usually to provide flexibility for
machine operation or maintenance.
The hose is built up with rubber and steel layers. A rubber interior is surrounded by
multiple layers of woven wire and rubber. The exterior is designed for abrasion
resistance. The bend radius of hydraulic hose is carefully designed into the
machine, since hose failures can be deadly, and violating the hose's minimum bend
radius will cause failure. Hydraulic hoses generally have steel fittings swaged on
the ends.
The weakest part of the high pressure hose is the connection of the hose to the
fitting. Another disadvantage of hoses is the shorter life of rubber which requires
periodic replacement, usually at five to seven year intervals.
Tubes and pipes for hydraulic applications are internally oiled before the system is
commissioned. Usually steel piping is painted outside. Where flare and other
couplings are used, the paint is removed under the nut, and is a location where
corrosion can begin. For this reason, in marine applications most piping is stainless
steel.
Practicing:
a. The fluid is then filtered and re-pumped. True □ False □
b. Pressure in the system develops in reaction to the load. True □ False □
c .Directional control valves route the fluid to the desired actuator.
47
True □ False □
D. Design engineers are always pressured to reduce the size of hydraulic

reservoirs. True □ False □
e. Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery.
True □ False □
F. Hydraulic pipe is used in case standard hydraulic tubes are not available.
True □ False □
Hydraulic. Pumps .Temperature. Filters. Bladders. Fluid. liquid
a. Open center circuits use pumps which supply a continuous flow.
b. Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use……….fluid power to do

simple work.
c…………… machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the

powering medium.
d .Hydraulic …………….. supply fluid to the components in the system.
e. Directional control valves route the ……….to the desired actuator.
f…………… are used in other designs. Reservoirs store a system's fluid.
g……….. are an important part of hydraulic systems.
48
h. Hydraulic hose is graded by pressure, ……………., and fluid compatibility.
a. Describe a Hydraulic machines.

b. Describe a Force torque multiplication.
c. Describe a Hydraulic circuits.
d. Describe a Reservoir.
e. Describe a Hydraulic pump.
f. Describe a Control valves.
g. Describe a Accumulators.
h. Describe a Hydraulic fluid.
k. Describe a Filters.
49
UNIT 8
How Gas Turbine Engines Work?

When you go to an airport and see the commercial jets there, you can't help but
notice the huge engines that power them. Most commercial jets are powered by
turbofan engines, and turbofans are one example of a general class of engines
called gas turbine engines. Youmay have never heard of gas turbine engines, but
they are used in all kinds of unexpected places.
For example, many of the helicopters you see, a lot of smaller power plants and
even the M-1 Tank use gas turbines. In this edition of How Stuff Works, we will
look at gas turbine engines to see what makes them tick!
You have probably heard of a steam turbine. Most power plants use coal, natural
gas, oil or a nuclear reactor to create steam. The steam runs through a huge and
very carefully designed multi-stage turbine to spin an output shaft that drives the
plant's generator. Hydroelectric dams use water turbines in the same way to
generate power. The turbines used in a hydroelectric plant look completely
different from a steam turbine because water is so much denser (and slower
moving) than steam, but it is the same principle.
Wind turbines, also known as wind mills, use the wind as their motive force. A
wind turbine looks nothing like a steam turbine or a water turbine because wind is
50
slow moving and very light, but again, the principle is the same. A gas turbine is an
extension of the same concept. In a gas turbine, a pressurized gas spins the turbine.
In all modern gas turbine engines, the engine produces its own pressurized gas, and
it does this by burning something like propane, natural gas, kerosene or jet fuel.
The heat that comes from burning the fuel expands air, and the high-speed rush of
this hot air spins the turbine.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
So why does the M-1 tank use a 1,500 horsepower gas turbine engine instead of a
diesel engine? It turns out that there are two big advantages of the turbine over the
diesel:
Gas turbine engines have a great power-to-weight rati compared to reciprocating
engines. That is, the amount of power you get out of the engine compared to the
weight of the engine itself is very good. Gas turbine engines are smaller than their
reciprocating counterparts of the same power.
The main disadvantage of gas turbines is that, compared to a reciprocating engine
of the same size, they are expensive. Because they spin at such high speeds and
because of the high operating temperatures, designing and manufacturing gas
turbines is a tough problem from both the engineering and materials standpoint.
Gas turbines also tend to use more fuel when they are idling, and they prefer a
constant rather than a fluctuating load. That makes gas turbines great for things
like transcontinental jet aircraft and power plants, but explains why you don't have
one under the hood of your car.
Combustion Area:
This high-pressure air then enters the combustion area, where a ring of fuel
injectors injects .a steady stream of fuel. The fuel is generally kerosene, jet fuel,
propane or natural gas. Ifyou think about how easy it is to blow a candle out, then
you can see the design problem in the combustion area entering this area is high-
pressure air moving at hundreds of miles per hour. You want to keep a flame
burning continuously in that environment.
The piece that solves this problem is called a "flame holder," or sometimes a "can."
The can is a hollow, perforated piece of heavy metal. Half of the can in cross-
section is shown below:
51
The injectors are at the right. Compressed air enters through the perforations.
Exhaust gases exit at the left. You can see in the previous figure that a second set of
cylinders wraps around the inside and the outside of this perforated can, guiding the
compressed intake air into the perforations.
The Turbine:
At the left of the engine is the turbine section. In this figure there are two sets of
turbines. The first set directly drives the compressor. The turbines, the shaft and the
compressor all turn as a single unit:
At the far left is a final turbine stage, shown here with a single set of vanes. It drives
the output shaft. This final turbine stage and the output shaft are a completely stand-
alone, freewheeling unit. They spin freely without any connection to the rest of the
engine. And that is the amazing
part about a gas turbine engine -- there is enough energy in the hot gases blowing
through the blades of that final output turbine to generate 1,500 horse power and
drive a 63-ton M-1 Tank ! A gas turbine engine really is that simple.
In the case of the turbine used in a tank or a power plant , there really is nothing
to do with the exhaust gases but vent them through an exhaust pipe, as shown.
Sometimes the exhaust will run through some sort of heat exchanger either to
extract the heat for some other purpose or to preheat air before it enters the
combustion chamber.
52
The discussion here is obviously simplified a bit. For example, we have not
discussed the areas of bearings, oiling systems, internal support structures of the
engine, stator vanes and so on. All of these areas become major engineering
problems because of the tremendous temperatures, pressures and spin rates
inside the engine.
But the basic principles described here govern all gas turbine engines and help
you to understand the basic layout and operation of the engine.
Practicing: .
a. Hydroelectric dams use steam turbines in the same way to generate power. .
True □ False □
b. Gas turbines also tend to use more fuel when they are idling True □ False □
c. The piece that solves this problem is called a "flame holder," True □ False □
d. The main disadvantage of gas turbines is that, compared to a reciprocating

engine of the same size, they are expensive. True □ False □
turbine. produces. water turbines. weight rati
a. Hydroelectric dams use …………….in the same way to generate power.
b. In all modern gas turbine engines, the engine ……………..its own
pressurized gas
c .Gas turbine engines have a great power-to-………. compared to reciprocating

engines.
d. Gas turbine engines are …………than their reciprocating counterparts

of the same power.
53
e. This high-pressure air then enters the combustion area, where a ring of
…………….injectors injects.
f. At the left of the engine is the ……….section. In this figure there are two sets of
turbines.
a. How Gas Turbine Engines Work?
b. Describe Wind turbines.
c. Describe Advantages and Disadvantages Turbine Engines.
e. Describe Turbine.
54
UNIT9
Cam and crank
Cam
A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used especially in
transforming rotary motion into linear motion or vice-versa. It is often a part of a
rotating wheel (e.g. an eccentric wheel) or shaft (e.g. a cylinder with an irregular
shape) that strikes alever at one or more points on its circular path. The cam can be
a simple tooth, as is used to deliver pulses of power to a steam hammer, for
example, or an eccentric disc or other shape that produces a smooth reciprocating
(back and forth) motion in the follower, which is a lever making contact with the
cam.
Overviev:
The cam can be seen as a device that rotates from circular to reciprocating (or
sometimes oscillating) motion. A common example is the camshaft of
an automobile, which takes the rotary motion of the engine and translates it into the
reciprocating motion necessary to operate the intake and exhaust valves of
the cylinders.
Displacement diagram:
Certain cams can be characterized by their displacement diagrams, which reflect
the changing position a roller follower (a shaft with a rotating wheel at the end)
would make as the cam rotates about an axis. These diagrams relate angular
position, usually in degrees, to the radial displacement experienced at that position.
55
Displacement diagrams are traditionally presented as graphs with non-negative
values. A simple displacement diagram illustrates the follower motion at a constant
velocity rise followed by a similar return with a dwell in between as depicted in
figure 2. The rise is the motion of the follower away from the cam center, dwell is
the motion where the follower is at rest, and return is the motion of the follower
toward the cam center.
Plate cam:
The most commonly used cam is the plate cam which is cut out of a piece of flat
metal or plate. Here, the follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of
rotation of the camshaft.
Several key terms are relevant in such a construction of plate cams: base circle,
prime circle (with radius equal to the sum of the follower radius and the base circle
radius), pitch curve which is the radial curve traced out by applying the radial
displacements away from the prime circle across all angles, and the lobe separation
angle (LSA - the angle between two adjacent intake and exhaust cam lobes).
cylindrical cam:
A cylindrical cam or barrel cam is a cam in which the follower rides in a groove
cut into the surface of a cylinder. These cams are principally used to convert
rotational motion to linear motion parallel to the rotational axis of the cylinder.
56
A cylinder may have several grooves cut into the surface and drive several
followers.
Cylindrical cams can provide motions that involve more than a single rotation of
the cylinder and generally provide positive positioning, removing the need for a
spring or other provision to keep the follower in contact with the control surface.
Applications include machine tool drives, such as reciprocating saws, and shift
control barrels in sequential transmissions, such as on most modern motorcycles.
crank mechanism:
A crank is an arm attached at right angles to a rotating shaft by
which reciprocating motion is imparted to or received from the shaft. It is used to
convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or vice-versa. The arm may be a
bent portion of the shaft, or a separate arm or disk attached to it. Attached to the
end of the crank by a pivot is a rod, usually called a connecting rod. The end of the
rod attached to the crank moves in a circular motion, while the other end is usually
constrained to move in a linear sliding motion.
The term often refers to a human-powered crank which is used to manually turn an
axle, as in a bicycle crank set or a brace and bit drill. In this case a person's arm or
leg serves as the connecting rod, applying reciprocating force to the crank. There is
usually a bar perpendicular to the other end of the arm, often with a freely rotatable
handle orpedal attached.
57
History:
The eccentrically mounted handle of the rotary hand mill which appeared in 5th
century BC Celtiberian Spain and ultimately spread across the Roman
Empire constitutes a crank. A Roman iron crankshaft of yet unknown purpose
dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The
82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the other
handle being lost.
A ca. 40 cm long true iron crank was excavated, along with a pair of shattered
mill-stones of 50−65 cm diameter and diverse iron items, in Aschheim, close
to Munich. The crank-operated Roman mill is dated to the late 2nd century
AD. An often cited modern reconstruction of a bucket-chain pump driven by
hand-cranked flywheels from the Nemi ships has been dismissed though as
"archaeological fantasy".
The earliest evidence, anywhere in the world, for the crank combined with a
connecting rod in a machine appears in the late Roman Hierapolis sawmill from
the 3rd century AD and two Roman stone sawmills at Gerasa, Roman Syria,
and Ephesus, Asia Minor (both 6th century AD).
On the pediment of the Hierapolis mill, a waterwheel fed by a mill race is shown
powering via a gear train two frame saws which cut rectangular blocks by the way
of some kind of connecting rods and, through mechanical necessity, cranks. The
accompanying inscription is in Greek.
The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically
attested sawmills worked without a gear train.
In ancient literature, we find a reference to the workings of water-
powered marble saws close to Trier, now Germany, by the late 4th century
poet Ausonius; about the same time, these mill types seem also to be indicated by
the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia, demonstrating a diversified
use of water-power in many parts of the Roman Empire The three finds push back
the date of the invention of the crank and connecting rod back by a full
millennium; for the first time, all essential components of the much later steam
engine were assembled by one technological culture:
With the crank and connecting rod system, all elements for constructing a steam
engine (invented in 1712) — Hero's aeolipile (generating steam power),
the cylinder and piston (in metal force pumps), non-return valves (in water
pumps), gearing (in water mills and clocks) — were known in Roman times.
58
Middle Ages:
A rotary grindstone − the earliest representation thereof −which is operated by a
crank handle is shown in the Carolingian manuscript Utrecht Psalter; the pen
drawing of around 830 goes back to a late antique original. A musical tract
ascribed to the abbot of Cluny (ca. 878−942) describes a fretted stringed
instrument which was sounded by a resined wheel turned with a crank; the device
later appears in two 12th century illuminated manuscripts. There are also two
pictures of Fortuna cranking her wheel of destiny from this and the following
century.
The use of crank handles in trepanation drills was depicted in the 1887 edition of
the Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines to the credit of the Spanish
Muslimsurgeon Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi; however, the existence of such a device
cannot be confirmed by the original illuminations and thus has to be
discounted The Benedictine monk Theophilus Presbyter (c. 1070−1125) described
crank handles "used in the turning of casting cores".
The Italian physician Guido da Vigevano (c. 1280−1349), planning for a new
crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled
by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels (center of
image). The Luttrell Psalter, dating to around 1340, describes a grindstone which
was rotated by two cranks, one at each end of its axle; the geared hand-mill,
operated either with one or two cranks, appeared later in the 15th century;
Medieval cranes were occasionally powered by cranks, although more often
by windlasses.
Practicing:
a. Certain cams can be characterized by their displacement diagrams. True □

