CMBkU TI 5

sNaæ ndI ngi paø ktci tnU ci EpndI

Landf orms and Pl ate Tectonics

eKalbMNg
cg;[Gñkyl;GBM I ³
1 sNæandIenAtMbn;RBMEdnpøakTajcUlKña ¬Landforms of convergent plate margins¦
2 sNæandIenAtMbn;RBMEdnpøakpøas;bþÚr b¤ rGilelIKañ ¬Landforms of transform plate margins¦
3 sNæandIEI dlTak;TgnwgbMNak;RsutenARBMEdnpøak ¬Landforms and plate margin faulting¦
4 sNæandIenAtMbn;Epñkxagkñgú pøakEdlq¶ayBIRBMEdnpøak ¬Landforms of plate interiors¦
5 sNæandIEdlTak;TgnwgskmµPaBm:ak;ma: xageRkA ¬skmµPaBPñeM PøgI ¦ ¬Landforms associated
with extrusive igneous activity (volcanic activity)¦

6 sNæandIEdlTak;TgnwgskmµPaBm:ak;ma: xagkñgú ¬skmµPaBeRCotcUl¦ ¬Landforms assoc-

iated with intrusive igneous activity (plutonic activity)¦

matikaCMBUk
1 sNæandI nigpøaktictUnicénRBMEdnpøak ¬Landforms and tectonics of plate boundaries¦
1>1 RBMEdnpøakEdlTajKñacUl ¬Convergent plate margins¦
1>2 RBMEdnpøakEdlpøas;bþÚr b¤ rGilelIKañ ¬Transform plate margins¦
1>3 sNæandImaRtdæantUcrYmCamYynwgbMNak;RsutRBMEdnpøak ¬ Small-scale landforms
associated with plate margin faulting¦

2 sNæandI nigtictUnci Epñkxagkñgú pøak ¬Landforms and tectonics of plate interiors¦

2>1 sRmutTIbV ¬Continental rifts¦
2>2 )asaMgTIbV ¬Continental basins¦
3 sNæandIEdlTak;TgCamYynwgskmµPaBm:ak;m:a ¬Landforms related to igneous activity¦
3>1 skmµPaBPñeM PøgI ¬Volcanic activity¦

179
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

3>2 sNæandIénkareRCotcUlsilam:ak;ma: ¬Landforms associated with igneous

intrusions¦

4 esckIsþ nñdi aæ n ¬Summary¦

5 BaküKnøHw sRmab;CMBkU TI 5 ¬Keywords for Chapter 5¦

180
 CMBkU TI 5

sNaæ ndI ngi paø ktci tnU ci EpndI

Landf orms and Pl ate Tectonics

enAkñgú CMBkU TI4 eyIg)anykcitTþ ukdak;sikSaeTAelIRTwsIþpaø ktictUnci . eyIg)andwgehIyfa

RTwsþIpøaktictUnicenH maneKalbMNgcg;Bnül;BITItaMgénTRmg;dIsMxan;²rbs;EpndI ¬dUcCa CYrPñM RTnug
kNþalmhasmuRT RClgsRmut FñrÚu ekaH nigsñamePøaHmhasmuRT¦. elIsBIenHeTAeTot RTwspIþ aø k
tictUnci Bnül;BcI lnaénpøakmNÐlfµelIRsTab;GaesþNUEsV‘r karbegátI eLIg nigkarekIteLIgvijén
sm,kmhasmuRTenAÉRBMEdnpøak nigvtþmanénskmµPaBPUKBÖsa®sþdx¾ øagM køa dUcCa karegIbeLIgénCYrPñM
BMenIgpñt; nigbMNak;RsuténRsTab;sila karrBa¢yÜ dI nigbnÞúHPñMePøIg. enAkñúgCMBUkenH eyIgnwgBiBN’na
bEnßmGMBI\T§iBlrbs;dMeNIrkarépÞxagkñúg ¬endogenic¦ enAelIépÞEpndI. CaBiess eyIgnwgsikSaBI
sNæandIenAtMbn;RBMEdnpøak ¬plate boundaries¦ sNæandIenAtMbn;Epñkxagkñúgpøak ¬plate interiors¦
nig sNæandIEdlTak;TgCamYynwgskmµPaBm:ak;m:a ¬igneous activity¦.
1 - sNæandI nigpøaktictUnicénRBMEdnpøak
enAkñúgEpñkenHeyIgnwgBiBN’naGMBIsNæandIenAtMbn;RBMEdnpøak CaBiessRBMEdnpøakEdlTaj
cUlKña ¬man 5 RbePT¦ nigRBMEdnpøas;bþÚr b¤rGil.
1>1 RBMEdnpøakEdlTajKñacUl
RbePTsNæandIsMxan;² EdlekIteLIgenAtamRBMEdnpøak EdlTajKñacUlenAkEnøgEdlpøakTaMg
BIrrMkilcUlKña KWmanenAExSRkvat;Pñ<M ¬orogens¦ nigkMeNagekaH ¬island arcs¦. ynþkarTaMgBIrxag
eRkamenH nwgeqøIytbcMeBaHkarvivtþn_rbs;vaKW ³
1> karbukKña ¬collision¦. mankarbukKñarvagTIVbBIr rvagkMeNagekaHBIr b¤ rvagkMeNagekaH
mYy nigTIVbmYy.
2> karFøak;cuH ¬subduction¦. mankarFøak;cuHénmNÐlfµmhasmuRT ¬oceanic lithosphere¦
eTAeRkammNÐlfµTIVb b¤eRkampøakmhasmuRTmYyeTot. rUbFatuénsm,kmhasmuRTk¾

181
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

rlayeRkamkemþAy:agxøagM køaénm:g;tU ehIypus nigpÞHú eLIgdUcPñeM PøgI . sm,kEpndITbVI

¬nigkMeNagekaHxøH²¦ GacTb;Tl;ngw karFøak;cuH)an.
1>1>1 pøakmhasmuRT nigpøakmhasmuRT ¬karFøak;cHu ¦
kEnøgEdlmNÐlfµmhasmuRTFøak;cuHeTAeRkamEpñkmhasmuRTénpøaktictUnicmYyeTot ehIy
manskmµPaBPñeM PIgø begáIt)anCakMeNagekaHxagkñgú mhasmuRT ¬intra-oceanic island arc¦ ¬rbU
PaBTI 5>1¦. skmµPaBTaMgenH ekItmaneRcInenAkñgú mhasmuRT)a:sIuhVikPaKxaglic ¬rbU PaBTI 5>2¦.
RTg;RTaykMeNagrbs;va KWGaRs½yeTAnwgmMéu nkarFøak;cHu ¬30-50 °¦ nigRTg;RTayekagénEpndI
¬RbdUcnwgRKab;)al;EfnnIsenAeBlykemédsgát;elIva¦.

kMeNagekaHPñeM PIø SW Aleutian

Honshu Arc Arc
Kurile Arc
NE Honshu Arc
Ryukyu
Arc Izu Arc

Marianas Arc
Philippine
Sulu
Arc
Arc
mhasmuRT)a:sIuhkiV
Celebes Halmahera
Arc Arc Bismarck Arc

sm,kEpndImhasmuRT Banda
Arc
Solomon Arc

New
sm,kEpndITbVI Hebrides
Arc
Tonga
Arc

silaPñeM PIgø GURsþalI Kermadec

Arc

rbU PaBTI 5>1 TtI agM EdlmNÐlféµ nmhasmRu T
Faø kc; Hu eTAeRkamEpkñ mhasmRu TénpøakmyY
ehyI skmPµ aBPeMñ PgIø bg[á manCaFrÚñ ekaHxag
kgúñ mhasmRu T ¬intra-oceanic island arc¦
¬RbPB ³ after Summerfield, 1991¦
rbU PaBTI 5>2 TtI agM énFrÚñ ekaHxagkgúñ mhasmRu T
enAkgúñ mhasmRu T)as: Ihu iVkPaKxaglci . manFrÚñ
ekaHxagkgúñ mhasmRu TepSgeTotenAkgúñ smRu T
Caribbean ng i Andaman ngi kgúñ mhasmRu T
Gatgø T; ci xagt,gÚ ¬RbPB ³ after Summerfield,
1991 ¦

