STEMFIELD INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

SESSION - 2022-2023
CLASS – XI SCIENCE

CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

TOPIC –
PERIODICITY OF ELEMENTS IN PERIODIC
TABLE

SUBMITTED TO – SUBMITTED BY-

Mrs. Amrita Singh Payoja Raj
Roll No. – 11A04
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Payoja Raj,
student of Class XI Science has
successfully completed their Chemistry
Project on “Periodicity of elements in
periodic table” under the guidance of
Mrs. Amrita Singh for the academic
session 2022-23.

Teacher’s Signature Principal’s signature

________________ ________________
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks
of gratitude to my Chemistry Teacher Mrs.
Amrita Singh as well as our respected
Principal Mrs. Manmeet Kohli who gave
me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project on the topic “Periodicity
of elements in periodic table”.

I would also like to thank my parents and

friends who helped me a lot in finalising
this project within the given time frame.

Payoja Raj
XI Sci
11A04
 CONTENTS

 The Periodic Table

 Introduction
- Periodicity
- Periodic Trends
oAtomic Radius
oIonization Enthalpy
oElectron Gain Enthalpy
oElectron Affinity
oElectronegativity
oMetallic Character
oOxidation states or valency
oDiagonal Relationship
 Bibliography

The Periodic Table

- The periodic table is a rows and columns
arrangement of the chemical elements.
- It is a graphic formulation of the periodic law,
which states that the properties of the
elements exhibit an approximate periodic
dependence on their atomic numbers.
- The first periodic table to become generally
accepted was that of the Russian
chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869.

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS PERIODICITY ?
Periodicity is the repetition of properties of
elements after a certain interval when they are
arranged in increasing order of their atomic
number.

PERIODIC TRENDS
Periodic trends are specific patterns that are
present in the periodic table that illustrate
different aspects of a certain element, including
its size and its electronic properties.
Major periodic trends are electronegativity,
ionization enthalpy, electron affinity, atomic
radius, melting point, metallic character etc.

ATOMIC RADIUS
The atomic radius is one-half the distance between the nuclei
of two atoms.
Atomic size gradually decreases from left to right across a
period of elements. This is because, within a period or family
of elements, all electrons are added to the same shell.
However, at the same time, protons are being added to the
nucleus, making it more positively charged. The effect of
increasing proton number is greater than that of the
increasing electron number; therefore, there is a greater
nuclear attraction. This means that the nucleus attracts the
electrons more strongly, pulling the atom's shell closer to the
nucleus. The valence electrons are held closer towards the
nucleus of the atom. As a result, the atomic radius decreases.
Down a group, atomic radius increases. The valence electrons
occupy higher levels due to the increasing quantum number
(n). As a result, the valence electrons are further away from
the nucleus as ‘n’ increases. Electron shielding prevents these
outer electrons from being attracted to the nucleus; thus,
they are loosely held, and the resulting atomic radius is large.
IONIZATION ENTHALPY
Ionization enthalpy is the energy required to remove an
electron from a neutral atom in its gaseous phase.
The lower this energy is, the more readily the atom becomes
a cation. Therefore, the higher this energy is, the more
unlikely it is the atom becomes a cation.
Generally, elements on the right side of the periodic table
have a higher ionization enthalpy because their valence shell
is nearly filled. Elements on the left side of the periodic table
have low ionization enthalpies because of their willingness to
lose electrons and become cations. Thus, ionization energy
increases from left to right on the periodic table.
The ionization energy of the elements within a group
generally decreases from top to bottom. This is due to
electron shielding.

Electron shielding describes the ability of an atom's inner

electrons to shield its positively-charged nucleus from its
valence electrons. Electron shielding is also known
as screening.
ELECTRON GAIN ENTHALPY
Electron gain enthalpy (ΔegH) is defined as the enthalpy
change associated with an isolated gaseous atom (X) when it
gains an electron to form its corresponding anion. The
reaction can be given as below:

When one electron is added to an atom, it becomes

negatively charged ions. Now if we add the second electron
to this negatively charged ion, it experiences repulsive forces
due to the electrons already present in that shell. Additional
energy should be provided to overcome these repulsive
forces. Hence, the second electron gain enthalpy of an
element is positive. Example: When an electron is added to a
sulphur atom to form an S– ion, it releases energy whereas
energy is required when another electron is added to an
S– ion to form S2- ion.