False □
b. A cylinder may have several grooves cut into the surface and drive several
followers. True □ False □
c. The eccentrically mounted handle of the rotary handmill which appeared in 5th
century BC Celtiberian Spain. True □ False □
d. The Italian physician Guido da Vigevano (c. 1280−1349). True □ False □
59
crank. reciprocating. cylindrical cam. deliver pulses. .prime circle.
a. The cam can be a simple tooth, as is used to ………….of power to a steam

hammer.
b. The cam can be seen as a device that rotates from circular to ……....motion.
c. Several key terms are relevant in such a construction of plate cams: base circle,
……………
d .A ………………. or barrel cam is a cam in which the follower rides in a

groove cut into the surface of a cylinder.
e. A ………. is an arm attached at right angles to a rotating shaft .
③.Read the statements and anser the question?
a. Describe a cam.
b. Describe a crank mechanism.
c. Describe a History crank mechanism.
d. Describe a cylindrical cam.
e.Describe Plate cam.
60
UNIT10
Mechanics
Mechanics (Greek Μηχανική) is the branch of science concerned with the
behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the
subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. The scientific discipline has
its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings
of Aristotle and Archimedes (see History of classical mechanics and Time line of
classical mechanics). During the early modern period, scientists such
as Galileo, Kepler, and especially Newton, laid the foundation for what is now
known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of classical physics that deals with the
particles that are moving either with less velocity or that are at rest. It can also be
defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion and force of the
particular object.
Historically, classical mechanics came first, while quantum mechanics is a

comparatively recent invention. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac
Newton's laws of motion in Principia Mathematica; Quantum Mechanics was
discovered in 1925. Both are commonly held to constitute the most certain
knowledge that exists about physical nature. Classical mechanics has especially
often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact sciences. Essential in this
respect is the relentless use of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role
played by experiment in generating and testing them.
61
Quantum mechanics is of a wider scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as
a sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According to
the correspondence principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two
subjects, each simply pertains to specific situations. The correspondence principle
states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theories reproduces
classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers. Quantum mechanics has
superseded classical mechanics at the foundational level and is indispensable for
the explanation and prediction of processes at molecular and (sub)atomic level.
However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to solve problems
which are unmanageably difficult in quantum mechanics and hence remains useful
and well used. Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a careful
definition of such quantities as displacement (distance moved), time, velocity,
acceleration, mass, and force. Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was
explained from a very different point of view. For example, following the ideas of
Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle, scientists reasoned that a cannonball falls
down because its natural position is in the Earth; the sun, the moon, and the stars
travel in circles around the earth because it is the nature of heavenly objects to
travel in perfect circles.
The Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo brought together the ideas of other
great thinkers of his time and began to analyze motion in terms of distance traveled
from some starting position and the time that it took. He showed that the speed of
falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall. This acceleration is
the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction (air resistance) is
discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this
analysis by defining force and mass and relating these to acceleration. For objects
traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by
Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles,
Newton’s laws were superseded by quantum theory. For everyday phenomena,
however, Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics,
which is the study of what causes motion.
Relativistic versus newtonian mechanics
In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical
mechanics, Einstein's general and special theories of relativity have expanded the
scope ofNewton and Galileo's formulation of mechanics. The differences between
relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become significant and even dominant as the
velocity of a massive body approaches the speed of light. For instance,
in Newtonian mechanics, Newton's laws of motion specify that , whereas
in Relativistic mechanics and Lorentz transformations, which were first discovered
62
by Hendrik Lorentz, ( is the Lorentz factor, which is almost equal to 1
for low speeds).
Medieval age
In the Middle Ages, Aristotle's theories were criticized and modified by a number
of figures, beginning with John Philoponus in the 6th century. A central problem
was that of projectile motion, which was discussed by Hipparchus and Philoponus.
This led to the development of the theory of impetus by 14th century French Jean
Buridan, which developed into the modern theories
of inertia, velocity, acceleration and momentum. This work and others was
developed in 14th century England by the Oxford Calculators such as Thomas
Bradwardine, who studied and formulated various laws regarding falling bodies.
On the question of a body subject to a constant (uniform) force, the 12th century
Jewish-Arab Nathanel (Iraqi, of Baghdad) stated that constant force imparts
constant acceleration, while the main properties are uniformly accelerated motion
(as of falling bodies) was worked out by the 14th century Oxford Calculators.
Early modern age
Two central figures in the early modern age are Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
Galileo's final statement of his mechanics, particularly of falling bodies, is his Two
New Sciences (1638). Newton's 1687 Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica provided a detailed mathematical account of mechanics, using the
newly developed mathematics of calculus and providing the basis of Newtonian
mechanics.
There is some dispute over priority of various ideas: Newton's Principia is
certainly the seminal work and has been tremendously influential, despite
ultimately being proven wrong by Wagner's theory of tensile bases, and the
systematic mathematics therein did not and could not have been stated earlier
because calculus had not been developed.
However, many of the ideas, particularly as pertain to inertia (impetus) and falling
bodies had been developed and stated by earlier researchers, both the then-recent
Galileo and the less-known medieval predecessors. Precise credit is at times
difficult or contentious because scientific language and standards of proof changed,
so whether medieval statements are equivalent to modern statements
or sufficient proof, or instead similar to modern statements and hypotheses is often
debatable.
63
Types of mechanical bodies
Thus the often-used term body needs to stand for a wide assortment of objects,
including particles, projectiles, spacecraft, stars, parts of machinery, parts of solids,
parts of fluids (gases andliquids), etc.
Other distinctions between the various sub-disciplines of mechanics, concern the
nature of the bodies being described. Particles are bodies with little (known)
internal structure, treated as mathematical points in classical mechanics. Rigid
bodies have size and shape, but retain a simplicity close to that of the particle,
adding just a few so-called degrees of freedom, such as orientation in space.
Otherwise, bodies may be semi-rigid, i.e. elastic, or non-rigid, i.e. fluid. These
subjects have both classical and quantum divisions of study.
For instance, the motion of a spacecraft, regarding its orbit and attitude (rotation),
is described by the relativistic theory of classical mechanics, while the analogous
movements of an atomic nucleus are described by quantum mechanics.
Sub-disciplines in mechanics
The following are two lists of various subjects that are studied in mechanics.Note
that there is also the "theory of fields" which constitutes a separate discipline in
physics, formally treated as distinct from mechanics, whether classical
fields or quantum fields. But in actual practice, subjects belonging to mechanics
and fields are closely interwoven. Thus, for instance, forces that act on particles are
frequently derived from fields (electromagnetic or gravitational), and particles
generate fields by acting as sources. In fact, in quantum mechanics, particles
themselves are fields, as described theoretically by the wave function.
Classical mechanics
In physics, classical mechanics is one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics,
which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion
ofbodies under the action of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies
is an ancient one, making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects
in science, engineering and technology.
Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects,
from projectiles to parts of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such
asspacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. Besides this, many specializations within
the subject deal with gases, liquids, solids, and other specific sub-topics. Classical
mechanics provides extremely accurate results as long as the domain of study is
restricted to large objects and the speeds involved do not approach the speed of
light. When the objects being dealt with become sufficiently small, it becomes
necessary to introduce the other major sub-field of mechanics, quantum mechanics,
64
which reconciles the macroscopic laws of physics with the atomic nature of
matter and handles the wave–particle duality ofatoms and molecules. In the case of
high velocity objects approaching the speed of light, classical mechanics is
enhanced by special relativity. General relativity unifies special relativity
with Newton's law of universal gravitation, allowing physicists to
handle gravitation at a deeper level.
The term classical mechanics was coined in the early 20th century to describe the
system of physics begun by Isaac Newton and many contemporary 17th
century natural philosophers, building upon the earlier astronomical theories
of Johannes Kepler, which in turn were based on the precise observations ofTycho
Brahe and the studies of terrestrial projectile motion of Galileo. Since these aspects
of physics were developed long before the emergence of quantum physics and
relativity, some sources exclude Einstein's theory of relativity from this category.
However, a number of modern sources do include relativistic mechanics, which in
their view represents classical mechanics in its most developed and most accurate
form.
The initial stage in the development of classical mechanics is often referred to as
Newtonian mechanics, and is associated with the physical concepts employed by
and the mathematical methods invented by Newton himself, in parallel
with Leibniz, and others. This is further described in the following sections. Later,
more abstract and general methods were developed, leading to reformulations of
classical mechanics known as Lagrangian mechanics andHamiltonian mechanics.
These advances were largely made in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they extend
substantially beyond Newton's work, particularly through their use of analytical
mechanics. Ultimately, the mathematics developed for these were central to the
creation of quantum mechanics.
History
Some Greek philosophers of antiquity, among them Aristotle, founder
of Aristotelian physics, may have been the first to maintain the idea that
"everything happens for a reason" and that theoretical principles can assist in the
understanding of nature. While to a modern reader, many of these preserved ideas
come forth as eminently reasonable, there is a conspicuous lack of both
mathematical theory and controlled experiment, as we know it. These both turned
out to be decisive factors in forming modern science, and they started out with
classical mechanics.
The medieval "science of weights" (i.e., mechanics) owes much of its importance
to the work of Jordanus de Nemore. In the Elementa super demonstrationem
65
ponderum, he introduces the concept of "positional gravity" and the use of
component forces.
The first published causal explanation of the motions of planets was Johannes
Kepler's Astronomia nova published in 1609. He concluded, based on Tycho
Brahe's observations of the orbit of Mars, that the orbits were ellipses. This break
with ancient thought was happening around the same time that Galileo was
proposing abstract mathematical laws for the motion of objects. He may (or may
not) have performed the famous experiment of dropping two cannon balls of
different weights from the tower of Pisa, showing that they both hit the ground at
the same time. The reality of this experiment is disputed, but, more importantly, he
did carry out quantitative experiments by rolling balls on an inclined plane. His
theory of accelerated motion derived from the results of such experiments, and
forms a cornerstone of classical mechanics.
As foundation for his principles of natural philosophy, Isaac Newton proposed