182
 CMBkU TI 5

1>1>2 pøakmhasmuRT nigpøakTIbV ¬karFøak;cHu ¦

kEnøgEdlmNÐlfµmhasmuRTFøak;cHu enAeRkampøakmYy Edlmans,kEpndITIbV begátI )anExS
Rkvat;PCM<ñ ayTVbI ¬continental-margin orogen¦ ¬rbU PaBTI 5>3¦. CYrPMñGg;Ca]TahrN_Rsab;én
skmµPaBEbbenH. eTaHbICay:agNakþI RbsinebIsm,kdITbVI sßitenAeRkam b¤ TabCagnIvTU: kw smuRT
enaHExSRkvat;PMñ enaHGacbegátI )anCakMeNagekaHCayTVbI ¬continental-margin island arc¦.
enHKWCasßanPaBCak;EsþgénkarkekItekaHs‘mU a: Rta nigekaHCVaEdlCaEpñkmYyénkMeNagekaHsun‘ da
¬Sunda Arc¦ kñúgRbeTs\NÐÚensIu.

ExSRkvat;PCM<ñ ayTVbI rbU PaBTI 5>3 karFaø kc; Hu énmNlÐ fmµ hasmRu TenAeRkampaø k
myY EdlkBM ugRTsm,kTbIV bg[á manCakeM NtI ExSRkvatP; eM<ñ nA
tamCayTbIV enaH ¬continental-margin orogen¦. kN M t;
smaÁ lk; gúñ rbU PaBTI 5>1 ¬RbPB ³ after Summerfield, 1991¦

1>1>3 pøakTIbV nigpøakTIbV ¬karbukKña¦

xN³eBlEdlExSRkvat;PCMñ ayTVbI bukKñaCamYyTIbV mYyeTot enaHvabegátI )anCakMeNItExSRkvat;
PñGM nþrTVbI ¬intercontinental orogen¦ dUcCaCYrPñMhim:aéLCaedIm ¬rbU PaBTI 5>4¦. CacugeRkay tMbn;
énkarFøak;cuH ¬subduction zone¦ RtUv)ankøayCatMbn; suture ¬Bakü “suture” mann½yfa karedrP¢ti
muxrbYs¦ xN³eBlEdlTIVbBIrRtUv)anCab;Kña ¬]TahrN_ CYrPñM Ural kñúgRbeTsrUsSIú¦. kñúgkarbukKñaén
GnþrTIbiV enH kmøaMgsgát;tamTisedksMxan;²GackekIteLIgEdlbgámanBMenIgpñt;xøagM køa eKehAfapñt;
eRTl ¬nappes¦. CYrPMñGal; ¬enAGWr:ub¦ nigCYrPMñhSaRkUs ¬RbeTsGIur:g;¦ Ca]TahrN_Rsab;énpñt;enH
edaysarkarTajcUlKñaénTVbI GaRhVikCamYynwgTVbI GWr:as‘an ¬CYrPMGñ al;¦ nigkarTajcUlKñaénTVbI Gar:a-
b‘Ín CamYynwgTVIbGWr:as‘an ¬CYrPMñhSaRkUs¦ ¬rbU PaBTI 5>5¦.

karb:HTgÁicKñarbs;TVIb >>>
etIGkñ eCO b¤kG¾ t;fa TVbI TaMgLayminRtwmEteFVcI lnab:eu NÑaHeT b:Eu nþmaneBlxøHEfmTaMgTgÁci KñaeTotpg. enAkalBI
GtItkal 40-60 lanqñamM nu ]bTVbI \NÐaRtUv)anTgÁci KñaCamYynwgTVIbGWra: su.I enAeBlEdlTVbI TaMgenHrujpÞbK; añ TVbI k¾)an
e)a:geLIg. CalT§plCYrPñhM mi a: éLenAEtkMBgu bnþeBIgeLIgsBVéf¶enH Rtg;TtI aMgénPñeM GvueW r:s ¬8 848 m¦.

183
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

CayTVIb ExSRkvat;PCMñ ayTVbI rbU PaBTI 5>4 CaypøakepSg²EdlrmY clU Kañ man
TnM akT; nM gCamyY ngw karCl;TgciÁ Kañ énTbIV BrI . Ca
lTp§ l KkW N M keM NtI ExSRkvat;PGMñ nþrTbIV ¬inter-
continental orogen¦ RtgT ; tI agM EdlTVbI TagM BIr
munkarbukKñaénTVbI BIr
)anpSaPa¢ bK; ña )anCaBeM ngI ptñ ; ngi karegbI eLgI .
ExSRkvat;PGMñ nþrTVbI kN M ts; maÁ lk; gúñ rbU PaBTI 5>1 ¬RbPB ³ after
Summerfield, 1991 ¦

karbukKñaénTVIbBIr

rbU PaBTI 5>5 rbU ftBIpaá yrNbénPhMñ SaRksU kgúñ RbeTsGruI g: ; bgað jBBI eM ngI ptñ ; ngi karegbI eLgI dF¾ M
TakT; gCamyY nwgkarClT; gciÁ rvagpaø kGara: bnÍ‘ ngi paø kGrW :asa‘ n tagM BI 30 lanqañ mM nu . PxMñ <s²; kgúñ CYr
PeñM nHmanry³kms< C; ag 4000 m ¬RbPB ³ NASA¦

184
 CMBkU TI 5

1>1>4 kMeNagekaH nigpøakTIbV ¬karbukKña¦

RbePTlMdab;TI2énkarbukKñarbs;paø ktictUnci Cab;Tak;TgnwgclnaénkMeNagekaHenAkñúgmha-
smuRT ¬intra-oceanic island arc¦ eq<aHeTAkan;tMbn;énkarFøak;cuH ¬subduction zone¦ EdlRtUvbegáIt
eLIgedaysm,kdITIVb ¬rbU PaBTI 5>6¦. lÁwkNaEtkMeNagekaH)anFøak;cuH enaHvanwgbEnßmnUv
karpøas;bþÚrrUbragEpñkxageRkAénExSRkvat;PCMñ ayTVbI .

k>

munkarbukKñaénTVbI nigFñÚr
munkarbukKñaénFñrÚ ekaHmhasmuRT nigTVbI ekaHmhasmuRT
CayTVbI )anRtUvpøas;brÚþ
ExSRkvat;PCMñ ayTVbI )anRtUvpøas;brÚþ
x>
karbukKñaénTVIb nigFñrÚ ekaH
karFøak;cuH
Qb;dMeNIrkar karFøak;cuHQb;dMeNIrkar
karbukKñaénFñrÚ ekaHmhasmuRT nigTVbI ExSRkvat;PCMñ ayTVbI )anRtUvpøas;bþÚr
K>
rbU PaBTI 5>6 clnabmaø sT; éI nFÚñrekaHkgúñ mha-
smRu Teqa< HeTAkant; bM n;karFaø kc; Hu myY EdlTak;
TgCamyY ngw TbIV . kN M t;smaÁ l;kgúñ rbU PaBTI 5>1 rbU PaBTI 5>7 clnabmaø sT; rI bsT; bIV eqa< HeTA
¬RbPB ³ after Summerfield, 1991¦ kant; bM n;karFøakc; Hu myY EdlTakT; gCamyY ngw
FrÚñ ekaHmhasmuRT ¬k¦. karbukTgciÁ Gacngw
bBaÄbk; arFaø kc; Hu Cayfaehtbu egIát)anCa
{CayTbIV Gkm}µ ¬x¦. Rbsni ebFI rÚñ ekaHenAbnþ
eTAmxu tbM nk; arFaø kc; Hu fIµ Gacngw begtIá eLgI enA
BeI Rkayva ¬K¦. kN M ts; maÁ lk; úñgrbU PaBTI 5>1

