:
Particulate Theory Of Matter
-Made up of single type of
atoms
-Chemical reaction can’t
break down a substance of
an element
-occupies space, has mass & volume
-Made up of tiny discrete particles
-Either elements / compounds
-Either atoms, molecules / ions
-Made up of 2/more
elements which are held
together by chemical bonds.
-Made up of molecules /ions
Na=sodium C=carbon,
He=Helium, Ne=Neon,
Al=Aluminum
-Smallest neutral particles in an
element & take part in chemical
reaction
Nitrogen=N2 Oxygen=O2
-Neutral particles Fluorine=F2
-Is a group of 2/more atoms that Chlorine=Cl2 Bromine=Br2
chemically bonded together. Iodine=I2 Phosphorus=P4
Sulphur=S8
-Made up of atoms of the same
&different element
-Neutral particles Water=H2O
-Is a group of 2/more atoms that Ammonia=NH3
chemically bonded together. Methane=CH4 Carbon
dioxide=CO2
-Made up of atoms of the same
&different element
Mg2+ Cu2+ H+
Metals = positive + (Cation) Al3+
- - - -
Non-metals = negative – (anion) Cl ,I ,OH ,O2

Potassium manganate(Vll) crystal dissolves
& the particles move very slowly into the
spaces in between the gel particles.
Notes: Speed of diffusion depends:
The higher the temperature, the faster the
particles move & hence the faster the
diffusion.

The smaller the mass, the faster the particles

move & the faster the speed of diffusion

Diffusion in solid
Always collide among each
Diffusion in liquid
other & affected when heat is
provided.

Move from high

concentration – lower
concentration

Move rapidly in gases, slower in

Diffusion in gas
liquid & slowest in solid.

Potassium
manganate(Vll) is made
up of tiny & discrete
Bromine gas is made up of tiny &
particles. These particles
discrete particles. These particles
move slowly into the
move randomly into the spaces in
spaces in between the
between the air particles.
water molecules.
State Solid Liquid Gas
Particles arrangement

Particles movement
Attractive forces
Kinetic energy of particles
Packed closely together orderly
manner
The particles can only vibrate &
rotate about their fixed positions
Strong forces between the
particles
Low energy content as
movement is restricted
Packed closely but not in orderly
arrangement
-Rotate, vibrate & move
throughout the liquid.
-They collide against each other.
The particles r held together by
strong forces but weaker than
the forces in a solid.
Higher energy content as
particles can move easily
Very far apart from each other &
in a random arrangement
-Particles can move freely
-Rate of collision is greater than
the rate of collision in a liquid
Weak forces between the
particles
High energy(particles move at
random)

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Definite shapes Takes the shape of the container Takes the shape of the container
Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume Takes on the volume of the
container
Density High Medium Low
Compressibility Not compressible bcoz the Difficult to compress bcoz the Easily compressed bcoz the
particles r very closely packed particles r closely packed particles r far apart

a) Solid, liquid & gas has kinetic energy bcoz the particles r in constant motion & collide with each other.
b) The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the particles which move with higher speeds.
c) The pressure of a gas is due to the collisions of the gas on the wall of the container and the collisions are elastic
(with no energy lost in collisions)

Heating process

Sublimation
Heat energy absorbed,

Boiling/Evaporation Temperature rises

Melting

Freezing Condensation Heat energy released,

Solid Liquid Gas Temperature drops

Sublimation
Cooling process

a) A matter changes its state form at a particular temperature & pressure.

b) To change solid to liquid, liquid to gas & solid to gas, we have to overcome the forces of attraction between the particles in its original
state. Therefore heat energy must be absorbed to effect this change.
c) For the changes of gas to liquid, liquid to solid, & gas to solid to take effect, heat energy must be released. As the particles lose heat
energy, their kinetic energy decreases. They move slower & the forces of attraction between them become stronger.
 d) Solid Gas
Heat is absorbed by the substance until the solid completely changed into a liquid without a change in temperature =
Latent heat of fusion

e) Gas Solid
Heat energy that is provided to the substance to convert liquid to gas =

Latent heat of vaporisation

Temperature (OC)
is the temperature at which a liquid changes
F into a gas at a particular pressure.
Begins to boil
is the temperature at which a solid changes
Boiling point E
Begins to melt D into a liquid at a particular pressure.
Completely
Melting point C
B vapourised

A Begins to melted
Room Time (minute)
temperature

When the solid is heated, heat energy is absorbed

The temperature does not rise, even though heating continues. The temperature
to gain kinetic energy & vibrate faster. The
remains constant bcoz the heat energy absorbed by the particles is used to
temperature increases as the particles received
overcome the forces between particles so that the solid can turn into liquid.
more heat energy.
 C to D: Liquid D to E: Mixture of liquid & gas E to F: Gas

The particles in liquid absorb heat The temperature remains constant bcoz the heat The particles in liquid absorb heat
energy & move faster. The energy absorbed by the particles is used to energy & move faster. The
temperature continues to increase. overcome the forces between particles so that the temperature continues to increase.
liquid can turn into gas.