three laws of motion: the law of inertia, his second law of acceleration (mentioned
above), and the law of action and reaction; and hence laid the foundations for
classical mechanics. Both Newton's second and third laws were given proper
scientific and mathematical treatment in Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, which distinguishes them from earlier attempts at explaining similar
phenomena, which were either incomplete, incorrect, or given little accurate
mathematical expression. Newton also enunciated the principles of conservation of
momentum and angular momentum. In mechanics, Newton was also the first to
provide the first correct scientific and mathematical formulation
of gravity in Newton's law of universal gravitation. The combination of Newton's
laws of motion and gravitation provide the fullest and most accurate description of
classical mechanics. He demonstrated that these laws apply to everyday objects as
well as to celestial objects. In particular, he obtained a theoretical explanation
of Kepler's laws of motion of the planets.
Newton previously invented the calculus, of mathematics, and used it to perform
the mathematical calculations. For acceptability, his book, thePrincipia, was
formulated entirely in terms of the long-established geometric methods, which
were soon eclipsed by his calculus. However it wasLeibniz who developed the
notation of the derivative and integral preferred[1] today.
Newton, and most of his contemporaries, with the notable exception of Huygens,
worked on the assumption that classical mechanics would be able to explain all
phenomena, including light, in the form of geometric optics. Even when
66
discovering the so-called Newton's rings (a wave interference phenomenon) his
explanation remained with his own corpuscular theory of light.
After Newton, classical mechanics became a principal field of study in
mathematics as well as physics. After Newton, several re-formulations
progressively allowed finding solutions to a far greater number of problems. The
first notable re-formulation was in 1788 by Joseph Louis Lagrange. Lagrangian
mechanics was in turn re-formulated in 1833 by William Rowan Hamilton.
Some difficulties were discovered in the late 19th century that could only be
resolved by more modern physics. Some of these difficulties related to
compatibility with electromagnetic theory, and the famous Michelson–Morley
experiment. The resolution of these problems led to the special theory of relativity,
often included in the term classical mechanics.
A second set of difficulties were related to thermodynamics. When combined
with thermodynamics, classical mechanics leads to the Gibbs paradox of
classical statistical mechanics, in which entropy is not a well-defined
quantity. Black-body radiation was not explained without the introduction
of quanta. As experiments reached the atomic level, classical mechanics failed to
explain, even approximately, such basic things as the energy levels and sizes
of atomsand the photo-electric effect. The effort at resolving these problems led to
the development of quantum mechanics.
Since the end of the 20th century, the place of classical mechanics in physics has
been no longer that of an independent theory. Instead, classical mechanics is now
considered an approximate theory to the more general quantum mechanics.
Emphasis has shifted to understanding the fundamental forces of nature as in
the Standard model and its more modern extensions into a unified theory of
everything. Classical mechanics is a theory for the study of the motion of non-
quantum mechanical, low-energy particles in weak gravitational fields. In the 21st
century classical mechanics has been extended into the complex domain and
complex classical mechanics exhibits behaviors very similar to quantum
mechanics.
Description of the theory
The following introduces the basic concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity,
it often models real-world objects as point particles, objects withnegligible size.
The motion of a point particle is characterized by a small number of parameters: its
position, mass, and the forces applied to it. Each of these parameters is discussed in
turn.
In reality, the kind of objects that classical mechanics can describe always have
a non-zero size. (The physics of very small particles, such as theelectron, is more
67
accurately described by quantum mechanics). Objects with non-zero size have
more complicated behavior than hypothetical point particles, because of the
additional degrees of freedom—for example, a baseball can spin while it is
moving. However, the results for point particles can be used to study such objects
by treating them as composite objects, made up of a large number of interacting
point particles. The center of mass of a composite object behaves like a point
particle.
Classical mechanics uses common-sense notions of how matter and forces exist
and interact. It assumes that matter and energy have definite, knowable attributes
such as where an object is in space and its speed. It also assumes that objects may
be directly influenced only by their immediate surroundings, known as
the principle of locality. In quantum mechanics objects may have unknowable
position or velocity, or instantaneously interact with other objects at a distance.
Position and its derivatives
The position of a point particle is defined with respect to an arbitrary fixed
reference point, O, in space, usually accompanied by a coordinate system, with the
reference point located at the origin of the coordinate system. It is defined as
the vector r from O to the particle. In general, the point particle need not be
stationary relative to O, so r is a function of t, the time elapsed since an arbitrary
initial time. In pre-Einstein relativity (known as Galilean relativity), time is
considered an absolute, i.e., the time interval between any given pair of events is
the same for all observers. In addition to relying on absolute time, classical
mechanics assumes Euclidean geometry for the structure of space.
68
UNIT11
Fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that studies fluids (liquids, gases,
and plasmas) and the forces on them. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid
statics, the study of fluids at rest; fluid kinematics, the study of fluids in motion;
and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. It is a branch
of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the
information that it is made out of atoms, that is, it models matter from a
macroscopic viewpoint rather than from a microscopic viewpoint. Fluid
mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research with many
unsolved or partly solved problems. Fluid mechanics can be mathematically
complex, and can best be solved by numerical methods, typically using computers.
A modern discipline, called computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this
approach to solving fluid mechanics problems. Particle image velocimetry, an
experimental method for visualizing and analyzing fluid flow, also takes advantage
of the highly visual nature of fluid flow.
Brief history
The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece,
when Archimedes investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his
famous law known now as the Archimedes' principle, which was published in his
work On Floating Bodies - generally considered to be the first major work on fluid
mechanics.
Rapid advancement in fluid mechanics began with Leonardo da Vinci (observations
and experiments), Evangelista Torricelli (invented the barometer), Isaac
Newton (investigated viscosity) and Blaise Pascal (researched hydrostatics,
69
formulated Pascal's law), and was continued by Daniel Bernoulli with the
introduction of mathematical fluid dynamics in Hydrodynamica (1738).
Inviscid flow was further analyzed by various mathematicians (Leonhard

Euler, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Joseph Louis Lagrange, Pierre-Simon
Laplace, Siméon Denis Poisson) and viscous flow was explored by a multitude
of engineers including Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille and Gotthilf Hagen. Further
mathematical justification was provided by Claude-Louis Navier and George
Gabriel Stokes in the Navier–Stokes equations, and boundary layers were
investigated (Ludwig Prandtl, Theodore von Kármán), while various scientists
such as Osborne Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov, and Geoffrey Ingram
Taylor advanced the understanding of fluid viscosity and turbulence.
Assumptions
Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some basic
assumptions about the materials being studied. These assumptions are turned into
equations that must be satisfied if the assumptions are to be held true.
For example, consider a fluid in three dimensions. The assumption that mass is
conserved means that for any fixed control volume (for example a sphere) –
enclosed by a control surface – the rate of change of the mass contained is equal to
the rate at which mass is passing from outside to insidethrough the surface, minus
the rate at which mass is passing the other way, from inside to outside. (A special
case would be when the mass inside and the mass outside remain constant). This
can be turned into an equation in integral form over the control volume.
Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following:
 Conservation of mass
 Conservation of energy
 Conservation of momentum
 The continuum hypothesis, detailed below.
Further, it is often useful (at subsonic conditions) to assume a fluid

is incompressible – that is, the density of the fluid does not change.
70
Similarly, it can sometimes be assumed that the viscosity of the fluid is zero (the
fluid is in viscid). Gases can often be assumed to be inviscid. If a fluid is
viscous, and its flow contained in some way (e.g. in a pipe), then the flow at the
boundary must have zero velocity. For a viscous fluid, if the boundary is not
porous, the shear forces between the fluid and the boundary results also in a zero
velocity for the fluid at the boundary. This is called the no-slip condition. For a
porous media otherwise, in the frontier of the containing vessel, the slip condition
is not zero velocity, and the fluid has a discontinuous velocity field between the
free fluid and the fluid in the porous media (this is related to the Beavers and
Joseph condition).
Continuum hypothesis
Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects.
The continuum assumption, however, considers fluids to be continuous. That is,
properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken to be well-
defined at "infinitely" small points, defining a REV (Reference Element of
Volume), at the geometric order of the distance between two adjacent molecules of
fluid. Properties are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another, and
are averaged values in the REV. The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete
molecules is ignored.
The continuum hypothesis is basically an approximation, in the same way planets
are approximated by point particles when dealing with celestial mechanics, and
therefore results in approximate solutions.
Consequently, assumption of the continuum hypothesis can lead to results which
are not of desired accuracy. That said, under the right circumstances, the
continuum hypothesis produces extremely accurate results.
Those problems for which the continuum hypothesis does not allow solutions of
desired accuracy are solved using statistical mechanics.
To determine whether or not to use conventional fluid dynamics or statistical
mechanics, the Knudsen number is evaluated for the problem. The Knudsen
number is defined as the ratio of the molecular mean free path length to a certain
representative physical length scale. This length scale could be, for example, the
radius of a body in a fluid. (More simply, the Knudsen number is how many times
its own diameter a particle will travel on average before hitting another particle).
Problems with Knudsen numbers at or above unity are best evaluated using
statistical mechanics for reliable solutions.
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Navier–Stokes equations The Navier–Stokes equations (named after Claude-
Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes) are the set of equations that describe the
motion of fluid substances such as liquids and gases.
These equations state that changes in momentum (force) of fluid particles depend
only on the external pressure and internal viscous forces (similar to friction) acting
on the fluid. Thus, the Navier–Stokes equations describe the balance of forces
acting at any given region of the fluid.
The Navier–Stokes equations are differential equations which describe the motion
of a fluid. Such equations establish relations among the rates of change of the
variables of interest. For example, the Navier–Stokes equations for an ideal fluid
with zero viscosity states that acceleration (the rate of change of velocity) is
proportional to the derivative of internal pressure.
This means that solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations for a given physical
problem must be sought with the help of calculus. In practical terms only the
simplest cases can be solved exactly in this way. These cases generally involve
non-turbulent, steady flow (flow does not change with time) in which the Reynolds
number is small.
For more complex situations, involving turbulence, such as global weather
systems, aerodynamics, hydrodynamics and many more, solutions of the Navier–
Stokes equations can currently only be found with the help of computers. This is a
field of sciences by its own called computational fluid dynamics.
General form of the equation
 is the fluid density,
 is the substantive derivative (also called the material derivative),
. is the velocity vector,
 is the body force vector, and

 is a tensor that represents the surface forces applied on a fluid particle
(the stress tensor).
 Unless the fluid is made up of spinning degrees of freedom like
vortices, is a symmetric tensor. Usually the stress tensor is decomposed as
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where is a static isotropic stress state (that would exists if the fluid were
at rest), and is the desviatoric stress tensor, corresponding to the part of the
stress due to the fluid motion. Generally, the scalar can be taken as the
thermodynamic pressure, whereas is called the viscous stress tensor.
Furthermore, the diagonal components of tensor are called normal stresses
and the off-diagonal components are called shear stresses.
The vectorial Navier–Stokes equation above can be written then as
This is actually a set of three equations, one per dimension. By themselves,

these equations are not sufficient to produce a solution. However, adding other
conservation laws and appropriate boundary conditions to the system of
equations produces a solvable set of equations. The conservation of mass
provides another equation relating the density and the fluid velocity:
On the other hand, the identification of with the thermodynamic pressure is

usually possible (unless the fluid is not in thermodynamic equilibrium; such
situation is however rare [e.g. shock waves]). Therefore, a thermodynamic
equation of state must be used to connect the pressure with the density and
another state property, such as temperature or enthalpy. This in turn brings
another unknown
to the problem so that an equation for conservation of thermal energy must also
be solved along with momentum and mass conservations.
In the case of an incompressible fluid there is no relationship between the
pressure and the density. The Navier–Stokes equations and mass conservation
are then sufficient to determine the solution to a fluid mechanics problem.
Actually, the absolute pressure in an incompressible fluid is indeterminate, and
only its gradient is relevant for the equations of motion. Taking the divergence
of the Navier–Stokes equation and using the mass conservation equation to
simplify the result gives a Poisson equation for the pressure.
Additionally, in order to close the system of equations a constitutive equation
relating the viscous stress tensor to the velocity field must be introduced. This
73
constitutive model, which depends on the nature of the fluid, is the basis for the
distinction between Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
Newtonian versus non- Newtonian fluids
A Newtonian fluid (named after Isaac Newton) is defined to be a fluid whose shear
stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient in the
direction perpendicular to the plane of shear. This definition means regardless of
the forces acting on a fluid, it continues to flow. For example, water is a Newtonian
fluid, because it continues to display fluid properties no matter how much it is
stirred or mixed.
A slightly less rigorous definition is that the drag of a small object being moved
slowly through the fluid is proportional to the force applied to the object.
(Compare friction).
Important fluids, like water as well as most gases, behave — to good
approximation — as a Newtonian fluid under normal conditions on Earth.
By contrast, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can leave a "hole" behind. This will
gradually fill up over time – this behaviour is seen in materials such as
pudding, oobleck, or sand (although sand isn't strictly a fluid).
Alternatively, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can cause the viscosity to decrease,
so the fluid appears "thinner" (this is seen in non-drip paints).
There are many types of non-Newtonian fluids, as they are defined to be something
that fails to obey a particular property — for example, most fluids with long
molecular chains can react in a non-Newtonian manner.
Equations for a Newtonian fluid

Main article: Newtonian fluid
The constant of proportionality between the viscous stress tensor and the velocity
gradient is known as the viscosity. A simple equation to describe incompressible
Newtonian fluid behaviour is
where
is the shear stress exerted by the fluid ("drag")
is the fluid viscosity – a constant of proportionality
74
is the velocity gradient perpendicular to the direction of shear.
For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity, by definition, depends only
on temperature and pressure, not on the forces acting upon it. If the
fluid is incompressible the equation governing the viscous stress
(in Cartesian coordinates) is
where
is the shear stress on the face of a fluid element in the direction
is the velocity in the direction
is the direction coordinate.
If the fluid is not incompressible the general form for the viscous stress in a
Newtonian fluid is
where is the second viscosity coefficient (or bulk viscosity). If a fluid does not
obey this relation, it is termed a non-Newtonian fluid, of which there are several
types. Non-Newtonian fluids can be either plastic, Bingham plastic, pseudoplastic,
dilatant, thixotropic, rheopectic, viscoelatic.
In some applications another rough broad division among fluids is made: ideal and
non-ideal fluids. An Ideal fluid is non-viscous and offers no resistance whatsoever
to a shearing force.
An ideal fluid really does not exist, but in some calculations, the assumption is
justifiable. One example of this is the flow far form solid surfaces. In many cases
the viscous effects are concentrated near the solid boundaries (such as in boundary
layers) while in regions of the flow field far away from the boundaries the viscous
effects can be neglected and the fluid there is treated as it were inviscid (ideal
flow).
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When the viscosity is negleted, the term containing the viscous stress tensor in
the Navier–Stokes equation vanishes. The equation reduced in this form is called
the Euler equation.
76
Unit 12
Steels
Steel is frequently the ‘gold-standard’ against which emerging structural