185
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

RbsinebITbVI eFIcV lnaeq<aHeTAkan;tbM n;Føak;cHu énkMeNagekaHxagkñúgmhasmuRT enaHlT§pl

GacekItmandUcKña ¬rbU PaBTI 5>7>x¦ EdleFIV[pøas;bþÚrrUbragCayTIVb nigbBaÄb;)annUvkarFøak;cuH.
pÞyú eTAvij edaysarPaBFn; b¤ PaBcgsm<n½ y§ a:grwgmaMénsm,kTIbV cMeBaHkarFøak;cuH enaHTisedAén
karFøak;cuHGacERbRbYledaymantMbn;karFøak;cuHfI²µ EdlkMBgu ekItmanenABIeRkaykMeNagekaH nig
edaymankarpøas;bþÚrénExSRkvat;PñMCayTVIbpgEdr ¬rbU PaBTI 5>7>K¦.
1>1>5 kMeNagekaH nigkMeNagekaH ¬karbukKña¦
karbukKñarvagkMeNagekaHenAkñúgmhasmuRTBIr k¾manBIrRbePTEdr ¬rbU PaBTI 5>8¦.
k>
munkarbukKñaénFñrÚ ekaHmhasmuRTBIr
`

FñrÚ ekaHmhasmuRTsmas
x>
karbukKñaénFñrÚ ekaHmhasmuRTBIr nig
karbiTéntMbn;karFøak;cuHmYy

K>
karbukKñaénFñrÚ ekaHmhasmuRTBIreday
karERbRtLb;énkarFøak;cHu

rbU PaBTI 5>8 clnabmaø sT; rI bsF; ÚñrekaHkñgú mhasmuRTBrI eqa< HeTArkKañ . kalNaFrÚñ ekaHTagM BIrbku
TgciÁ Kañ tbM nk; arFaø kc; Hu enAkEnøgbku TgÁci enaHGacRtvU )anbTi ¬k¦. Rbsni ebFI rÚñ ekaHenAbneþ TAmxu tbM n;
karFaø kc; Hu fGIµ acngw begtIá eLgI enABeI RkayFrÚñ ekaHelpI øakEdlenAelI ¬x¦. kN M ts; mÁal;kgúñ rbU PaBTI
5>1 ¬RbPB ³ after Summerfield, 1991¦

186
 CMBkU TI 5

1>2 RBMEdnpøakEdlpøas;brÚþ b¤ rGilelIKañ

rhUtmkdl;eBlenH eyIg)anBicarNaBIRBMEdnpøakBIrEdlTajcUlKña. \LÚvenHeyIgRtUveFVkI ar
KitBicarNaBIRBMEdnpøakTaMgLayNa EdlpøakmYyeFVcI lnaeTAhYspøakmYyeTot. enAtMbn;enaHpøak
TaMgBIrCYbKñatambeNþaybMNak;Rsutpøas;brÚþ ¬bMNak;RsutrGil = transform fault¦ EdlminsUvman
skmµPaBkarFøak;cHu b¤ karbukKñaeT. CakarBitNas; manclnaTajcUlKña b¤ clnapøas;bÚþr
¬transform¦ TaMgRsug KWkRmnwgekIteLIgNas; vaGacekIteLIg)anEtenAtambeNþaybMENkxø²I én
RBMEdnpøakb:eu NÑaH. RBMEdnpøakEdlTajcUlKñaenaH CaFmµtamanrYmbBa©lÚ TaMgclnarujeTAmçag²mYy
cMnYn ehIyRBMEdnpøas;bþÚrCaeRcInmanclnaTajcUlKña b¤clnaEbkecjBIKñamYycMnYn. ]TahrN_ ³ eTaH
bICaRBMEdnPaKxagekIténmhasmuRT\NÐaTaMgmUlRtUv)anTajKñacUl ¬KWRtUv)anFøak;cHu enAeRkampøak
GWr:asI¦u k¾eday k¾mantMbn;Edlmanclnabmøas;brÚþ ¬transform¦ CaeRcIndUcCa enAFñÚrekaHsu‘nda nig
RbeTsPUma ¬rbU PaBTI 5>9¦. kEnøgEdlmanbMNak;Rsutpøas;bþÚrenAelIdI vaRtUvTak;TgCamYynwg
lkçN³rUbsa®sþsMxan;rbs;épÞdI dUcCaRClgTenøGuIr:av:aDIénRbeTsPUmaCaedIm.

bMNak;RsutrGil rbU PaBTI 5>9 rcnasmn½< § ngi rbU

CYrFñÚrekaHeRkA sa®scþ bM g²rbsC; ayPaKxagekIt
PñMePøIg énmhasmRu T\NÐa bgað jBtI bM n;
énkarFaø kc; Hu ngi sañ mePaø H ¬ocean
tMbn;énKmøat? trenches¦ ¬CrY eFj µ edaykarcgú¥l
rbse; Fjµ kgúñ Tsi edAénkarFaø kc; Hu ¦
CrY FrÚñ ekaHxageRkA ¬outer arc
ridges¦ FrÚñ ekaHPeMñ Pg Iø ¬volcanic
island arcs¦ ng i bNM akR; stu paø s ;
tMbn;karFøak;cuH brÚþ ¬bN M ak;Rstu rGil = transform
or strike-slip faults¦ ¬RbPB ³

after Summerfield, 1991 ¦

65 m>m ¼ 1 qñaM
GRta nig TisedAénclnapøak\NÐa

187
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

clnabmøas;bþÚrRTg;RTayRcanKñaecj ¬transform divergent movement = transtension¦

bgá[mankarkekItCabMNak;RsutFmµta nigsRmutcuH ehIyGacbgá[man {GagTajecjBIKña} ¬pull-
apart basin¦ ¬rb U PaBTI 5>10>k¦. pÞyú eTAvij clnabmøas;bþÚrRTg;RTayTajKñacUl ¬transform
convergent = transpression¦ bgá[mankareFVI[ ENn ehIybegá It)anCaBMenI gpñt; karegIbeLIg

nigkMNkMeNIt {ExSRkvat;PñMpøas;bþÚr} ¬transform orogen¦ qøgkat;bN M ak;RsutenaH ¬rbU PaBTI

5>10>x¦. lkçN³EbbenH GacCasßanPaBd_sKúµ sµaj xN³eBlEdlTisedAsm<aFtambeNþay
RBMEdnpøas;brÚþ GacERbRbYltamry³eBlevla. ]TahrN_ ³ RbBn§b½ N M ak;Rsut San Andreas enA
kalIhVna )anpøas;brÚþ BIclnabmøas;brÚþ RTg;RTayTajKñacUlenAsm½y Miocene ¬23-5 lanqñaMmun¦
eTACaclnabmøas;brÚþ RTg;RTayRcanKñaecjenAsm½y Pliocene ¬5-2 lanqñammun¦. KMrUbMNak;
Rsutd¾sKúµ sµajbMput KWmanlkçN³samBaØ edaybMNak;Rsutpøas;brÚþ FM². tMbn;TaMgenaHGacmankareFVI
eGayENn ¬karegIbeLIg¦ nigkarrIkmaD ¬karRsutcuH¦ EdleFIeV GayekItmanlkçN³sNæandITab nig
x<s; ¬zanelxsa®sþ¦.
K x

GagTajecjBIKañ ExSRkvat;PpMñ øas;brÚþ

rbU PaBTI 5>10 TRmgd; TI akT; gCamyY nwgRBEM dnpaø kpøasb; rÚþ ¬b¤ rGil¦ ³ ¬k¦ {GagTajecjBKI añ }
¬pull-apart basin¦ ngi ¬x¦ {ExSRkvatP; Mñpaø sb; Úþr} ¬transform orogen¦ ¬RbPB ³ Crowell, 1974¦

1>3 sNæandImaRtdæantUcrYmCamYybMNak;RsutRBMEdnpøak
CaFmµta Caypøak KWCatMbn;EdlmanbMNak;RsuteRcIn EdlbNþal[mansNæandIThM MtcU ²
Cak;lak;Edlpþl;KnøwHBIlkçN³énskmµPaBtictUnicxñatFM ¬rbU PaBTI 5>11¦. CakarBiteyIgKYrkt;
smÁal;fa sNæandIEdlTak;TgnwgbMNak;RsutGacmansarRbeyaCn_eRcIncMeBaHtMbn; EdlenAq¶ayBI
RBMEdnpøak. y:agNak¾eday vaCaEpñkmYyd¾sMxan;mYyéneTsPaBCMuvijRBMEdnpøak.