Temperature (OC)

Begins to condense When the gas is cooled, the The temperature remains
A particles in the gas lose constant bcoz the heat
Completely condensed
B C their kinetic energy. They surrounding is exactly
Boiling point Begins to freeze move slower as the balanced by the heat energy
E temperature decreases liberated as the particles
Freezing point Completely frozen
D attract one another to form a
F Time (minute) liquid.
Room
temperature

The particles in liquid lose The temperature remains constant bcoz The particles in solid continue to
heat energy to the the heat loss to the surroundings is lose heat energy to the
environment & move slower. exactly balanced by the heat energy environment & vibrate slower.
Hence, the temperature liberated as the particles attracted one Hence, the temperature decreases
decreases. another to form a solid. to room temperature.
 James Chadwick (1922) Positively
charged sphere
- Discovered neutrons, the neutral particles in the cell
- Nucleus contains protons & neutrons with electrons Electron
surrounding the nucleus in permitted cells.

J.J Thomson (1897)

-Atom made up of positively-charged sphere with

Neil’s Bohr (1913) negatively charged atom

-Electrons moved around the nucleus in - Electron is about 2000 times lighter than
fixed shells which contain protons. hydrogen atom.

Electron

Nucleus
John Dalton (1803)

Ernest Rutherford (1911) -All elements made up small invisible particles = atoms

-Some alpha particles penetrated the gold plate & -Atoms can’t be created / destroyed
went through deflection, some were deflected, while
Electron -Atoms look like spheres
some rebounded.

-positively charged particles = protons

Nucleus -Mass of an atom was concentrated in a small

Tiny invisible
positively charged area = nucleus
particle
Particle Symbol Relative Relative Electron (move around the nucleus)
Charge Masses
Proton
Neutron Nucleus:
Electron
Proton & Neutron

Nucleus is positively charged A neutral atom contains the same number of electron
as the protons.
bcoz presence of protons.

Nucleon number of an element is the total number of

protons & neutrons in its atom.

Nucleon number (mass number)

Nucleon number = number of protons +
Symbol of element number of neutrons
Proton number (atomic number)

Proton number = number of proton The relative mass of an atom is almost the same as its
nucleon number
 Isotopes of an element have different physical properties bcoz
they have different relative isotopes masses

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same

number of protons (proton number) but different numbers of
neutrons (nucleon numbers)
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties bcoz
they have the same electron arrangement.

Element Name of isotopes Protons Neutrons Proton Nucleon number

number
Hydrogen Hydrogen – 1 1 0 1 1
Hydrogen – 2 1 1 1 2
Hydrogen – 3 1 2 1 3
Carbon (3 Carbon – 12 6 6 6 12
isotopes) Carbon – 13 6 7 6 13
Carbon – 14 6 8 8 14
Oxygen (3 Oxygen – 16 8 8 8 16
isotopes) Oxygen – 17 8 9 8 17
Oxygen - 18 8 10 8 18
Chlorine (2 Chlorine – 35 17 18 17 35
isotopes) Chlorine – 37 17 20 17 37
Bromine (2 Bromine – 79 35 44 35 79
isotopes ) Bromine – 81 35 46 35 81

Carbon-14 dating is used to
estimate the age of
archeological specimens like
the bones of prehistoric man
Gamma radiation from the
decay of cobalt-60 is used to
Generate electricity
destroy cancer cells
Medical field
Gamma radiation is also used
to sterilize surgical rubber
gloves, medicines & plastic
hypodermic syringes Industrial use
Pipes carrying flammable
natural gas must be checked
for leaks regularly bcoz a
spark near the leak can cause
a fire. Sodium-24 isotope is
used to check for leaks
Uranium-235 decays to release
heat energy which is used to
heat water into steam which
turns the turbines of generators
to generate electricity
By using radioactive
phosphate ions, the rate of
Archaeology absorption of phosphate by
plants can be determined
using a Geiger-Muller tube
Agriculture
Agricultural produce are
perishable. They are exposed
to gamma radiation before
exporting to destroy
microorganisms like fungus &
bacteria which cause
vegetables / fruits to root
Radioisotope is used to
detect canned food which is
partially-filled. If the can is
partially-filled, the Geiger-
Muller tube will detect high
radioactivity
 Electrons in the outermost shell are
Second shell can take a called the valence electrons. This atom
maximum of 8 electrons. has 1 valence electron.

First shell can take a maximum of 2

electrons.
Valence shell

The third shell can take a maximum of

18 electrons. However the atom attains
stability if the third shell is filled with 8
electrons.

Nucleus of the atom containing protons

& neutrons

1) The electrons are arranged in shells surrounding the nucleus.

2) The electrons are filled starting from the first shell, the one closest to the nucleus.
3) The occupied shell which furthest from the nucleus is called the valence shell / outermost shell. The electrons in the
outermost shell called the valence electrons.
4) Elements with the same number of valence electrons will have the same chemical properties. Exp:
Element Fluorine Chlorine Bromine
Symbol F Cl Br
Electron 2.7 2.8.7 2.8.18.7
arrangement
 Electron Arrangement of Elements with Proton Numbers 1 to 20

Hydrogen 1 1 Sodium 2.8.1

23
1 11

Helium 2 Magnesium 2.8.2

4 24
2
12
Lithium 2.1 Aluminium 2.8.3
7
27
37 13
7
Beryllium 2.2 Silicon 2.8.4
9
28
4 14
Boron 2.3 Phosphorus 2.8.5
11
5 31
15
Carbon 2.4 Sulphur 2.8.6
12 32
6 16
Nitrogen 2.5 Chlorine 2.8.7
14 35
7 17
Oxygen 2.6 Argon 2.8.8
16
40
8
18
Fluorine 2.7 Potassium 2.8.8.1
19 39
9 19

Neon 2.8 Calcium 2.8.8.2

20 40
10 20