materials. are compared. What is often not realized is that this is a moving
standard, with notoriously regular and exciting discoveries being made in the
context of iron and its alloys. This is why steel remains the most successful and
cost-effective of all materials, with more than a billion tonnes being consumed
annually in improving the quality of life.
This unit attempts to explain why steels continue to take this pre-eminent
position, and examines in detail the phenomena whose exploitation enables the
desired properties to be achieved.
One reason for the overwhelming dominance of steels is the endless Variety of
microstructures and properties that can be generated by solid-state transformation
and processing.
Therefore, in studying steels, it is useful to consider the be haviour of pure iron
first, then the iron–carbon alloys, and finally the many complexities that arise
when further solutes are added. Pure iron is not an easy material to produce. It
has nevertheless been made with a total impurity content
less than 60 parts per million (ppm), of which 10 ppm is accounted for by non-
metallic impurities such as carbon, oxygen ,sulphur and phosphorus, with the
remainder representing metallic impurities. Iron of this purity can be extremely
weak when reasonably sized samples are tested: the resolved shear stress of a
single crystal at room temperature can be as low as 10MNm−2, while the yield
stress of a polycrystalline sample at the same temperature can be well below
50MNm−2. However, the shear strength of small single crystals has been
observed to exceed 19,000MNm−2 when the size of the sample is reduced to
about 2μm. This is because the chances of finding crystal defects such as
dislocations become small as the size of the crystal is reduced. The theoretical
shear strength of a perfect crystal of iron is estimated to be about21,000MNm−2,
equivalent to a tensile strength of about 11,000MNm−2. For comparison
purposes the breaking strength of a very small carbon nano tube has been
measured to be about 130,000MNm−2; this number is so astonishing that it has
77
led to exaggerated statements about their potential in structural applications. For
example, the tubes are said to be a hundred times stronger than steel; in fact,
there is no carbon tube which can match the strength of iron beyond a scale of 2
mm, because of the inevitable defects which arise as the tubes are grown.
The lesson from this is that systems which rely on perfection in order to achieve
strength necessarily fail on scaling to engineering dimensions. Since perfection is
thermodynamically impossible to achieve in large samples, steels must in
practice be made stronger by other means which are insensitive to size. The
mechanisms by which the strength can be increased will be discussed suffice it
to state here that it is possible to commercially buy steel with a strength of
5500MNm−2, with sufficient ductility to ensure safe application. Some of the
methods by which such impressive combinations of properties are achieved
without compromising safety will be discussed, before the wide range of complex
structures which determine the properties is dealt with.
THE STRENGTHENING OF IRONAND ITS ALLOYS:

Although pure iron can be weak, steels cover a wide range of the strength
spectrum from low yield stress levels (around 200MNm−2) to very high levels
(approaching 5500MNm−2), without compromising toughness. There are many
ways of strengthening steels, which is why they are able to offer such a wide
range of properties.
It is also possible to combine several strengthening mechanisms, and in such
circumstances it is often difficult to quantify the variety of contributions to the
overall strength. On the other hand, there has been considerable progress in
methods for mathematically modeling of properties, and hence of deconvoluting
the overall strength into its components. The basic ways in which iron can be
strengthened are discussed first, by reference to simple systems. These results
should then be helpful in examining the behaviour of more complex alloys. Like
other metals, iron can be strengthened by several mechanisms, the most
important
of which are:
1. Work hardening.
2. Solid solution strengthening by interstitial atoms.
3. Solid solution strengthening by substitutional atoms.
4. Refinement of grain size.
78
5. Dispersion strengthening, including lamellar and random dispersed structures.
The most distinctive aspect of strengthening of iron is the role of the interstitial
solutes carbon and nitrogen. These elements also play a vital part in interacting
with dislocations, and in combining preferentially with some of the metallic
alloying elements used in steels.
STAINLESS STEEL:
Some elements extend the γ-loop in the iron–carbon equilibrium diagram, e.g.
nickel and manganese. When sufficient alloying element is added, it is possible to
preserve the face-centre cubic (fcc) austenite at room temperature, either in a
stable or met as table condition. Chromium added alone to a plain carbon steel
tends to close the γ-loop and favour the formation of ferrite.
However, when chromium is added to a steel-containing nickel it retards the
kinetics of the γ→α transformation, thus making it easier to retain austenite at
room temperature. The presence of chromium greatly improves the corrosion
resistance of the steel by forming a very thin stable oxide film on the surface, so
that chromium–nickel stainless steels are now the most widely- used materials in
a wide range of corrosive environments both at room and elevated
temperatures.Added to this, austenitic steels are readily fabricated and do not
undergo a ductile/brittle transition which causes so many problems in ferritic
steels. This has ensured that they have become a most important group of
construction steels, often in very demanding environments. Nevertheless, there
are also some important ferritic stainless steels which will be discussed in this
chapter.
WELD MICROSTRUCTURES:
Fusion welding is of greatest importance in the fabrication of engineering
structures. There are many ways in which fusion welding can be carried out, but
all of them involve the deposition of a small amount of molten steel within a gap
between the components to be joined. When the steel solidifies, it welds the
components together. The metallurgy of the welded joint can be categorized into
two major regions, the fusion zone and the heat-affected zone (HAZ). The fusion
zone represents both the deposited metal and the parts of the steel component
melted during the process, and is a solidification microstructure.
The HAZ, on the other hand, represents those regions in the close proximity of
the weld, where the heat input during welding changes the microstructure without
79
melting the steel. This chapter describes the development of microstructure in
both zones, beginning with the fused regions. Virtually every aspect of phase
transformation in steels is relevant to the subject of welding. There is an
opportunity for a whole series of transformations to occur successively as the
weld cools from the liquid state.
Practicing:
a. stress of a single crystal at room temperature can be as low as 10MNm−2 True □

False □
b. a very small carbon nano tube has been measured to be about 130MNm−2 True
□ False □
c. Some elements extend the α-loop in the iron–carbon equilibrium diagram, e.g.
nickel and manganese. True □ False □
d. the yield stress of a polycrystalline sample at the same temperature can be well
below 50MNm−2. True □ False □
interstitial. gold-standard. Strengthening. Ferritic. fabrication

a. Steel is frequently the ‘………’ against which emerging structural materials.
b. Solid solution strengthening by……….. atoms.
c. Solid solution ………….by substitutional atoms.
d. austenitic steels are readily fabricated and do not undergo a ductile/brittle

transition which causes so many problems in ……….steels.
e. Fusion welding is of greatest importance in the …………of engineering

structures.
③. Read the statements and answer the question?
a. Describe a Steels.
80
b. What is often not realized is that this is a moving standard
c. Describe a STAINLESS STEEL
d. Describe a WELD MICROSTRUCTURES
e. Describe a THE STRENGTHENING OF IRONAND ITS ALLOYS
81
Unit 13
Coriolis effect
In physics, the coriolis effect is a deflection of moving objects when they are
viewed in a rotating reference frame. In a reference frame with clockwise rotation,
the deflection is to the left of the motion of the object; in one with counter-
clockwise rotation, the deflection is to the right. Although recognized previously
by others, the mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared in an 1835
paper by French scientist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, in connection with the theory
of water wheels. Early in the 20th century, the term Coriolis force began to be used
in connection with meteorology.
Newton's laws of motion describe the motion of an object in a (non-

accelerating) inertial frame of reference. When Newton's laws are transformed to a
uniformly rotating frame of reference, the Coriolis and centrifugal forces appear.
Both forces are proportional to the mass of the object. The Coriolis force is
proportional to the rotation rate and the centrifugal force is proportional to its
square.
The Coriolis force acts in a direction perpendicular to the rotation axis and to the
velocity of the body in the rotating frame and is proportional to the object's speed
in the rotating frame. The centrifugal force acts outwards in the radial direction and
is proportional to the distance of the body from the axis of the rotating frame.
These additional forces are termed inertial forces, fictitious forces or pseudo
forces. They allow the application of Newton's laws to a rotating system. They are
correction factors that do not exist in a non-accelerating or inertial reference frame.
Perhaps the most commonly encountered rotating reference frame is the Earth. The
Coriolis effect is caused by the rotation of the Earth and the inertia of the mass
experiencing the effect. Because the Earth completes only one rotation per day, the
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Coriolis force is quite small, and its effects generally become noticeable only for
motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time, such as large-
scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean. Such motions are
constrained by the surface of the earth, so only the horizontal component of the
Coriolis force is generally important.
This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected in a
clockwise sense (with respect to the direction of travel) in the Northern
Hemisphereand in a counter-clockwise sense in the Southern Hemisphere. Rather
than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would in
a non-rotating system, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction
north of the equator and to the left of this direction south of it. This effect is
responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).
History
Italian scientists Giovanni Battista Riccioli and his assistant Francesco Maria
Grimaldi described the effect in connection with artillery in the 1651 Almagestum
Novum, writing that rotation of the Earth should cause a cannonball fired to the
north to deflect to the east. The effect was described in the tidal
equations of Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1778.
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of
machines with rotating parts, such as water wheels That paper considered the
supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference. Coriolis
divided these supplementary forces into two categories.
The second category contained a force that arises from the cross product of
the angular velocity of a coordinate system and the projection of a
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particle's velocity into a plane perpendicular to the system's axis of rotation.
Coriolis referred to this force as the "compound centrifugal force" due to its
analogies with the centrifugal force already considered in category one. The effect
was known in the early 20th century as the "acceleration of Coriolis",] and by 1920
as "Coriolis force".
In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-
latitudes with air being deflected by the Coriolis force to create the prevailing
westerly winds.
Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects
airflow was partial at first. Late in the 19th century, the full extent of the large
scale interaction of pressure gradient force and deflecting force that in the end
causes air masses to move 'along' isobars was understood.
Formul
n non-vector terms: at a given rate of rotation of the observer, the magnitude of the
Coriolis acceleration of the object is proportional to the velocity of the object and
also to the sine of the angle between the direction of movement of the object and
the axis of rotation.
The vector formula for the magnitude and direction of the Coriolis acceleration is
where (here and below) is the acceleration of the particle in the rotating
system, is the velocity of the particle in the rotating system, and Ω is the angular
velocity vector which has magnitude equal to the rotation rate ω and is directed
along the axis of rotation of the rotating reference frame, and the × symbol
represents the cross product operator.
The equation may be multiplied by the mass of the relevant object to produce
the Coriolis force:
See fictitious force for a derivation.