188
 CMBkU TI 5
pøÚvTwkbg¥ak;
muxcMeNat RTng;CaCYr pøÚvTwkbg¥ak;
GNþ g
Ú Tw
k pus RtBaMg
RClgCaCYr RTnug
mat;RClg
bMNak;Rsutcas; muxcMeNat RClgCaCYr

rbU PaBTI 5>11 TRmgd; éI nmaRtdaæ ntcU ngi mFüm TakT; gCamyY ngw bN
M ak;Rstu paø sb; Úþrcm,g² bgað jBI
karbgÚðrTwkecjRtvU )anbg¥ak; ¬disrupted or offset drainage¦ RClgCaCrY ¬linear valley¦ ngi mxu
ceM NatbN M akR; stu ¬fault scarp¦ ¬RbPB ³ after Wesson et al, 1975¦

bMNak;RsutekIteLIgtamry³clnay:agelOnénsm,kEpndI EdlCab;Tak;TgnwgkarrBa¢yÜ Epn

dI RbsinebIbMNak;RsutFmµta ¬normal faults¦ b¤bMNak;RsutbRBa©as; ¬reverse faults¦ elceLIgdl;
épÞEpndI enaHvaGacbegátI )anCa {muxcMeNatbMNak;Rsut} ¬fault scarp¦ EdlmancMeNatecattammMuén
bøg;bMNak;Rsut ¬rbU PaBTI 5>12¦. clnatamTisQr tambeNþaybMNak;RsutGacnaM[ekItmannUv
TMnb;TwkeRCaH RbsinebIvahUreTAkan;xagEdlegIbeLIgenaH. pÞúyeTAvij RbsinebITwkGUr b¤eRCaHhUreTA
kan;xagEdlRsutcuH enaHvanwgTTYlrgsMNwkya:gelOnenATImuxcMeNatbMNak;Rsut. CaerOy² clna
eTAcMehognaM[mankarpøas;brÚþ TIlMhUrTwkGUr b¤eRCaHqøgkat;bMNak;Rsut ¬karbgðrÚ TwkGuhsV ti = offset
drainage¦ EdlCYy kMNt;T h M cM lnaedayELk²BIKañ tambeNþaybMNak;Rsut ¬rbU PaBTI 5>13¦.

189
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

rbU PaBTI 5>12 clnabmaø sT; tI amExSQr tambeNþaybN M ak;Rstu ettnu ¬Teton Fault¦ ¬va: yGmU gI
s>r>G¦ )anektI eLgI 6-9 lanqañ mM nu ngi egbI eLgI nvU CYrPRMñ kge; ttnu ¬Grand Tetons¦. enAPaKxag
ektI rbs;va tN
M ag[muxceM NatbN M akR; sut Edlmanry³kms< ; 700 m el)I atRClg ¬RbPB ³ C.
Ellis West ¦

rbU PaBTI 5>13 rbU ftBpI áayrNbénbN M akR; sut Altyn Tagh enACrY PMñ Kunlun Shan ¬TeI b¦. eygI
GaceXjI clnarju eTAmaç g²tambeNaþ ybN M akR; stu tamkarGhu sV iténpÚøvTkw Edlqgø katb; N
M akR; stu
enaH ¬cNM cu Rtgs; BaaØ RBjY ¦ ¬RbPB ³ N.M. Short, in Summerfield, 1991¦

190
 CMBkU TI 5

2 - sNæandI nigtictUnicEpñkxagkñúgpøak
eyIg)ankt;smÁal;BIlkçN³TRmg;dIsMxan;²rbs;EpndIxagelIrYcehIy ¬ExSRkvat;PñM nigkMeNag
ekaH¦ ekIteLIgenAtamRBMEdnpøakEdlTajKñacUl. b:Eu nþ\T§Bi lénGnþrkmµpøak GacrIksayeTAelItbM n;
dIeKakrab;Ban;KILÚEm:Rt BIRBMEdnpøakTaMgenaH ehIylkçN³sNæandIsMxan;²CaeRcInEdlsßitenAEpñkxag
kñgú pøak KWminTak;TgnwgRBwtkiþ arN_RBMEdnpøakeLIy.
sNæandIsMxan;²EdlKYrkt;smÁal;énEpñkxagkñgú pøakrYmmanx<g;rabFM² ehIyx<sC; ag 2000
Em:Rt ¬]TahrN_ ³ x<g;rabTIEb‘sÞI ¬Tibesti Plateau¦ nigx<gr; abGahahÁ½r ¬Ahagger Plateau¦ enAPaK
xageCIgTIbV GaRhVik¦ )asaMgFM² ¬EdlmanTMhTM TwgRbmaN 1000 KILÚEm:Rt dUcCa)asaMgEqd ¬Chad
Basin¦ )asaMgxaLaharI ¬Kalahari Basin¦ ni g)asaM gEhSeGor ¬ Zaire Basin¦ enATIb V GaRhVik nig
)asaMgbwgEG‘r ¬Lake Eyre Basin¦ enAGU®sþalI¦ nigtMbn;nanaénsRmutTIbV EdlCakEnøgsm,kEpndI
RtUv)ansn§gw nigRtUv)anrgbMNak;Rsut ¬]TahrN_ ³ RClgsRmutGaRhVki xagekIt¦ ¬rbU PaBTI 5>14¦.
bMENkénpÞagM TVbI FM²b:ge; so ¬cab;taMgBIRbmaN 180 lanqñamM nu ¦ )anbegáItCaCayTIVbfIµ²CaeRcIn.

dIxs< ;Cag 1000 m

silaPñMePøIgekµgCag 25 lanqñaM
muxcMeNatFM²
RBMEdnén)asaMg
RBMEdnTVIbEdlRtUvkat;
RClgsRmut
RBMEdntMbn;éncMNucekþA
K>m
rbU PaBTI 5>14 TRmgd; eI pSg²TakT; gngw deM NIrkartci tnU ci Gnuvteþ nATbIV GaRhkiV Epkñ xagkgúñ paø k ³ xg< ;rab
¬plateaux¦ PeMñ PgIø rs; nigPeMñ PgIø ekgµ mxu ceM NatF²M )asaMg ¬basins¦ RClgsRmut ngi cN M cu ekAþ
¬RbPB ³ after Summerfield, 1991¦

191
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

CayTIbV enaH manskmµPaBtictUnci ticCagCayTIbV EdlsßitenAtambeNþayRBMEdnpøakTajcUlKña

ehIyeK[eQµaHfa CayTIbV Gskmµ ¬passive continental margins¦. CaTUeTA vaRtUv)ankMNt;lkçN³
edaymuxcMeNatFM² ¬]TahrN_ dUcCamuxcMeNatFM²enAPaKxagt,ÚgGaRhVik nigPaKxagekItGURsþalI¦
¬rbU PaBTI 5>15¦.

