PPRT 132

General Physiology and Toxicology

Lesson 2.1: Integuments and Molting
Objectives
1. To describe the layer of insects
integuments
2. To explain the process of molting and
the hormones involved
3. To understand the role of the insects
cuticle in penetration of insecticide
Exoskeleton
 The integumentary system is the external covering of the
insects
An insect’s body walls called integuments or exoskeleton
Various Functions
 Sites of muscle attachment
Defense against microorganism (fungi, bacteria,
predators and parasites), environment, chemicals and
pesticides, insects locomotion, breathing feeding,
excretion, protection from dessication, behavior,
osmoregulation, water control, and as food reserved
1. Cuticle
2. Epidermis; and
3. Basement membrane

Cuticle
Functions as an exoskeleton
and barrier between the living
tissues and the environment

Cement
Outer layer, consist of lipoprotein
Secreted from specialized dermal cells called
dermal glands
Serves as the barrier for the movements of water
in and out
Cement
Present also in fore, and hind intestine, trachea, and parts form from epidermis
ingrowth.
1. Cuticulin layer or enveope-
Range from 10-30 mm thick
(Locke, 2001)

2. Epicuticle- the thinnest portion of

the cuticle; 1 to 4mm thick,
containing lipoprotein, lipids,
waxes, cement, and various
minerals.
 Functions as defense against water
loss due to lipids such as hydrocarbons
on its surface.

3. Procuticle- found beneath the

epicuticle and contains chitin
and protein.
Divided into two regions:
epicuticle and endocuticle.
 Sclerotin- found in the epicuticle that has a dark
pigmentations, hard sclerotized, and composed of
chitins and a hard protein

Exocuticle- found in the outer portion of

procuticle
• Heavily sclerotize, especially in the
thorax of the flying insects to support
the strong flying.
• Brown color observed due to tanning

Sclerotization and quinone tanning-

processes that harden the cuticle.
Exoskeleton is made up with?
Cuticle- is made up of chitin, protein,
sclerotin, resilin, and lime.
-A polysaccharides
composed of –acetylglucosamines
molecules joined in β 1-4 linkage held
together by the hydrogen atoms.
Protein- is found in endocuticle
comprise half the dry weight of
insect cuticle.
Sclerotin- protein substance found in
endocuticle
Resilin- ordinary protein of the cuticle
that provides elasticity of the cuticle.
Epidermis- found below the cuticle
and the living portion of the
integuments.
-Secretes large parts of the
cuticle and molting fluid.
Epidermal cells- attach and
communicate each other through
joints.
Basement membrane- functions in
secretion of the cuticle, digestions,
and absorption of the old cuticle
and repair.
-0.5 thick that separates the
epidermal cells from the body cavity.
-It can be secreted by
plasmatocytes or by epidermal cell
during wound repair (Nation, 2016)
Molting Process
Human bones grows along with our body. However, insects do
not grows its exoskeleton, after exoskeleton is form, it stays on
its body and discard the exoskeleton when insects becomes
too large.

Molting- is an important process in

insects for growth, regeneration
of missing limbs, and repair of
damage tissues.
Molting – is the process of insects forming a new cuticle and shedding of their old
exoskeleton.

1. Molting begins when the

cuticular epidermal cells
stimulated by exposure to the
20E-hydroxyecdysone.

Di

2. Existing cuticle separates in the

process called apolysis or the
separation of the outer cuticle
forming an exuvial or apolysial
space found between the
cuticle and epidermis.
• Inactive molting enzymes
(chitinase and proteases )
Molting – is the process of insects forming a new cuticle and shedding of their old
exoskeleton.

3. New outer cuticulin is produced to

protect the epidermal cells and newly
formed cuticle from being digested by
the active molting enzymes; active
molting enzymes breakdown the old
endocuticle.

4. Some old cuticle will recycle as part of the

new cuticle.

5. Cements layer is also produced by the

dermal glands. Newly formed cuticle is
larger than the old cuticle.
Molting – is the process of insects forming a new cuticle and shedding of their old
exoskeleton.

6. Next major process called ecdysis, involves

shedding of the cuticles.
Exuvium- an old cuticle which is composed of
epicuticle and exocuticle.

7. Some insects swallows water and air to facilitate

the shedding of the old cuticle.

8. Hardening (sclerotization) and darkening of the

cuticle are controlled by the hormones Bursicon.
Sclerotization
Gives the epicuticle strength, hardness, and low water permeability.
 It is also called tanning which describes as hardening of the cuticle.
 It is regulated by the hormones called the Bursicon

Individual protein
molecules are linked
together by quinones
compound to create the
exoskeleton rigid’s plates
known as Sclerites
Hormones Involved in Insect Development

Metamorphosis
 Defined as the striking
change of the form or structure
of an individual after hatching
(Tikkanen, 2020).
 Transition from a nymph or
larvae to the adult stage.
Hormones Involved in Insect Development
Endocrine system
 Controls the molting and
metamorphosis process.

Factors that regulate molting

include;
Environmental –Temperature –
Photoperiod – humidity – presence
-absence of nutrients -
physiological factors (quantity and
quality of food) and infection of
microorganisms.
Hormones involved in Molting and Metamorphosis
Hormones Mode of action Illustration

Neuropeptide secreted by
Prothoracicotropic brain neurosecretory cells.
hormone, PTTH the target is prothoracic
gland cells; it stimulates
secretion of ecdysone or
related ecdysteroids.

Ecdysone, ecdysteroids steroid molting hormones.

the main target is
epidermal cells; it has
several molecular forms
and promotes synthesis of
new cuticle.
Ecdysone, ecdysteroids
Hormones involved in Molting and Metamorphosis
Hormones Mode of action Illustration

“status quo” hormone that

determines the type of
Juvenile hormone, JH cuticle secreted by
epidermal cells and keeps
ecdysone from forcing
precocious
metamorphosis; it has
several molecular forms.

Corazonin Neuropeptide from brain

important in molting that
initiates ecdysis action in
moths and maybe other
insects.
Hormones involved in Molting and Metamorphosis
Hormones Mode of action Illustration

From Inka cells on

tracheae, with ecdysis-
Preecdysis-triggering triggering hormone (etH)
hormone, ETH that initiates preecdysis I
nervous and muscular
action.

Ecdysis-triggering Secreted from Inka cells,

hormone, EH with PetH that triggers
preecdysis I; etH stimulates
eH from brain cells.
Hormones involved in Molting and Metamorphosis
Hormones Mode of action Illustration

Crustacean cardioactive eH released into

peptide, CCAP hemolymph; stimulates
Inka cells to make massive
secretion of PetH and etH,
leading to preecdysis II
and ecdysis

Crustacean cardioactive neuropeptide from nervous

peptide, CCAP system, important in
shedding old cuticle.
Hormones involved in Molting and Metamorphosis
Hormones Mode of action Illustration

Bursicon The tanning hormone, a

neuropeptide from nervous
system that promotes
cuticle

Note: The hormones are listed in the approximate sequence in which they come into
play in molting and ecdysis.

Mechanism regulating molting and metamorphosis includes the brain, a prothoracic

gland, and juvenile hormone
Penetration of Insecticide in through insect cuticle

Major pathway of insecticide penetration is through the cuticle,

although in some instances, these chemicals do enter by way of
mouth, spiracles, and other vulnerable parts like the antennae,
eyes, and tarsi. The entry site is largely dependent on the type of
insecticide use wherein those high vapor pressure insecticides
tend to enter through spiracles, antennae, and intersegmental
membranes.