The Coriolis effect is the behavior added by the Coriolis acceleration. The
formula implies that the Coriolis acceleration is perpendicular both to the
direction of the velocity of the moving mass and to the frame's rotation axis.
So in particular:
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 if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis acceleration is
zero.
 if the velocity is straight inward to the axis, the acceleration is in the
direction of local rotation.
 if the velocity is straight outward from the axis, the acceleration is
against the direction of local rotation.
 if the velocity is in the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is
outward from the axis.
 if the velocity is against the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is
inward to the axis.
The vector cross product can be evaluated as the determinant of a matrix:
causes
The Coriolis effect exists only when one uses a rotating reference frame. In the
rotating frame it behaves exactly like a real force (that is to say, it causes
acceleration and has real effects).
However, Coriolis force is a consequence of inertia, and is not attributable to an
identifiable originating body, as is the case for electromagnetic or nuclear forces,
for example. From an analytical viewpoint, to use Newton's second law in a
rotating system, Coriolis force is mathematically necessary, but it disappears in a
non-accelerating, inertial frame of reference. For example, consider two children
on opposite sides of a spinning roundabout (carousel), who are throwing a ball to
each other. From the children's point of view, this ball's path is curved sideways by
the Coriolis effect.
Suppose the roundabout spins counter-clockwise when viewed from above. From
the thrower's perspective, the deflection is to the right. From the non-thrower's
perspective, deflection is to left. For a mathematical formulation see Mathematical
derivation of fictitious forces.
An observer in a rotating frame, such as an astronaut in a rotating space station,
very probably will find the interpretation of everyday life in terms of the Coriolis
force accords more simply with intuition and experience than a cerebral
reinterpretation of events from an inertial standpoint. For example, nausea due to
85
an experienced push may be more instinctively explained by Coriolis force than by
the law of inertia.
See also Coriolis effect (perception). In meteorology, a rotating frame (the Earth)
with its Coriolis force proves a more natural framework for explanation of air
movements than a non-rotating, inertial frame without Coriolis forces. In long-
range gunnery, sight corrections for the Earth's rotation are based upon Coriolis
force. These examples are described in more detail below.
The acceleration entering the Coriolis force arises from two sources of change in
velocity that result from rotation: the first is the change of the velocity of an object
in time.
The same velocity (in an inertial frame of reference where the normal laws of
physics apply) will be seen as different velocities at different times in a rotating
frame of reference.
The apparent acceleration is proportional to the angular velocity of the reference
frame (the rate at which the coordinate axes change direction), and to the
component of velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
This gives a term .
The minus sign arises from the traditional definition of the cross product, and from
the sign convention for angular velocity vectors.
The second is the change of velocity in space. Different positions in a rotating
frame of reference have different velocities (as seen from an inertial frame of
reference).
In order for an object to move in a straight line it must therefore be accelerated so
that its velocity changes from point to point by the same amount as the velocities
of the frame of reference.
The effect is proportional to the angular velocity (which determines the relative
speed of two different points in the rotating frame of reference), and to the
component of the velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the axis of
rotation (which determines how quickly it moves between those points). This also
gives a term .
Meteorology
Perhaps the most important impact of the Coriolis effect is in the large-scale
dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. In meteorology and oceanography, it
is convenient to postulate a rotating frame of reference wherein the Earth is
stationary.
86
In accommodation of that provisional postulation, the centrifugal and Coriolis
forces are introduced.
Their relative importance is determined by the applicable Rossby numbers.
Tornadoes have high Ross by numbers, so, while tornado-associated centrifugal
forces are quite substantial, Coriolis forces associated with tornados are for
practical purposes negligible.
High pressure systems rotate in a direction such that the Coriolis force will be
directed radially inwards, and nearly balanced by the outwardly radial pressure
gradient. This direction is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Low pressure systems rotate in the opposite direction, so that the Coriolis force is
directed radially outward and nearly balances an inwardly radial pressure gradient.
In each case a slight imbalance between the Coriolis force and the pressure
gradient accounts for the radially inward acceleration of the system's circular
motion.
Flow around a low-pressure area
If a low-pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air will tend to flow in towards it,
but will be deflected perpendicular to its velocity by the Coriolis force. A system
of equilibrium can then establish itself creating circular movement, or a cyclonic
flow. Because the Rossby number is low, the force balance is largely between
the pressure gradient force acting towards the low-pressure area and the Coriolis
force acting away from the center of the low pressure.
Instead of flowing down the gradient, large scale motions in the atmosphere and
ocean tend to occur perpendicular to the pressure gradient. This is known
as geostrophic flow. On a non-rotating planet, fluid would flow along the
straightest possible line, quickly eliminating pressure gradients. Note that the
87
geostrophic balance is thus very different from the case of "inertial motions" (see
below) which explains why mid-latitude cyclones are larger by an order of
magnitude than inertial circle flow would be.
This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is called Buys-Ballot's
law. In the atmosphere, the pattern of flow is called a cyclone. In the Northern
Hemisphere the direction of movement around a low-pressure area is counter-
clockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere, the direction of movement is clockwise
because the rotational dynamics is a mirror image there. At high altitudes,
outward-spreading air rotates in the opposite direction. Cyclones rarely form along
the equator due to the weak Coriolis effect present in this region.
Draining in bathtubs and toilets
Water rotation in home bathrooms under normal circumstances is not related to the
Coriolis effect or to the rotation of the earth, and no consistent difference in
rotation direction between toilets in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres can be
observed. The formation of a vortex over the plug hole may be explained by the
conservation of angular momentum: The radius of rotation decreases as water
approaches the plug hole, so the rate of rotation increases, for the same reason that
an ice skater's rate of spin increases as they pull their arms in. Any rotation around
the plug hole that is initially present accelerates as water moves inward. Only if the
water is so still that the effective rotation rate of the earth is faster than that of the
water relative to its container, and if externally applied torques(such as might be
caused by flow over an uneven bottom surface) are small enough, the Coriolis
effect may determine the direction of the vortex.
Without such careful preparation, the Coriolis effect may be much smaller than
various other influences on drain direction such as any residual rotation of the
water and the geometry of the container.
Despite this, the idea that toilets and bathtubs drain differently in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres has been popularized by several television programs,
including Wedding Crashers, The Simpsons episode "Bart vs. Australia," and The
X-Files episode "Die Hand Die Verletzt". Several science broadcasts and
publications, including at least one college-level physics textbook, have also stated
this.
In 1908, the Austrian physicist Ottokar Tumlirz described careful and effective
experiments which demonstrated the effect of the rotation of the Earth on the
outflow of water through a central aperture. The subject was later popularized in a
famous article in the journal Nature, which described an experiment in which all
other forces to the system were removed by filling a 6 ft (1.8 m) tank with 300 US
gal (1,100 L) of water and allowing it to settle for 24 hours (to allow any
88
movement due to filling the tank to die away), in a room where the temperature
had stabilized.
The drain plug was then very slowly removed, and tiny pieces of floating wood
were used to observe rotation. During the first 12 to 15 minutes, no rotation was
observed. Then, a vortex appeared and consistently began to rotate in a counter-
clockwise direction (the experiment was performed in Boston, Massachusetts, in
the Northern Hemisphere).
This was repeated and the results averaged to make sure the effect was real. The
report noted that the vortex rotated, "about 30,000 times faster than the effective
rotation of the earth in 42° North (the experiment's location)". This shows that the
small initial rotation due to the earth is amplified by gravitational draining and
conservation of angular momentum to become a rapid vortex and may be observed
under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.
Ballistic missiles and satellites
Ballistic missiles and satellites appear to follow curved paths when plotted on
common world maps mainly because the Earth is spherical and the shortest
distance between two points on the Earth's surface (called a great circle) is usually
not a straight line on those maps. Every two-dimensional (flat) map necessarily
distorts the Earth's curved (three-dimensional) surface. Typically (as in the
commonly used Mercator projection, for example), this distortion increases with
proximity to the poles. In the Northern Hemisphere for example, a ballistic missile
fired toward a distant target using the shortest possible route (a great circle) will
appear on such maps to follow a path north of the straight line from target to
destination, and then curve back toward the equator. This occurs because the
latitudes, which are projected as straight horizontal lines on most world maps, are
in fact circles on the surface of a sphere, which get smaller as they get closer to the
pole. Being simply a consequence of the sphericity of the Earth, this would be true
even if the Earth didn't rotate. The Coriolis effect is of course also present, but its
effect on the plotted path is much smaller.
The Coriolis effects became important in external ballistics for calculating the
trajectories of very long-range artillery shells. The most famous historical example
was the Paris gun, used by the Germans during World War I to
bombard Paris from a range of about 120 km (75 mi).
89
Unit 14
Truss:
A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of
a truss. This truss is a structure of connected elements forming triangular units. The
connected elements (typically straight) may be stressed from tension, compression,
or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads. Truss bridges are one of the
oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss bridges shown in this
article have simple designs which could be easily analyzed by nineteenth and early
twentieth century engineers. A truss bridge is economical to construct owing to its
efficient use of materials.
Design Truss:
The nature of a truss allows the analysis of the structure using a few assumptions
and the application of Newton's laws of motion according to the branch
of physics known as statics. For purposes of analysis, trusses are assumed to be pin
jointed where the straight components meet. This assumption means that members
of the truss (chords, verticals and diagonals) will act only in tension or
compression. A more complex analysis is required where rigid joints impose
significant bending loads upon the elements, as in a Vierendeel truss.
In the bridge illustrated in the in fobox at the top, vertical members are in
tension, lower horizontal members in tension, shear, and bending, outer diagonal
and top members are in compression, while the inner diagonals are in tension. The
central vertical member stabilizes the upper compression member, preventing it
from buckling. If the top member is sufficiently stiff then this vertical element may
be eliminated. If the lower chord (a horizontal member of a truss) is sufficiently
90
resistant to bending and shear, the outer vertical elements may be eliminated, but
with additional strength added to other members in compensation.
The ability to distribute the forces in various ways has led to a large variety of truss
bridge types. Some types may be more advantageous when wood is employed for
compression elements while other types may be easier to erect in particular site
conditions, or when the balance between labor, machinery and material costs have
certain favorable proportions.
The inclusion of the elements shown is largely an engineering decision based upon
economics, being a balance between the costs of raw materials, off-site fabrication,
component transportation, on-site erection, the availability of machinery and the
cost of labor.
In other cases the appearance of the structure may take on greater importance and
so influence the design decisions beyond mere matters of economics. Modern
materials such as pres tress concrete and fabrication methods, such as
automated welding, and the changing price of steel relative to that of labor have
significantly influenced the design of modern bridges.
History Truss:
Because wood was so abundant, early truss bridges would typically use carefully
fitted timbers for members taking compression and iron rods for tension members,
usually constructed as a covered bridge to protect the structure. In 1820 a simple
form of truss, Town's lattice truss, was patented, and had the advantage of not
requiring high labor skills nor much metal. Few iron truss bridges were built in the
United States before 1850.
Truss bridges became a common type of bridge built from the 1870s through the
1930s. Examples of these bridges still remain across the United States, but their
numbers are dropping rapidly, as they are demolished and replaced with new
structures. As metal slowly started to replace timber, wrought iron bridges in the
U.S. started being built on a large scale in the 1870s.
Bowstring truss bridges were a common truss design seen during this time, with
their arched top chords. Companies like the Massillon Bridge
Company of Massillon, Ohio and the King Bridge Company of Cleveland,
Ohiobecame well-known companies, as they marketed their designs to different
cities and townships.
The bowstring truss design (photo) fell out of favor due to a lack of durability, and
gave way to the Pratt truss design, which was stronger. Again, the bridge
companies marketed their designs, with the Wrought Iron Bridge Company in the
lead. As the 1880s and 1890s progressed, steel began to replace wrought iron as
91
the preferred material. Other truss designs were used during this time, including
the camel-back. By the 1910s, many states developed standard plan truss bridges,
including steel Warren pony truss bridges. As the 1920s and 1930s progressed,
some states, such as Pennsylvania, continued to build steel truss bridges, including
massive steel through truss bridges for long spans. Other states, such as Michigan,
used standard plan concrete girder and beam bridges, and only a limited number of
truss bridges were built.
Allan truss:
The Allan Truss, designed by Percy Allan, is partly based on the Howe truss. The
first Allan truss was completed on 13 August 1894 over Glennies Creek at Cam
berwell, New South Wales and the last Allan truss bridge was built over Mill
Creek near Wisemans Ferry in 1929. Completed in March 1895, the Tharwa
Bridge located at Tharwa, Australian Capital Territory, was the second Allan truss
to be built, the oldest surviving bridge in the Australian Capital Territory and the
oldest, longest in continuous Allan truss bridge.
Completed in November 1895, the Hampden Bridge in Wagga Wagga, New South
Wales, Australia, the first of the Allan truss bridges with overhead bracing, was
originally designed as a steel bridge but was constructed with timber to reduce
cost. In his design, Allan used Australian ironbark for its strength. A similar bridge
also designed by Percy Allen is the Victoria Bridge on Prince Street Picton, New
South Wales. Also constructed of ironbark, the bridge is still in use today for
pedestrian and light traffic.
Bailey bridge:
Designed for military use, the prefabricated and standardized truss elements may
be easily combined in various configurations to adapt to the
92
needs at the site. In the image at right, note the use of doubled prefabrications to
adapt to the span and load requirements. In other applications the trusses may be
stacked vertically.
Baltimore truss:
The Baltimore truss is a subclass of the Pratt truss. A Baltimore truss has additional
bracing in the lower section of the truss to prevent buckling in the compression
members and to control deflection. It is mainly used for train bridges, boasting a
simple and very strong design.
Bollman truss:
The Bollman Truss Railroad Bridge at Savage, Maryland is the only surviving
example of a revolutionary design in the history of American bridge engineering.
The type was named for its inventor, Wendel Bollman,
a self-educated Baltimore engineer.
It was the first successful all-metal bridge design (patented in 1852) to be adopted
and consistently used on a railroad. The design employs wrought iron tension
members and cast ironcompression members. The use of multiple independent
93
tension elements reduces the likelihood of catastrophic failure. The structure was
also easy to assemble
Bowstring arch truss:
The bowstring arch through truss bridge was patented in 1841 by Squire
Whipple. While similar in appearance to a Tied-arch bridge, a bowstring truss is a
truss and thus has diagonal load-bearing members. These diagonals result in a
structure that more closely matches a Parker truss or Pratt truss than a
true arch.
Cantilevered truss:
Most trusses have the lower chord under tension and the upper chord under
compression. In a cantilever truss the situation is reversed, at least over a portion of
the span. The typical cantilever truss bridge is a balanced cantilever, which
enables the construction to proceed outward from a central vertical spar in each
direction. Usually these are built in pairs until the outer sections may be anchored
to footings.
A central gap, if present, can then be filled by lifting a conventional truss into place
or by building it in place using a traveling support.
94
Howe truss:
The relatively rare Howe truss, patented in 1840