Western Ghats

Serra do Mar
Drakensburg
Mountains
Great Escarpment of Great Escarpment
Southern Africa of Eastern Australia

rbU PaBTI 5>15 mxu ceM NatF²M enAelCI ayTbIV Gkm µ ¬RbPB ³ after Summerfield, 1991¦

enAtambeNþayRBMEdnpøak clnatamTisedkénpøak KWCabuBeV htucm,génkaregIbeLIg Edl

ekIteLIgenAkñúgExSRkvat;P.Mñ enAEpñkxagkñgú pøak clnatamTisQrénsm,kEpndImansarRbeyaCn_
bMput. karegIbeLIgenAtMbn;FM²elIépÞEpndIedayKµanBMenIgpñt; b¤bMNak;Rsut enaHeKehAfa epeiroge-
ny. eTaHCaGñkviTüasa®sþmankaryl;dw gsIC u eRmABIrebobénclnaRBMEdnpøak Edlbgá[mankMNkM
eNItExSRkvat;PMñ ¬orogeny¦ k¾eday k¾cMeNHdwgrbs;GñkviTüasa®sþTak;TgnwgdMeNIrkaregIbeLIgén
clnatictUnicenAEpñkxagkñúgpøak KWenAmanPaBTn;exSayenAeLIy.
esckþGI Fib,ayBIkaregIbeLIgcm,g²enAEpñkxagkñgú rbs;pøak KWTak;TgnwgkaregIbeLIgénm:gt; U
EdlmankemþAekþACagFmµtaenAtMbn;xHø ² enaHeKehAfa hot spots b¤ {cMNucekþA}. cMNucekþATaMgenHman

192
 CMBkU TI 5

bMENgEckmineTogTat;eT enAelIépÞEpndI ¬rbU PaBTI 5>16¦ ehIyCaerOy² vaRsbtamtMbn;nanaén

skmµPaBPñeM PøgI EdlsßitenAq¶ayBIRBMEdnpøak ]TahrN_dcU Ca karekItmanenAGaRhVki PaKxagekIt enA
eyLÚsßÚn ¬Yellowstone¦ énshrdæGaemrik nigenAekaHhaév:.

xVHTinñn½y xVHTinñn½y

rbU PaBTI 5>16 r)aycN

M cu ekAþ elBI Pi Belak ¬RbPB ³ after Summerfield, 1991¦

y:agNak¾eday karBnül;BI {cMNucekþA} sRmab;karegIbeLIgéntMbn;Epñkxagkñúgrbs;pøakman

bBaðaBIrKW ³ ¬i¦ mantMbn;x<s;²enAEpñkxagkñúgrbs;pøak EdlKµanskmµPaBPñMePøIgeT nig ¬ii¦ RTwsþI
{cMNucekþA} RtUvkarbrimaNkemþAy:agxøaMg edIm,IBnül;BIbrimaNkaregIbeLIgenAtMbn;xøH² ¬1000°C
eFVI[karegIbeLIg 150 m edaydMeNIrkarenH¦. karBnül;mYyeTot cMeBaHkaregIbeLIgEbbenH Tak;
Tgnwg\T§Bi lénkarpøas;brÚþ dg;seuI trbs;Er:enAkñgú RsTab;m:gt; .U karpøas;brÚþ pas ¬phase changes¦ enH
mann½yfa Er:pøas;bþÚrrvagpasGgÁFaturav nigGgÁFaturwgtamry³karpøas;brÚþ rbs;sItN u Pð aB b¤ sm<aF.
dMeNIrkarenHnaM[dg;seuI t nigTMhrM bs;Er:enaHpøas;bÚþr EdlbNþal[épÞEpndIRtUvRsutcuH b¤egIbeLIg.
karBnül;enHRtUvkarkMeNInlµménsItN u Pð aB ¬Et 100°C enAÉ)atmNÐlfµ¦. esckþGI Fib,aymYy
eTotmanTMnak;TnM gCamYynwg {PaBsmlMngw } ¬isostacy¦. PaBsmlMnwgBiBN’naGMBItulüPaBén

193
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

mNÐlfµ Edlrsat;GENþteTAelIRsTab;GaesþNEU sV‘r. enAeBlbnÞúkmYyRtUv)ankat;pþac;ecjBIsm,k

EpndI ¬karkat;pþac;tamrbic nigsMNkw sila¦ enaHépÞdnI gw CH\TiB§ lRtLb;eTAvij BIeRBaHmNÐlfµmni
dak;sm<aFelIRsTab;GaesþNUEsV‘reRcIneLIy.
2>1 sRmutTIbV ¬Continental rifts¦
RclgsRmut KWCasNæandIsxM an;enAelIsm,kEpndITbVI enAEpñkxagkñgú pøak enAkEnøgEdlsm<aF
rIksn§wgman\Ti§BlxøaMgenAkñúgmNÐlfµ ¬rbU PaBTI 5>17¦. CaFmµta RClgsRmutTaMgenHmanTMhTM Twg
BI 30-60 KILÚEm:Rt b:Eu nþRClgsRmutmYycMnnY manTMhMelIsBI 100 KILÚEm:Rt. karBiBN’nad¾samBaØ
BIRClgsRmutmansNæanCaRbLayEdlmanTMhTM Ulay fñak;sNæansMEb:t nigsNæansIeu mRTIKña Edl
GmedaymuxcMeNatecat². tamRbéBNIRClgsRmutTaMgenaH RtUv)ancat;TukfaCareNþAtictUnci
¬graben¦ Edlmanfñak;sRmuttMNag[bøúk Edl)anRsutcuHrvagbMNak;RsutFmµtaBIr ¬rbU PaBTI
5>18>k¦. tamKMnitenH bMNak;RsutBIrenaHbegátI CamuxcMeNatrbs;RClg. eTaHCay:agNakþI
karGegátfµ²I enHbgðajfa TRmg; nigrcnasm<n½ §RClgsRmut KWkan;EtsµKú sµaj ¬rbU PaBTI 5>18>x¦.
karBinitüénrcnasm<n½ § nigrUbsa®sþEpndI )anbgðajBITnM ak;TnM gy:agCitsñTi §rvagsRmutTIbV nig
tMbn;nanaénPñeM PøIgkNþalpøak nigkaregIbeLIgénsm,kEpndI. cMENktMbn;Edlmansm<½n§exSayenAkñúg
mNÐlfµ GacCatMbn;EdlgayTTYlrgsRmut. PaBxusKñacMbg²enAkñúglkçN³sRmutTak;TgnwgTItaMg
rbs;va cMeBaHRBMEdnpøak nigGaMgtg;seuI ténskmµPaBPñeM PøgI . sRmutmYycMnnY manTMnak;TnM gya:gCak;
c,as;eTAnwgclnasm,kEpndI EdlEbkecjBIKañ edaysn§wgeTAmçagEdlkat;Ekg ¬90°¦ eTAnwgG½kS
sRmut. RbB½n§RClgsRmutGaRhVikxagekIt ¬rbU PaBTI 5>19¦ KwsßitkñúglkçN³RbePTenH EdlCatMbn;
dMbUgbg¥sé; nkarEbkecjBIKañ énpøak ehIyk¾Cakarsn§gw énRBMEdnpøak EdlEbkecjBIKañ enAsmuRT
Rkhm nigenAQUgsmuRTeGDin ¬Gulf of Aden¦. RbePTsRmutEbbenH)ankMNt;lkçN³eday
skmµPaBPñeM PøgI d¾yrU . enAkrNIepSgeTot dUcCasRmutsmuRTgab; ¬Dead Sea Rift¦ manclnabmøas;
bþÚrRTg;RTayRcanKñaecj ¬transform divergent movement¦ tambeNþaybMNak;Rsut ehIylkçN³
EbbenHeKGaccat;Tukfa {GagTajecjBIKña} ¬pull-apart basin¦. manRbePTsRmutsMxan;mYyeTot
EdlsßitenAmuEM kgcMeBaHG½kSExSRkvat;PMñGnþrTVbI ¬inter-continental orogens¦. karvivtþtamlkçN³
EbbenH vahak;bIdcU CaCab;Tak;Tgnwg karlatsn§gw énsm,kEpndI EdlCalT§plénkarbukTIbV Kña Edl
sßti enABIeRkaytMbn;Edl)anbukKña. cMeBaHskmµPaBPñeM PøIgmansPaBF¶nF; ¶rtictYcb:eu NÑaH. ]TahrN_