First electron gain enthalpy:

Second electron gain enthalpy:

Variation in electron gain enthalpy in the period: In
the modern periodic table, on moving from left to right
across a period, the atomic size of elements decreases and
the effective nuclear charge increases. Thus, the force of
attraction between the nucleus and added electrons
increases. Hence, electron gain enthalpy becomes more
negative while moving right across a period.

Variation of electron gain enthalpy in a group: Generally,

when we move down in a group becomes less negative. This
is because, as we go down the group both the atomic size
and nuclear charge increase, but the effect of atomic size is
more prominent than that of nuclear charge. Hence, the
force of attraction between the nucleus and the added
electron decreases and thus enthalpy becomes less negative.

ELECTRON AFFINITY
Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to accept an
electron. The more negative the electron affinity value, the
higher an atom's affinity for electrons.

Electron affinity generally decreases down a group of

elements because each atom is larger than the atom above it.
With a larger distance between the negatively-charged
electron and the positively-charged nucleus, the force of
attraction is relatively weaker. Therefore, electron affinity
decreases.
Moving from left to right across a period, atoms become
smaller as the forces of attraction become stronger. This
causes the electron to move closer to the nucleus, thus
increasing the electron affinity from left to right across a
period.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity measures an atom's tendency to attract and
form bonds with electrons. This property exists due to the
electronic configuration of atoms.

Because electronegativity is a qualitative property, there is no

standardized method for calculating electronegativity.
However, the most common scale for quantifying
electronegativity is the Pauling scale, named after the
chemist Linus Pauling.

Because elements on the left side of the periodic table have

less than a half-full valence shell, the energy required to gain
electrons is significantly higher compared with the energy
required to lose electrons. As a result, the elements on the
left side of the periodic table generally lose electrons when
forming bonds. Conversely, elements on the right side of the
periodic table are more energy-efficient in gaining electrons
to create a complete valence shell of 8 electrons.

From left to right across a period of elements,

electronegativity increases. If the valence shell of an atom is
less than half full, it requires less energy to lose an electron
than to gain one. Conversely, if the valence shell is more than
half full, it is easier to pull an electron into the valence shell
than to donate one.

From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity

decreases. This is because atomic number increases down a
group, and thus there is an increased distance between the
valence electrons and nucleus, or a greater atomic radius.

Important exceptions of the above rules include the noble

gases, lanthanoids, and actinoids. The lanthanoids and
actinoids possess more complicated chemistry that does not
generally follow any trends. Therefore, lanthanoids, and
actinoids do not have electronegativity values.
According to these two general trends, the most electronegative
element is fluorine, with 3.98 Pauling units.
METALLIC CHARACTER
The metallic character of an element can be defined as how
readily an atom can lose an electron.
From right to left across a period, metallic character increases
because the attraction between valence electron and the
nucleus is weaker, enabling an easier loss of electrons.
Metallic character increases as you move down a group
because the atomic size is increasing. When the atomic size
increases, the outer shells are farther away. The principal
quantum number increases and average electron density
moves farther from nucleus. The electrons of the valence
shell have less attraction to the nucleus and, as a result, can
lose electrons more readily. This causes an increase in
metallic character.

OXIDATION STATES OR VALENCY

 Variation of Oxidation State Along a Period
While moving from left to right across a period, the elements'
number of valence electrons increases and changes between
1 to 8. Whereas the valency of the elements, when first
combined with H or O, increases from 1 to 4, and after that, it
reduces to zero. The element's oxidation state represents the
charge possessed by an atom because of the gain or loss of
electrons in the molecule.

 Variation of Oxidation State within a Group

While we move down in a group, there occurs no change in
the number of valence electrons. Thus, all the elements of
one group hold the same valency.

DIAGONAL RELATIONSHIP
A diagonal relationship in S-block elements exists between
adjacent elements which are located in the second and third
period of the periodic table. A diagonal relationship mainly
occurs between 2nd and 3rd periods of the periodic table.
For example, between the elements like, Li and Mg, Be and
Al, B and Si.

As we go from left to right in a period table certain properties

change in such a way that they neutralize the effect of change
in properties on going down the group so as to form a
relationship with them that other elements fail to show.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Textbook of Chemistry 11th – NCERT

 www.google.com

 www.wikipedia.org

 www.chem.libretexts.org

 www.slideshare.net

 www.vedantu.com