by Massachusetts millwright William Howe, includes vertical members and
diagonals that slope up towards the center, the opposite of the Pratt truss. In
contrast to the Pratt Truss, the diagonal web members are in compression and the
vertical web members are in tension.
Examples include Jay Bridge in Jay, New York, and Sandy Creek Covered
Bridge in Jefferson County, Missouri.
Lenticular truss:
A lenticular truss bridge includes a lens-shape truss, with trusses between an upper
arch that curves up and then down to end points, and a lower arch that curves down
and then up to meet at the same end points. Where
the arches extend above and below the roadbed, it is a lenticular pony truss bridge.
One type of lenticular truss consists of arcuate upper compression chords and
lower eye bar chain tension links. The Royal Albert Bridge (United Kingdom) uses
a single tubular upper chord. As the horizontal tension and compression forces are
balanced these horizontal forces are not transferred to the supporting pylons (as is
the case with most arch types). This in turn enables the truss to be fabricated on the
ground and then to be raised by jacking as supporting masonry pylons are
constructed.
This truss has been used in the construction of a stadium, with the upper chords of
parallel trusses supporting a roof that may be rolled back. The Smithfield Street
Bridge in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania is another example of this type.
An example of a lenticular pony truss bridge that uses regular spans of iron is
the Turn-of-River Bridge designed and manufactured by the Berlin Iron Bridge
Co..
Pegram truss:
The Pegram truss is a hybrid between the Warren and Parker trusses where the
upper chords are all of equal length and the lower chords are longer than the
corresponding upper chord. Because of the difference in upper and lower chord
95
length, each panel is not square. The members which would be vertical in a Parker
truss vary from near vertical in the center of the span to diagonal near each end
(like a Warren truss). George H. Pegram, while the chief engineer of Edge Moor
Iron Company in Wilmington, Delaware, patented this truss design in 1885.
The Pegram truss consists of a Parker type design with the vertical posts leaning
towards the center at an angle between 60 and 75°. The variable post angle and
constant chord length allowed steel in existing bridges to be recycled into a new
span using the Pegram truss design. This design also facilitated reassembly and
permitted a bridge to be adjusted to fit different span lengths. There are twelve
known remaining Pegram span bridges in the United States with seven in Idaho,
two in Kansas, and one each in California, Washington, and Utah.
Warren truss:
The Warren truss was patented in 1848 by its designers James Warren and
Willoughby The obald Monzani, and consists of longitudinal members joined only
by angled cross-members, forming alternately inverted equilateral triangle-shaped
spaces along its length, ensuring that no individual strut, beam, or tie is subject to
bending or torsional straining forces, but only to tension or compression. Loads on
the diagonals alternate between compression and tension (approaching the center),
with no vertical elements, while elements near the center must support both tension
and compression in response to live loads. This configuration combines strength
with economy of materials and can therefore be relatively light. The girders being
of equal length, it is ideal for use in prefabricated modular bridges. It is an
improvement over the Neville truss which uses a spacing configuration of isosceles
triangles.
Vierendeel truss:
The Vierendeel truss, unlike common pin-jointed trusses, imposes significant
bending forces upon its members — but this in turn allows the
elimination of many diagonal elements. It is a structure where the members
are not triangulated but form rectangular openings, and is a frame with fixed joints
that are capable of transferring and resisting bending moments. While rare as a
bridge type due to higher costs compared to a triangulated truss, it is commonly
employed in modern building construction as it allows the resolution of gross shear
forces against the frame elements while retaining rectangular openings between
columns.
96
This is advantageous both in allowing flexibility in the use of the building space
and freedom in selection of the building's outer curtain wall, which affects both
interior and exterior styling aspects.
Practicing:
a. A truss bridge is economical to construct owing to its efficient use of materials.

True □ False □
b. Few iron truss bridges were built in the United States before 1950.
True □ False □
c. Truss bridges became a common type of bridge built from the 1870s through the
1930s. True □ False □
d. The bowstring arch through truss bridge was patented in 1840 by Squire
Whipple. True □ False □
e. The Pegram truss consists of a Parker type design with the vertical posts leaning
towards the center at an angle between 60 and 75°.
True □ False □
bowstring truss. Baltimore truss. Components .Allan Truss. Neville. permitted.

ironcompression. tension. truss bridge.
a. purposes of analysis trusses are assumed to be pin jointed where the straight
…………….meet.
b. The ……………., designed by Percy Allan, is partly based on the Howe truss.
c. The design employs wrought iron tension members and cast……….. members.
d. While similar in appearance to a Tied-arch bridge, a …………is a truss and thus

has diagonal load-bearing members.
97
e. Most trusses have the lower chord under………….. and the upper chord under
compression.
f. This design also facilitated reassembly and………. a bridge to be adjusted to fit

different span lengths.
g. It is an improvement over the ……… truss which uses a spacing configuration

of isosceles triangles.
h. A ……… is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss.
k. The …………..is a subclass of the Pratt truss.
a. Describe Cantilevered truss.
b. Describe Howe truss.
c. Describe Vierendeel truss.
d. Describe Warren truss.
e. Describe Pegram truss.
f. Describe Lenticular truss.
98
Unit 15
Vibration of Mechanical Systems
Mechanical vibration is defined as the measurement of a periodic process of

oscillations with respect to an equilibrium point. This book should provide
essential concepts involving vibration analysis, uncertainty modeling, and
vibration control. It should also give a good fundamental basis in computational
results, mathematical modeling and assessment in performance of different
systems and system components. Attention will be paid to vibrating systems such
as beams, strings, plates and membranes, vibration isolation, critical speeds, the
balancing of rotating and reciprocating machinery. Basic principles of control
theory will be presented from feedback control systems. Finally, chapters will
include numerous example problems and possibly projects.
There are many books in this area that try to include everything, thus they have
become exhaustive compendiums that are overwhelming for an undergraduate.
In this book, all the basic concepts in mechanical vibrations are clearly identified
and presented in a concise and simple manner with illustrative and practical
examples. Vibration concepts include a review of selected topics in mechanics; a
description of single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) systems in terms of equivalent
mass, equivalent stiffness, and equivalent damping; a unified treatment of various
forced response problems (base excitation and rotating balance); an introduction to
systems thinking, highlighting the fact that SDOF analysis is a building block for
multi- degree-of-freedom (MDOF) and continuous system analyses via modal
analysis; and a simple introduction to finite element analysis to connect continuous
system and MDOF analyses. There are more than 60 exercise problems and a
complete solutions manual.
99
The use of MATLABR _ software is emphasized. Alok Sinha is a Professor of
Mechanical Engineering at The Pennsylvania State University (PSU), University
Park. He received his PhD degree in mechanical engineering from Carnegie
Mellon University. He has been a PSU faculty member since August 1983. His
areas of teaching and research are vibration, control systems, jet engines, robotics,
neural networks, and nanotechnology. He is the author of Linear Systems:
Optimaland Robust Control.
He has served as a Visiting Associate Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics at
MIT, Cambridge, MA, and as a researcher at Pratt &
Whitney, East Hartford, CT. He has also been an associate editor of
ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control. At present, he
serves as an associate editor of ASME Journal of Turbo machinery and AIAA
Journal. Alok Sinha is a Fellow of ASME. He has received the NASA certificate
of recognition for significant contributions to the Space Shuttle Microgravity
Mission.
The course on Mechanical Vibration is an important part of the Mechanical
Engineering undergraduate curriculum. It is necessary for the development and the
performance of many modern engineering products: automobiles, jet engines,
rockets, bridges, electric motors, electric generators, and so on. Whenever a
mechanical system contains storage elements for kinetic and potential energies,
there will be vibration. The vibration of a mechanical system is a continual
exchange between kinetic and potential energies. The vibration level is reduced by
the presence of energy dissipation elements in the system. The problem of
vibration is further accentuated because of the presence of time-varying external
excitations, for example, the problem of resonance in a rotating machine, which is
caused by the inevitable presence of rotor unbalance. There are many situations
where the vibration is caused by internal excitation, which is dependent on the
level of vibration. This type of vibration is known as self excited oscillations, for
example, the failure of the Tacoma suspension bridge (Billah and Scanlan, 1991)
and the fluttering of an aircraft wing. This course deals with the characterization
and the computation of the response of a mechanical system caused by time-
varying excitations, which can be independent of or dependent on vibratory
response.
In general, the vibration level of a component of a machine has to be decreased to
increase its useful life. As a result, the course also examines the methods used to
100
reduce vibratory response. Further, this course also develops an input/output
description of a dynamic system,which is useful for the design of a feedback
control system in a future course in the curriculum.
Distinguishing Mechanical Vibration:
In regards to the subject of this book, when referring to mechanical systems we are
implying systems such as compressors, pumps and other machines. When referring
to structures we are implying buildings, space craft and other large scale objects. A
most intuitive differential is simply that mechanical systems are ones that we use,
whereas a structural system is one that we can physically enter. Although there are
clearly many cases where a studied system can be categorized as both, this book
will mainly focus on the more mechanical aspects of vibration; but most of the
beginning conceptual formations are identical. I also want to note that there are
similarities between vibration theorems and analysis and acoustical; initially
viewed as separate but they overlap considerably within some mathematical and
conceptual subject.
Background & Models:
Some of the theories and mathematical structures you will be learning shortly are
entirely classical; in fact, the root of vibrational study is a derivation of Newton's
laws of motion. During approximately the last four hundred years there has been
an increased interest in this subject as engineers have been reevaluating earlier
simpler formulation and design in an effort to maximize stability within their
particular creation or area of focus. It is typically the vibration of all parts in a
machine that can lead to its eventual failure and we are concerned with gaining the
ability to shrink vibration freedom. There are many applications where vibrations
are permitted or even encouraged regarding the system; our efforts are typically
reduction, though. The history of the evolution of vibration study was modernized
by the work of Lord Rayleigh in his book The Theory of Sound; a reminder that in
essence both vibration and acoustics are intrinsically identical.
101
Structures range from simple objects like beams or rods to more complex things
like rotor blades or the fuselage of an aircraft. Structures may be composed from
several parts, but they can be considered one part in their analysis.
Systems are more general and abstract. They can loosely be defined as a grouping
of parts, such as an assembly with different, distinguishable parts that do however
interact closely with each other.
Idealization & Formulation:
In accord with how most engineers approach a problem, when we start studying
systems we begin by taking a realistic problem and turning it into a specific
mathematical formulation which will utilize known or currently developing
techniques. It is standard to begin by taking a relatively complex and seemingly
disordered system and creating a model which is simple, but also behaviorally
correct. These simpler systems are called idealized systems and they are created by
firstly having a deeply sophisticated understanding of the actual system and is
derived from the actual system. When working in the derived idealized system,
insight into the limitations of the actual system are developmentally realized; it is
with this in mind that we always work from the ground up in all engineering and
physical applications. In the same way that in a first semester physics class you
were trained to use a point-mass model when solving for a typical
pulley/weight/etc. system and then move forward into more point-masses and
eventually (as in a statics class) a distributed mass, we will move in the exact same
ordering.
Equilibrium:
Before we can work with systems that have time dependent behavior, we must
have a grasp of its counterpart. As you may have learned in your Statics class, a
static system is defined as one which does not undergo any change with relation to
the time it experiences. Virtually all problems an engineer solves start by
evaluating the static characteristics of the system they are studying. This is done as
a preliminary measure for further evaluation and can usually give insight and often
help solve particular equations; in the least it offers another equation to work with
in a case where more are needed to solve for variables. A static structure is one that
is resistent to externally caused forces from deforming itself or by the act of
sending forces within connections to the systems boundaries. With that
understanding it can be said that the notion of a system in Equilibrium brings forth
a useful conceptual tool, and will in turn lead to the notion of dynamic equilibrium,
which is a formulation derived from Newton's second law of motion.
Practicing:
102
a. Basic principles of control theory will be presented from feedback control

systems. True □ False □
b. Alok Sinha is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering at The Pennsylvania

Germany. True □ False □
c. the vibration level of a component of a machine has to be decreased to increase

its useful life. True □ False □
d. Virtually all problems an engineer solves start by evaluating the static

characteristics of the system they are studying . True □ False □
curriculum. Structures. Systems. Mechanical vibration. Intuitive.

potential
a. …………….is defined as the measurement of a periodic process of oscillations

with respect to an equilibrium point.
b. The course on Mechanical Vibration is an important part of the Mechanical