194
 CMBkU TI 5

e)a:g pÞaMgFMTUlayén e):ag rbU PaBTI 5>17 karvvi téþ n

kMEGrsila)asal; RClgsRmut. ¬k¦ karegbI
eLgI énsli aekAþ BIxageRkam
éprÞ bsE; pndI ¬diapirism¦
sMbkTVbI
EtkbBa©Úl bg[á man ¬x¦ karlat
m:ak;m:a sngw§ énsm,kEpndI ngi
¬k¦ karegIb nigkare)a:geLIgedaykemþA ¬diapirism¦ karvvi téþ nRClgsRmtu ¬rift
valley or graben¦. ¬K¦
Kmøaténsm,kEpndI
PñMePøIgm:ahVic karbnþRstu cHu énsm,ksli a
)asal;fEIµ dlmandgs; euI tFM
Cacgu eRkay na[M ekItman
karCn;lci ngi keM NtI én
smRu TfmIµ yY . ¬X¦ kar-
¬x¦ Kmøaténsm,k nigkMeNIténRClgsRmut latsnw§gEdlmni seuI mRTKI añ
sRmutcuHénsMbkEpndI na[M ektI manrcnasmn½< §
)asagM CrY ¬basin-and-
kUnsmuRT
range structures¦. kemc Þ
Cn;lic RTng;
kN M ¬bgað jCaBNR’ bepH¦
kBM gu RbmlU peúMþ nAkgúñ RClg
sRmtu . bN M ak;Rstu RtUv)an
GaesþNUEsV‘r
bgað jedaysBaaØ RBjY
¬K¦ Kmøatén)atsmuRT ¬RbPB ³ after Smithson et
KmøatminsIeu mRTIKñaénsm,kEpndI RClg al, 2002¦
PñbM N
M ak;Rsut sRmut
)asaMgtictUnci

¬X¦ rcnasm<n½ )§ asaMg-CYr ¬basin-and-range¦ ³ sRmutcuHminsIuemRTIKña

195
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

TaMgenH KWrYmmansRmut Er:n ¬Rhine Rift¦ enAPaKxageCIgPñGM al; nigsRmut)ayxal ¬Baikal Rift¦
man 3000 KILÚEm:RtenAPaKxageCIg PMñhim:aéL.
k muxcMeNatbMNak;Rsut
RClgsRmutsIuemRTIKña

sµa
kemÞckMN
bMNak;Rsut
bøúkRsutcuH
x muxcMeNatbMNak;Rsut
bMNak;Rsut RClgsRmutminsIuemRTIKña ¬RClgsRmutknøH¦

sµa
kemÞckMN
bMNak;Rsut
muxcMeNateRTt
muxcMeNateTar
rbU PaBTI 5>18 r)ayrcnasmn½< §RClgsRmtu xusKañ ³ ¬k¦ rcnasmn½< R§ ClgsRmtu EdlmansNaæ n
seuI mRTKI añ . bkúø myY )anRstu cHu rvagbN
M ak;Rstu Fmtµ a ¬normal faults¦ BrI . ¬x¦ rcnasmn½< R§ Clg
sRmtu sKúµ saµ jEdlKaµ nsNaæ nseuI mRTKI añ ¬RbPB ³ after Summerfield, 1991¦

pøakGWr:asIu rbU PaBTI 5>19 RbBn½ R§ ClgsRmut

enAGaRhVki xagekIt bgað jBTI tI aMg
pøakGara:b‘Ín énPeMñ PgIø ¬RteI kaN¦ ngi bgw
GaRhVik
pøak
mhasmuRT GaRhVik epSg². crU kN M tc; N
M anM vU PaBbnþ
Gatøg;Tic ¬Nubian¦ pøak\NÐa énRbBn½ s§ Rmtu enHCamyY ngw RBEM dn
EbkecjBKI añ énsmRu TRkhmrvag
paø kGarab: nÍ‘ ngi pøakGaRhVki ¬RbPB³
pøakGaRhVik ¬Somalian¦
www.volcanodiscovery.com ¦
PñMePøIg
RBMEdnpøak
tMbn;sRmut
196
 CMBkU TI 5

2>2 )asaMgTIbV ¬Continental basins¦

bEnßmeTAnwgclnasÞHú eTAelItamTisQrénsm,kEpndI EdlnaM[mankaregIbeLIgnUvtMbn;F²M
ehIyclnasÞHú cuHeRkamk¾ekItmaneLIg EdlbegátI )anCa)asaMg ¬basins¦. tMbn;nanaénkarRsutcuH
sm,kEpndICaFmµtabegátI )anlkçN³sNæandIrabesµI edaysartMbn;TabenaHRtUv)ancak;bMeBjeday
kemÞckMNEdl)andwkCBa¢ÚnBIdIx<s;Ek,r²enaH ¬]TahrN_ ³ )asaMgbwgEG‘renAGURsþalI nig)asaMg
xaLaharIenAGaRhVikPaKxagt,Úg¦. )asaMgnanaekItmaneLIg EdlCalT§plénkarRsutcuHsm,kEpndI
¬EdlGacTak;TgnwgkarcuHRtCak;énmNÐlfµ¦ nig karegIbeLIgéntMbn;enACuMvijenaH.
3 - sNæandIEdlTak;TgCamYynwgskmµPaBm:ak;m:a
skmµPaBm:ak;m:a ¬igneous activity¦ Cab;Tak;Tgnwgclnam:ak;m:a ¬silarlay¦ BIRsTab;
m:g;tUeq<aHeTAkan;épÞEpndI nigeq<aHeTAelIépÞEpndI ¬rbU PaBTI 5>20¦. skmµPaBm:ak;m:axageRkA
¬extrusive igneous activity¦ KWCaskmµPaBPñeM PøgI ¬volcanism¦ ehiyI ekIteLIgenAkEnøgEdlm:ak;m:a

lT§plrbs;bnÞúH
rn§PñMePøIg
lMhUrkMEGrPñMePøIg ekaNrNb
skmµPaBPñeM PøIg RsTab;epH xageRkA ¬extrusive¦
¬volcanic¦ DIk
sIul xagkñúg ¬intrusive¦
Lakk; lU tI
skmµPaBBøyú tUnic EtkbBa©Úl
sIul
¬plutonic¦ lMnaMERbkMeNIt
)atlU tI

rbU PaBTI 5>20 skmPµ aBma: km; a: TakT; gngw clnarbsm; a: kma: BRI sTabm; g: t; U eqa< HeTAkané; pEÞ pndI
¬intrusive igneous ¬plutonic¦ activity¦ ngi clnarbsm; ak: ma: psu eLgI eTAeléI pEÞ pndI ¬extrusive
igneous ¬volcanic¦ activity¦. TRmgd ; mI a: km; a: EdlhrU ecjmk CalT§plBbI nHúÞ énma: km; a: eTAeléI pÞ
Epnd.I TRmgd; mI a: km; a: EdlhrU eTAkané; pÞEpndIRtvU )anbgeá dayclnabmaø sT; éI nsilarlay eqa< HeTA
kané; pÞEpndI ¬RbPB ³ after Smithson et al, 2002¦

197
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

pÞúHecjeTAelIépÞEpndIenAeBlmanlMhUrkMEGrPñMePøIg b¤enAeBlbMEbkrUbFatuPñMePøIg)anpÞúHeTAkñúgxül;.
skmµPaBPñeM PøgI naM[mankarkekItsNæandIedaypÞal; b:Eu nþminEmnRKb;skmµPaBPñeM PøgI TaMgGs;naM[man
karvivtþénPñMePøIgeT.
manskmµPaBPñeM PøgI cm,g²cMnnY R)aMya: gKW ³
1> skmµPaBPñeM PøgI énkarTajcUlKña énpøakenAkMeNagekaH nigExSRkvat;PeMñ nAtamCayTVbI
2> pÞagM FMTlU ayénkMEGrsila)asal;enAelIépÞTbVI eKehAfa {continental flood basalts}
eTaHCay:agNakþI skmµPaBPñeM PøgI PaKeRcInekItmaneLIgenAeRkamépÞTwksmuRT ¬rbU PaBTI
5>21¦³
3> karkekIteLIgnUvmNÐlfµfµI²enARTnugkNþalmhasmuRT
4> PñMePøIgeRkamTwksßitenAcMNucekþA
5> pÞagM FMTlU ayénkMEGrsila)asal;enAelIépÞ)atsmuRT ¬submarine flood basalts¦.