Engineering undergraduate………..
c. The vibration of a mechanical system is a continual exchange between kinetic

and …………energies.
d. A most …………differential is simply that mechanical systems are ones that we

use, whereas a structural system is one that we can physically enter.
e………… range from simple objects like beams or rods to more complex things
like rotor blades or the fuselage of an aircraft.
F...…… are more general and abstract.
103
a. what is it Mechanical vibration?
b. what is it Background & Models?
c. what is it Idealization & Formulation?
d. what is it Distinguishing Mechanical Vibration?
e. what is it Equilibrium?
104
Unit 16
Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics, from Greek = (air) + dynamics, is a branch of dynamics concerned

with studying the motion of air, particularly when it interacts with a solid object,
such an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas
dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields.
The term "aerodynamics" is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, with the
difference being that "gas dynamics" applies to the study of the motion of all gases,
not limited to air.
Formal aerodynamics study in the modern sense began in the eighteenth century,
although observations of fundamental concepts such as aerodynamic drag have
been recorded much earlier. Most of the early efforts in aerodynamics worked
towards achieving heavier-than-air flight, which was first demonstrated by Wilbur
and Orville Wright in 1903. Since then, the use of aerodynamics
through mathematical analysis, empirical approximations, wind
tunnel experimentation, and computer simulations as formed the scientific basis for
ongoing developments in heavier-than-air flight and a number of other
technologies. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related
to compressible flow, turbulence, and boundary layers, and has become
increasingly computational in nature.
105
History
Modern aerodynamics only dates back to the seventeenth century, but aerodynamic
forces have been harnessed by humans for thousands of years in sailboats and
windmills, and images and stories of flight appear throughout recorded
history, such as the Ancient Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus. Fundamental
concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients, appear in the work
of Aristotle and Archimedes.
In 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air
resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. Dutch-
Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli followed in 1738 with Hydrodynamica, in
which he described a fundamental relationship between pressure, density, and
velocity for incompressible flow known today as Bernoulli's principle, which
provides one method for calculating aerodynamic lift. In 1757, Leonhard
Euler published the more general Euler equations, which could be applied to both
compressible and incompressible flows. The Euler equations were extended to
incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in
the Navier-Stokes equations. The Navier-Stokes equations are the most general
governing equations of fluid flow and are difficult to solve.
In 1799, Sir George Cayley became the first person to identify the four
aerodynamic forces of flight (weight, lift, drag, and thrust), as well as the
relationships between them, outlining the work towards achieving heavier-than-air
flight for the next century. In 1871, Francis Herbert Wenhamconstructed the
first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag
theories were developed by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Lord
Rayleigh.
In 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to
reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight.[14] Otto Lilienthal, the
first person to become highly successful with glider flights, was also the first to
propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift and low drag. Building on
these developments as well as research carried out in their own wind tunnel,
theWright brothers flew the first powered aircraft on December 17, 1903.
106
During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Wilhelm
Kutta, and Nikolai Zhukovsky independently created theories that
connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to
develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of
Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind
thin-airfoil and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary layers.
As aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter challenges associated

with air compressibility at speeds near or greater than the speed of sound. The
differences in air flows under these conditions led to problems in aircraft control,
increased drag due to shock waves, and structural dangers due to aeroelastic flutter.
The ratio of the flow speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach
number after Ernst Mach, who was one of the first to investigate the properties
of supersonic flow. William John Macquorn Rankine and Pierre Henri
Hugoniot independently developed the theory for flow properties before and after
a shock wave, whileJakob Ackeret led the initial work on calculating the lift and
drag of supersonic airfoils. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer
Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds around Mach 1
where drag increases rapidly. This rapid increase in drag led aerodynamicists and
aviators to disagree on whether supersonic flight was achievable. The sound barrier
was broken for the first time in 1947 using the Bell X-1 aircraft.By the time the
sound barrier was broken, much of the subsonic and low supersonic aerodynamics
knowledge had matured.
The Cold War fueled an ever evolving line of high performance

aircraft.Computational fluid dynamics began as an effort to solve for flow
properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point where entire
aircraft can be designed using a computer, with wind-tunnel tests followed by
flight tests to confirm the computer predictions. Knowledge
of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has also matured since the 1960s, and
the goals of aerodynamicists have shifted from understanding the behavior of fluid
flow to understanding how to engineer a vehicle to interact appropriately with the
fluid flow. Designing aircraft for supersonic and hypersonic conditions, as well as
the desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and propulsion
systems, continues to fuel new research in aerodynamics, while work continues to
be done on important problems in basic aerodynamic theory related to flow
107
turbulence and the existence and uniqueness of analytical solutions to the Navier-
Stokes equations.
Fundamental concepts
Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a flow field)
enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. In many
aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of
flight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Of these, lift and drag are aerodynamic forces,
i.e. forces due to air flow over a solid body. Calculation of these quantities is often
founded upon the assumption that the flow field behaves as a continuum.
Continuum flow fields are characterized by properties such

as velocity, pressure, density and temperature, which may be functions of spatial
position and time. These properties may be directly or indirectly measured in
aerodynamics experiments, or calculated from equations for the conservation of
mass, momentum, and energy in air flows. Density, velocity, and an additional
property, viscosity, are used to classify flow fields.
Flow classification
Flow velocity is used to classify flows according to speed regime. Subsonic flows
are flow fields in which air velocity throughout the entire flow is below the local
speed of sound. Transonic flows include both regions of subsonic flow and regions
in which the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound. Supersonic flows are
defined to be flows in which the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound
everywhere. A fourth classification, hypersonic flow, refers to flows where the
flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree on
the precise definition of hypersonic flow.
Compressibility refers to whether or not the flow in a problem can have a varying
density. Subsonic flows are often assumed to be incompressible, i.e. the density is
assumed to be constant. Transonic and supersonic flows are compressible, and
neglecting to account for the changes in density in these flow fields when
performing calculations will yield inaccurate results.
Viscosity is associated with the frictional forces in a flow. In some flow fields,
viscous effects are very small, and solutions may neglect to account for viscous
108
effects. These approximations are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity
is not neglected are called viscous flows. Finally, aerodynamic problems may also
be classified by the flow environment. External aerodynamics is the study of flow
around solid objects of various shapes (e.g. around an airplane wing), while
internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects (e.g.
through a jet engine).
Continuum assumption
Unlike liquids and solids, gases are composed of discrete molecules which occupy
only a small fraction of the volume filled by the gas. On a molecular level, flow
fields are made up of many individual collisions between gas molecules and
between gas molecules and solid surfaces. In most aerodynamics applications,
however, this discrete molecular nature of gases is ignored, and the flow field is
assumed to behave as a continuum. This assumption allows fluid properties such as
density and velocity to be defined anywhere within the flow.
Validity of the continuum assumption is dependent on the density of the gas and
the application in question. For the continuum assumption to be valid, the mean
free path length must be much smaller than the length scale of the application in
question. For example, many aerodynamics applications deal with aircraft flying in
atmospheric conditions, where the mean free path length is on the order of
micrometers. In these cases, the length scale of the aircraft ranges from a few
meters to a few tens of meters, which is much larger than the mean free path
length. For these applications, the continuum assumption holds. The continuum
assumption is less valid for extremely low-density flows, such as those
encountered by vehicles at very high altitudes (e.g. 300,000 ft or 91.4 km) or
satellites in Low Earth orbit. In these cases, statistical mechanics is a more valid
method of solving the problem than continuous aerodynamics. The Knudsen
number can be used to guide the choice between statistical mechanics and the
continuous formulation of aerodynamics.
Conservation laws
Aerodynamic problems are typically solved using fluid dynamics conservation

laws as applied to a fluid continuum. Three conservation principles are used:
109
Conservation of mass: In fluid dynamics, the mathematical formulation of this
principle is known as the mass continuity equation, which requires that mass is
neither created nor destroyed within a flow of interest.
Conservation of momentum: In fluid dynamics, the mathematical formulation of

this principle can be considered an application of Newton's Second Law.
Momentum within a flow of interest is only created or destroyed due to the work of
external forces, which may include both surface forces, such as viscous (frictional)
forces, and body forces, such as weight. The momentum conservation principle
may be expressed as either a single vector equation or a set of
three scalar equations, derived from the components of the three-dimensional
velocity vector. In its most complete form, the momentum conservation equations
are known as the Navier-Stokes equations. The Navier-Stokes equations have no
known analytical solution, and are solved in modern aerodynamics
using computational techniques. Because of the computational cost of solving
these complex equations, simplified expressions of momentum conservation may
be appropriate to specific applications. The Euler equations are a set of momentum
conservation equations which neglect viscous forces used widely by modern
aerodynamicists in cases where the effect of viscous forces is expected to be small.
Additionally, Bernoulli's equation is a solution to the momentum conservation
equation of an inviscid flow, neglecting gravity.
3.Conservation of energy: The energy conservation equation states that energy is

neither created nor destroyed within a flow, and that any addition or subtraction of
energy is due either to the fluid flow in and out of the region of interest, heat
transfer, or work.
The ideal gas law or another equation of state is often used in conjunction with
these equations to form a determined system to solve for the unknown variables.
Branches of aerodynamics
Aerodynamic problems are classified by the flow environment or properties of the

flow, including flow speed, compressibility, and viscosity. External aerodynamics
is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating
the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock waves that form in front of the nose of
a rocket are examples of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics is the study
110
of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics
encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air
conditioning pipe.
Aerodynamic problems can also be classified according to whether the flow

speed is below, near or above the speed of sound. A problem is called subsonic if
all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds
both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the
characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonicwhen the
characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when
the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree
over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; a rough definition considers flows
with Mach numbers above 5 to be hypersonic.
The influence of viscosity in the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems
may encounter only very small viscous effects on the solution, in which case
viscosity can be considered to be negligible. The approximations to these problems
are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called
viscous flows.
Incompressible aerodynamics
An incompressible flow is a flow in which density is constant in both time and

space. Although all real fluids are compressible, a flow problem is often
considered incompressible if the effect of the density changes in the problem on
the outputs of interest is small. This is more likely to be true when the flow speeds
are significantly lower than the speed of sound. Effects of compressibility are more
significant at speeds close to or above the speed of sound. The Mach number is
used to evaluate whether the incompressibility can be assumed or the flow must be
solved as compressible.
Subsonic flow
Subsonic (or low-speed) aerodynamics studies fluid motion in flows which are
much lower than the speed of sound everywhere in the flow. There are several
branches of subsonic flow but one special case arises when the flow
is inviscid, incompressible and irrotational. This case is called Potential flow and
allows the differential equations used to be a simplified version of the governing
111
equations of fluid dynamics, thus making available to the aerodynamicist a range
of quick and easy solutions.
In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is

whether to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a
description of the amount of change ofdensity in the problem. When the effects of
compressibility on the solution are small, the aerodynamicist may choose to
assume that density is constant. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed
aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the problem is called
a compressible problem. In air, compressibility effects are usually ignored when
the Mach number in the flow does not exceed 0.3 (about 335 feet (102m) per
second or 228 miles (366 km) per hour at 60 °F). Above 0.3, the problem should be
solved by using compressible aerodynamics.
Compressible aerodynamics
According to the theory of aerodynamics, a flow is considered to be compressible

if its change in density with respect to pressure is non-zero along a streamline. This
means that - unlike incompressible flow - changes in density must be considered.
In general, this is the case where the Mach number in part or all of the flow
exceeds 0.3. The Mach .3 value is rather arbitrary, but it is used because gas flows
with a Mach number below that value demonstrate changes in density with respect
to the change in pressure of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum 5% density
change occurs at the stagnation point of an object immersed in the gas flow and the
density changes around the rest of the object will be significantly lower. Transonic,
supersonic, and hypersonic flows are all compressible.
Transonic flow
The term Transonic refers to a range of velocities just below and above the
local speed of sound (generally taken as Mach 0.8–1.2). It is defined as the range
of speeds between the critical Mach number, when some parts of the airflow over
an aircraft become supersonic, and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2, when
all of the airflow is supersonic. Between these speeds, some of the airflow is
supersonic, and some is not.
Supersonic flow
112
Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the
speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an
example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem.
Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to
differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is "told" to respond to its
environment. Therefore, since soundis in fact an infinitesimal pressure difference
propagating through a fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the
fastest speed that "information" can travel in the flow. This difference most
obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that
object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the
moving fluid to rest. In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance
can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving
the impression that the fluid "knows" the object is there and is avoiding it.
However, in a supersonic flow, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate
upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally does strike the object, it is forced to change
its properties -- temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number—in an extremely
violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves,
along with the compressibility effects of high-velocity (see Reynolds number)
fluids, is the central difference between supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics
problems.
Hypersonic flow
In aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly supersonic. In the
1970s, the term generally came to refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of
sound) and above. The hypersonic regime is a subset of the supersonic regime.
Hypersonic flow is characterized by high temperature flow behind a shock wave,
viscous interaction, and chemical dissociation of gas.
Aerodynamics in other fields
Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than aerospace