m:ak;m:axageRkA

m:ak;ma: xagkñúg

karbukKñaénTVIb Epñkxagkñúgpøak RTng;kNþalmhasmuRT kMeNagekaH

sm,kRtUv
GaesþNUEsV‘r mNÐlfµ eRbI
rbU PaBTI 5>21 GRtaRbcaqM añ TM eM nbI ²énlT§plma: km; a: BPi Belak. crU cN
M afM a lTp§ lma: km; a: PaKeRcnI
ektI eLgI eRkam be¤ l)I atmhasmRu T ¬RbPB ³ after Smithson et al, 2002¦

skmµPaBm:ak;m:axagkñúg ¬intrusive igneous activity¦ Tak;Tgnwgclnaénm:assilarlay

b¤xUcRTg;RTayeq<aHeTAkan;épÞEpndI. ma:ssilamYyEdlqøgcUleTAsilaenACMvu ji va ¬country rock¦

198
 CMBkU TI 5

EbbenHeKehAfa karRCotcUlénsila ¬intrusion b¤ pluton¦. kMNkarRCotcUlénsilaGacb:HBal;

dl;épÞdIedaymeFüa)ayBIry:agKW ³
1> karRCotcUlénsilaGacbgá[mankaregIbeLIg nigkMhcU RTg;RTayénRsTab;sli aEpñkxag
elI
2> CaerOy²RbePTsilaepSg²énkarRCotcUlsila GacFn;eTAnwgsMNkw eRcInCagsilaenACMu
vijva. dUecñH Cajwkjab;tamsMNwkénRsTab;sli aEpñkxagelI BYkvabegáIt)anCasNæandI
elceLIgenAelIépÞEpndI.
RbePTm:ak;m:aepSg² RbePTsilam:ak;m:aepSg² nigRbePTskmµPaBm:ak;m:anana Caktþad¾sMxan;
sRmab;karvivtþsNæandI nigeTsPaBsNæan. eyIg)anepþatkarsikSaeTAelIcMNucenaHenAkñúgCMBUk TI 3
xagelI.
PñMePøIg nigm:ak;m:a >>>
PñMePøIg KWCaPñMmYyEdlekIteLIgenAeBlEdlsilarlay ehAfa {m:ak;m:a} ¬magma¦ RtUv)anrujecjmkkan;
épÞEpndI. lMhUrkMEGrPñeM PøIgecjmkBIbnÞHú PñeM PøgI mYycMnnY . kMEGrPñeM PøgI ¬lava¦ KWCam:ak;ma: EdlhUreLIgmkelIépÞEpndI. PñeM PøgI
cab;epmIþ enAeBlm:ak;ma: RbmUlpþeMú nAkñgú tMbn;de¾ RCAenAkñgú sm,kEpndI nigenAkñúgRsTab;elIbpM tu énm:gt; EU dlCatMbn;dE¾ snekAþ nig
silaRCayenAxageRkamsm,kEpndI. eTaHbIvaekAþ nwgRCayy:agNak¾eday k¾silaénm:gt; RU tUv)aneKcat;Tku farUbFaturú gw Edr.
b:Eu nþ sItuNðPaBrbs;m:g;tUx<s;lµmkñúgkarrMlayesÞIrEtRKb;sila dUecñHehIyetIehtuGVIvaminrlay? cemøIy KWvaTak;TgeTAnwg
sm<aF. Tm¶n;énsilaenAxagelIm:g;tUpþl;nUvsm<aFmYyya:gFMsem,Im. sm<aFenHrkSaGatUm énsilam:g;tUsgát;vay:agENn
edaykarBarsilam:gt; mU in[bþÚrRTg;RTayeTAkñúgsPaBrav. karekIneLIgénsm<aFbegáInnwgcMNucrlayénRKb;sarFatuTaMgGs;.
silarlay ehIybegáItm:ak;m:aenAeBlEdlsItuNðPaBénsilaekIneLIg rWk¾enAeBlEdlkardak;sm<aFeTAelIsila)anfycuH.
edaysarsItN u Pð aBénm:gt; Umni sUvERbRbYl karFøak;cHu énsMBaFKWEtgEtbNþaleGaym:ak;m:akekIteLIg. enAeBlEdlva)an
kekIteLIg ma:km; a:eLIgeq<aHeTAkan;épÞEpndI BIeRBaHvamandg;seuI tticCagsilaEdlenACMvu ji .

3>1 skmµPaBPñeM PøgI

bc©bú ,nñenH manPñeM PøgI rs;RbmaN 600 enAelITbVI nigenAtamekaH EdlCaPñeM PøgI rs; nigGacekIt
manskmµPaB ¬rbU PaBTI 5>22¦. cMENkPñeM PøgI KµanskmµPaB b¤PeMñ PøgI gab;rab;Ban;eTotminRtUv)an
eXIjmanpÞúHecjenAelIépÞdIeT. bu:EnþenAmanPñMePIøgCaeRcIneTotenA)atmhasmuRT EdlkñúgenaHya:gtic

199
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

Nas;manPñeM PøIgRbmaN 50 000 sßti eRkamépÞTwk ehIymanEtenAelI)atmhasmuRT)a:shuI Vikb:eu NÑaH.

eyIg)anbriyayrYcmkehIyBITMnak;TMngy:agCitsñiT§rvagbMENgEckPñMePøgI enAelIEpndI nigkarbukKña b¤
karTajcUlKñaénRBMEdnpøak CaBiessenAtamkMeNagekaH nigExSRkv:at;PCMñ ayTVbI enACMvu ji mhasmuRT
)a:shIu iVk. eK)anrkeXIjPñeM PIgø rs; b¤PñeM PøgI skmµRbmaN 60° sßitenACMvu ji CaymhasmuRT)a:shuIi iVk
edaymYyPaKbIénPñeM PøgI TaMgGs;enHsßitenAkñúgRbeTs\NÐÚensIu. bu:EnþPñMePøIgmYycMnYn k¾RtUv)aneKeXIj
manenAEpñkxagkñúgénpøak EdlCatMbn;éncMNucekþAEdr.
3>1>1 GRtaénskmµPaBPñeM PøgI
man]TahrN_CaeRcIn EdlbgðajBIcMNucekþAénPñMePøIgenAelImNÐlfµenATIVbGaRhVik. ]TahrN_
mNÐlfµenAmhasmuRTrYmmanekaHGayEsø‘nd_ ¬Iceland¦ ekaHGahSs¾ ¬Azores¦ enAmhasmuRT
GatøgT; icxageCIg ekaHhÁaLa)a:hÚÁs ¬Galapagos¦ nigekaHhaév:enAmhasmuRT)a:sIuhVik. PñMePøIgEdl
sßti enAcMNcu ekþAEbbenH GacmanskmµPaBCagPñeM PøgI Edlsßti enAtamRBMEdnpøak.