engineering. It is a significant factor in any type of vehicle design,
including automobiles. It is important in the prediction of forces and moments
in sailing. It is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard
drive heads. Structural engineers also use aerodynamics, and
113
particularlyaeroelasticity, to calculate wind loads in the design of large buildings
and bridges. Urban aerodynamics seeks to help town planners and designers
improve comfort in outdoor spaces, create urban microclimates and reduce the
effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics studies the
ways atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affect ecosystems. The
aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping,
and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the
performance of the engine.
Welcome to the Beginner's Guide to Aerodynamics
What is aerodynamics? The word comes from two Greek words: aerios,
concerning the air, anddynamis, which means force. Aerodynamics is the study of
forces and the resulting motion of objects through the air. Judging from the story of
Daedalus and Icarus, humans have been interested in aerodynamics and flying for
thousands of years, although flying in a heavier-than-air machine has been possible
only in the last hundred years. Aerodynamics affects the motion of a
large airliner,a model rocket, a beach ball thrown near the shore, or a kite flying
high overhead. The curveball thrown by big league baseball pitchers gets its curve
from aerodynamics.
At this Web site you can study aerodynamics at your own pace and to your own
level of interest. Some of the topics included are: Newton's basic equations of
motion; the motion of a free falling object, that neglects the effects of
aerodynamics; the terminal velocity of a falling object subject to both weight
and air resistance; the three forces (lift, drag, and weight) that act on a glider; and
finally, the four forces that act on a powered airplane. Because aerodynamics
involves both the motion of the object and the reaction of the air, there are several
pages devoted to basic gas properties and how those properties change through
the atmosphere.
This site was created at NASA Glenn as part of the Learning Technologies Project
(LTP). It is currently supported by the Aeronautics Research Mission
Directorate at NASA HQ through the Educational Programs Office at NASA
Glenn. The purpose for this web site is to provide background information on basic
aerodynamics as teaching aids for math and science teachers. Some of the slides
were prepared to support FoilSim, an interactive educational computer program
114
that allows students to design and test airfoil shapes on a personal computer. Other
slides were prepared to support the Digital Learning Network (DLN)
videoconferencing workshops for teachers and students. The slides were collected
into Power Point Presentations which are made available to teachers and students.
There is a special section of the Beginner's Guide which deals with compressible,
or high speed, aerodynamics. This section is intended for undergraduates who are
studying shock waves or isentropic flows and contains several calculators and
simulators for that flow regime.This site has been intentionally organized to mirror
the unstructured nature of the world wide web. There are many pages here
connected to one another through hyperlinks and you can then navigate through the
links based on your own interest and inquiry.
There is an Aerodynamics Index of topics that you can access from any page, so
you are never more than two clicks away from any other Web page at this site.
However, if you prefer a more structured approach, you can also take one of
our Guided Tours through the site. Each tour provides a sequence of pages dealing
with some aspect of aerodynamics.
115
Unit 17
Applied mechanics
Applied mechanics is a branch of the physical sciences and the practical
application of mechanics. Applied mechanics examines the response of bodies
(solids and fluids) or systems of bodies to external forces. Some examples
of mechanical systems include the flow of a liquid under pressure, the fracture of a
solid from an applied force, or the vibration of an ear in response to sound. A
practitioner of the discipline is known as a mechanic.
Applied mechanics, as its name suggests, bridges the gap between physical theory
and its application to technology. As such, applied mechanics is used in many
fields of engineering, especially mechanical engineering. In this context, it is
commonly referred to as engineering mechanics. Much of modern engineering
mechanics is based on Isaac Newton's laws of motion while the modern practice of
their application can be traced back to Stephen Timoshenko, who is said to be the
father of modern engineering mechanics.
Within the theoretical sciences, applied mechanics is useful in formulating new
ideas and theories, discovering and interpreting phenomena, and developing
experimental and computational tools. In the application of the natural sciences,
mechanics was said to be complemented by thermodynamics by physical
chemists Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall, the study of heat and more
generally energy, and electro mechanics, the study of electricity and magnetism.
Applied mechanics in practice
The advances and research in Applied Mechanics has wide application in many
departments. Some of the departments that put the subject into practice are Civil
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Construction Engineering, Materials
Science and Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Chemical
Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Nuclear Engineering, Structural
engineering and Bioengineering.
Applied mechanics in engineering
Typically, engineering mechanics is used to analyze and predict the acceleration
and deformation (both elastic and plastic) of objects under known forces (also
called loads) or stresses.
When treated as an area of study within a larger engineering curriculum,
engineering mechanics can be subdivided into
 Statics, the study of non-moving bodies under known loads
116
 Dynamics (or kinetics), the study of how forces affect moving bodies
 Mechanics of materials or strength of materials, the study of how
different materials deform under various types of stress
 Deformation mechanics, the study of deformations typically in the elastic range
 Fluid mechanics, the study of how fluids react to forces. Note that fluid
mechanics can be further split into fluid statics and fluid dynamics, and is itself
a subdiscipline of continuum mechanics. The application of fluid mechanics in
engineering is called hydraulics.
 Continuum mechanics is a method of applying mechanics that assumes that all
objects are continuous. It is contrasted by discrete mechanics.

Acoustics
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of
all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound,
ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is
an acoustician while someone working in the field of acoustics technology may be
called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics can be seen in almost all
aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and noise
control industries.
Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world,
and speech is one of the most distinctive characteristics of human development and
culture. Accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human
society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more.
Art, craft, science and technology have provoked one another to advance the
whole, as in many other fields of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsay's 'Wheel of
Acoustics' is a well accepted overview of the various fields in acoustics.
The word "acoustic" is derived from the Greek word ακουστικός (akoustikos),
meaning "of or for hearing, ready to hear" and that from ἀκουστός (akoustos),
"heard, audible", which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω (akouo), "I hear".
The Latin synonym is "sonic", after which the term sonics used to be a synonym
for acoustics and later a branch of acoustics. Frequencies above and below
the audible range are called "ultrasonic" and "infrasonic", respectively.
History of acoustics Early research in acoustics
In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras wanted to know
why some musical intervals seemed more beautiful than others, and he found
answers in terms of numerical ratios representing the harmonic overtone series on
a string. He is reputed to have observed that when the lengths of vibrating strings
117
are expressible as ratios of integers, the tones produced will be harmonious. If, for
example, a string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will
sound the same note an octave lower. The tones in between are then given by 16:9
for D, 8:5 for E, 3:2 for F, 4:3 for G, 6:5 for A, and 16:15 for B, in ascending
order. Aristotle (384-322 BC) understood that sound consisted of contractions and
expansions of the air "falling upon and striking the air which is next to it...", a very
good expression of the nature of wave motion. In about 20 BC, the Roman
architect and engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on the acoustic properties of
theatres including discussion of interference, echoes, and reverberation—the
beginnings of architectural acoustics.
The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and

after the Scientific Revolution. Mainly Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) but also Marin
Mersenne (1588–1648), independently, discovered the complete laws of vibrating
strings (completing what Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000 years
earlier). Galileo wrote "Waves are produced by the vibrations of a sonorous body,
which spread through the air, bringing to the tympanum of the ear a stimulus which
the mind interprets as sound", a remarkable statement that points to the beginnings
of physiological and psychological acoustics. Experimental measurements of
the speed of sound in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a
number of investigators, prominently Mersenne. Meanwhile Newton (1642–1727)
derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical
acoustics
Age of Enlightenment and onward

The eighteenth century saw major advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied
the new techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. In
the nineteenth century the major figures of mathematical acoustics
were Helmholtz in Germany, who consolidated the field of physiological acoustics,
and Lord Rayleigh in England, who combined the
previous knowledge with his own copious contributions to the field in his
monumental work The Theory of Sound (1877). Also in the 19th century,
Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy between electricity and
acoustics.
The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large
body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application
was Sabine’s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, and many others
118
followed. Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first
World War. Sound recording and the telephone played important roles in a global
transformation of society.
Sound measurement and analysis reached new levels of accuracy and
sophistication through the use of electronics and computing. The ultrasonic
frequency range enabled wholly new kinds of application in medicine and industry.
New kinds of transducers (generators and receivers of acoustic energy) were
invented and put to use.
The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception
of mechanical waves and vibrations.
The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or
process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are
many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form
into sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental
equation that describes sound wave propagation, but the phenomena that
emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy
throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again
into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally
contrived. The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the
biological or volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well
whether we are talking about an earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate
its foe, or a band playing in a rock concert.
The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls
within the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates primarily
as a pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms
including longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.
Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave.
Transduction processes are also of special importance.
Wave propagation: frequency

Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in terms of
frequencies, partly because this is how our ears interpret sound. What we
experience as "higher pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are pressure vibrations
having a higher or lower number of cycles per second. In a common technique of
119
acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are sampled in time, and then presented in
more meaningful forms such as octave bands or time frequency plots. Both these
popular methods are used to analyze sound and better understand the acoustic
phenomenon.
The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and
infrasonic. The audio range falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. This range is
important because its frequencies can be detected by the human ear. This range has
a number of applications, including speech communication and music. The
ultrasonic range refers to the very high frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This
range has shorter wavelengths which allow better resolution in imaging
technologies. Medical applications such as ultrasonography and elastography rely
on the ultrasonic frequency range. On the other end of the spectrum, the lowest
frequencies are known as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be used to
study geological phenomena such as earthquakes.
Analytic instruments such as the Spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization and
measurement of acoustic signals and their properties. The Spectrogram produced
by such an instrument is a graphical display of the time varying pressure level and
frequency profiles which give a specific acoustic signal its defining character.
Fundamental concepts of acoustics
The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception
of mechanical waves and vibrations.
The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or
process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are
many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form
into sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental
equation that describes sound wave propagation, but the phenomena that
emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy
throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again
into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally
contrived. The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the
biological or volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well
whether we are talking about an earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate
its foe, or a band playing in a rock concert.
120
The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls
within the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates primarily
as a pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms
including longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.
Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave.
Transduction processes are also of special importance.
Education
There are many types of acoustician, but they usually have a Bachelor's
degree or higher qualification. Some possess a degree in acoustics, while others
enter the discipline via studies in fields such as physics or engineering. Much
work in acoustics requires a good grounding in mathematics and science.
Many acoustic scientists work in research and development. Some conduct
basic research to advance our knowledge of the perception
(e.g. hearing, psychoacoustics or neurophysiology)of speech, music and noise.
Other acoustic scientists advance understanding of how sound is affected as it
moves through environments, e.g. Underwater acoustics, Architectural
acoustics or Structural acoustics. Others areas of work are listed under
subdisciplines below. Acoustic scientists work in government, university and
private industry laboratories. Many go on to work in Acoustical Engineering.
Some positions, such as Faculty (academic staff) require aDoctor of
Philosophy.
121

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1

Activity Slack Time ‫زمان مجازی فعالیت‬

Advanced Manufacturing Technology (AMT) ‫تکنولوژی تولید پیشرفته‬

Artificial Intelligence(AI) ‫هوش مصنوعی‬

Automated Guided Vehicles(AGVs) ‫وسایط نقلیه هدایت شده اتوماتیک‬

Automated Layout Design Program ‫برنامه طراحی استقرار اتوماتیک‬

Retrieval System &Automated Storage ‫سیستم ذخیره سازی و بازیافت اتوماتیک‬

Anti lock brake system(ABS ) ‫سیستم ترمز ضد قفل‬

Air bag ‫کیسه هوا‬

AIR cleaner ‫صافی هوا‬

Aligator clip ‫انبر سوسماری‬

Anti freeze ‫ضد یخ‬

Axel ( ‫محور ( اکسل‬

Ball bearing ‫بلبرینگ‬

Big end bearing ‫یاتاقان میل لنگ‬

Bleed nipple ‫سوزن یا شیر هواگیری‬

Brake disk ‫دیسک ترمز‬

Brake bleeding ‫هواگیری ترمز‬

Brake drum ‫کاسه ترمز‬

Brake lining ‫لنت ترمز‬

Brake pads ‫بالشتک ترمز‬

Brake shoe ‫کفشک ترمز‬

Biaxial ‫دو محوری‬

Computer Aided Design (CAD) ‫طراحی به کمک کامپیوتر‬

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) ‫مهندسی به کمک کامپیوتر‬

Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) ‫ساخت به کمک کامپیوتر‬

Camshaft ‫میل سوپاپ‬

Crank Shaft ‫میل لنگ‬

Conveyer ‫ناقل – انتقال‬

Drum brake ‫ترمز کاسه ای‬

Drive shaft ‫شافت محرک – پلوس‬

Double – Over head Cam (DOHC) ‫میل سوپاپ دوتایی‬

Disk Brake ‫ترمز دیسکی‬

Electronic Information System (EIS) ‫سیستم اطالعات الکترونیکی‬

Expels ‫تخلیه کردن‬

(I.F)Independent Float ‫شناوری مستقل‬

Inference Engine ‫موتور استنتاج‬

(IS)Information System ‫سیستم اطالعاتی‬

Inspection level ‫سطح بازرسی‬

Life Cycle Costing ‫هزینه یابی دوره عمر‬

Line Balancing ‫باالنس خط‬

Machine Language ‫زبان ماشین‬

Production Cycle ‫سیکل تولیدی‬

Production Management System (PMS) ‫سیستم مدیریت تولید‬

Polar moment of inertia ‫گشتاور لختی قطبی‬

Reliability ‫قابلیت اطمینان‬

Simplex method ‫روش سیمپلکس‬

Slack time ‫ کمبود‬، ‫ کمکی‬، ‫متغیر لنگی‬

Total production Maintenance ‫نگهداری و تعمیرات بهره ور فراگیر‬

Toyota Production System ‫سیستم تولیدی تویوتا‬

Transportation Problem ‫مساله حمل و نقل‬

Races ‫کاسه یاتاقان‬

23. Accumulators: are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to

24. Fluid mechanics: Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that

To put it simply, mechanical engineering deals with anything that moves,

The breadth of the mechanical engineering discipline allows students a

For those interested in applied scientific and mathematical aspects of the

Berkeley Mechanical Engineering is the top ranked public mechanical

a. In order to accomplish this, a broad range of skills are needed.

c. Mechanical engineers play a central role in such . True □ False □

③.Read the statements and answer the question?

In modern usage, the term is used to describe devices capable of performing

In common usage, an engine burns or otherwise consumes fuel, and is

An automobile powered by an internal combustion engine may make use of