rbU PaBTI 5>22 PeMñ PgIø rs;rbsE; pndI ¬cN M cu exAµ ¦. bNeúMþ kaHPeMñ PgIø mni EmnmaneQaµ HdacB; KI añ RtUv
)anhmu‘ BT½ e§ nAkñgú rggV R; kck. bnaÞ tE; bk bgað jGBM bI naÞ tG; ge; dstuI x½NEÐ ckPeMñ PøgI )asalé; nmhasmRu T
BPI eMñ PgIø Gge; dstuI ¬andesite¦ edstuI ¬dacite¦ ngi ryI lU: tI ¬rhyolite¦ énkeM NagekaH ngi TIbV ¬RbPB ³
after Smithson et al, 2002 ¦
200
 CMBkU TI 5

tamkar)a:ns; µanbc©bú ,nñBrI bU Fatum:ak;ma: Edl)anBIkarpÞHú PñeM PøgI enAkMeNagekaH nigExSRkvat;PCMñ ayTVbI
TUTaMgBiPBelakmanCamFümEt 1 K>m3 kñgú mYyqñaM ¬rbU PaBTI 5>21¦. pÞúyeTAvij cMNucekþAénekaH
haév:manGRtakMeNInénm:ak;ma: CamFüm KW 0/4 K>m3 kñúgmYyqñaMkñúgry³eBlmYylanqñaMcugeRkayenH.
eTaHCay:agNakþI RTnugkNþalmhasmuRTrIksayeTAtMbn;TaMgLayNa EdlmanskmµPaBxøagM . va
begátI )anCarUbFatuPeMñ PøIgfIµ ¬KWCasm,kEpndI)atmhasmuRTfIµ¦ CamFümBI 5-6 K>m3 kñgú mYyqña.M
tamBit GRtaTaMgenH)anpøas;bÚþrkñúgFrNIkaltamry³bERmbRmYlGRtakarFøak;cHu énmNÐlfµ.
3>1>2 lTæplénskmµPaBPñMePøIg
bnÞHú PñeM PøgI Gacman ¬1¦ ]sµn½ EdlRtUv)anbeB©ajeTAkñgú briyakas ¬2¦ kMEGrPñMePøgI EdlhUr
cak;elIépÞdI nig ¬3¦ bMENksila b¤ pyroclasts EdlehIreTAkñgú briyakasedaysarkmøagM pÞHú xøagM .
ral;RKb;rUbFatuPeMñ PøgI TaMgGs;EdlFøak;BxI ül; b¤briyakaseKehAfa tephra. kemÞckMNénbMENksila
PñeM PøgI eKehAfa RKab;fPµ eMñ PøgI b¤sli a tuff.
CaFmµta]sµn½ epSg²RtUv)anbeB©ajBIbnÞHú PñeM PøgI EdlGacbegátI CassrBBk]sµn½ nigPayeLIg
eTAkñgú briyakas. ]sµn½ GacRtUv)anbeB©ajedayfamBld¾eRcInsn§wksn§ab; ehIyvaGacxµlÜ eLIg
edayel,ÓnrhUtdl; 600 m kñúgmYyvinaTI. kñgú bnÞHú PñeM PøgI RbePT]sµn½ Edlmanjwkjab;CageKKW
cMhayTwk ¬H O¦ nigkabUnDIGku sItu ¬CO ¦ k¾bEu: nþvaGacman]sµn½ RbePTepSgeTot dUcCa s<an;F½r
2 2

DIGku sItu ¬SO ¦ GIRu dUEsnkørY ¬HCl¦ GIRu dUEsns‘ulpY ¬H S¦ nig eGlü:Úm ¬He¦. ]sµn½ TaMgenaH
2 2

GacTb;kaMrsµRI BHGaTitü)anmYycMnnY eFV[I EpndIcHu RtCak; nigbgá[manePøógGasIut. Ca]TahrN_ ³

eKsµanfabnÞúHénPñMBINaTUbU ¬PIlIBIn¦ enAqñaM 1991 )anbegátI 17 lanetanén]sµn½ s<an;F½rDIGku sItu
¬SO ¦ nig)aneFV[I sItuNPð aBBiPBelakcuHRtCak; 0/5 GgSaes.
2

kMEGrPñeM PøgI ekItecjBIma: k;m:aEdlcuHRtCak; nigkarbnßy]sµn½ . lkçN³rbs;kEM GrPñeM PøgI Edl

)anpÞHú GaRs½yeTAelIPaBxab;Gn§li ¬viscosity¦ KWCaPaBTn;énrUbFatumYycMeBaHlMhUrrbs;va. lkçN³
xab;Gn§ilenHTak;TgnwgsmasFatupSM nigsItN u ðPaBénkMEGrPñeM PøgI . kMEGrPñeM PøgI GasItu ¬acid, or
felsic¦ dUcCa silarIyl U: It ¬rhyolite¦ nigsilaedsIut ¬dacite¦ manbrimaNsIulIseRcIn ¬SiO Cag 2

63°¦ mansarFatuxab;Gn§il nigva)anpÞHú ecjmkeRkAenAeBlmansItN u ðPaBTab ¬650-800

GgSaes¦. kMEGrPñeM PøIgGasItu TaMgenHGachUr)anEtry³cm¶ayCit²b:ueNÑaH muneBlva)ankkrwg. pÞúy
eTAvij m:ak;ma: )as ¬basic, or mafic¦ dUcCasila)asal; nigsilaGg;edsIut ¬andesite¦ man

201
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

brimaNsIlu sI tici Cag ¬SiO 45-52°¦ mansarFatuxab;Gn§li tic nig)anpÞHú ecjenAkRmitsItN

2 u Pð aB
x<s; ¬Cag 950GgSaes¦. dUecñH m:ak;m:a)asTaMgenHGachUrelIry³cm¶ayq¶ayedaybegáIt)anCalMhUr
kMEGrPñeM PøgI FMTUlay. edayGaRs½yelIsmasFatupSM PaBxab;Gn§li nigbrimaN]sµn½ lMhUrkMEGrPñM
ePøgI GacbegátI )anépÞrabesµrI elag ¬lMhUrkMEGrPñMePøIgRkmYn b¤ )a:h½yh½y {pahoehoe} rbU PaBTI
5>23>k¦ b¤ bMENkmutRsYc ehIyragreqtrqUt ¬RbePTeRKIm b¤ GrGr {aa} rbU PaBTI 5>23>x¦.
RbsinebIman]sµ½neRcInkñúgm:ak;m:aeBlpÞúH enaHkMEGrPñMePøIgEdlhUrecjmkmandg;sIuetTab ehIybegáIt
)anCasilaPUmsI ¬pumice: rbU PaBTI 5>23>K¦. silaPUmIs Gacrsat;GENþtelIépÞTwk)an. xN³
eBlEdlkMEGrPñMePøIg)anpÞúHecjBIeRkamépÞTwk ehIyvacuHRtCak;ya:gqab;rh½s EdlbegáIt)anCaRsTab;
ragmUlCMuvji bNþmMú a: k;m:aEdlrlay. bNþmMú a: k;m:aTaMgenH)anBUnelIKañ begátI )anCa {kMEGrPñeM PøgI rag
exñIy} ¬pillow lava, rbU PaBTI 5>23>X¦. enAeBlkMEGrPñMePøIgNamYy)ancuHRtCak;ehIyrYmmaD enaH
k x RbPB ³ E. Babinski

RbPB³ USGS X RbPB ³ NURP

RbPB ³ MPF
rbU PaBTI 5>23 lTp§ lkEM GrnanaénskmPµ aBPeMñ PgIø ³ ¬k¦ kEM Gr)ah: ½yhy½ ¬haév¦: ¬x¦ kMEGrGrGr
¬haév¦: ¬K¦ fPµ mU sI ngi ¬X¦ kEM GrexyIñ Edl)ancHu RtCak; stiß enAel)I atmhasmRu T

202
 CMBkU TI 5

sñameRbHk¾vivtþeLIg. lMhUrkMEGrsila)asal; GachUr)acsacedaybegátI )anCapÞaMg)asal;FMTUlay

¬flood basalts¦ EdlGackb;kñúgeTsPaB ¬rbU PaBTI 5>24>K¦. sNæandIEdlbnSl;RtUv)aneKehAfa
{x<g;rabkMEGrPñMePøIg} ¬lava plateau¦. manlMhUrsila)asal;rab;ryRsTab;enAtMbn;x<g;TenøkULMúb‘Í
¬Columbia River Plateau¦ ¬enAv:asIunetan nig GUrIhÁn sßitenAPaKBay½Büén s>r>G¦. sila
)asal;enaHRtUv)ancak;bgÁrenAs½kTI 3 ¬sm½y Miocene ~ 23-5 lanqñaMmun¦ ehIyvamankRmas;
srubCag 2 K>m. eTaHCay:agNakþI ]TahrN_KMrdU c¾ ab;GarmµNb_ Mput KWstiß enAx<gr; abedkg; ¬Deccan
Plateau¦ RbeTs\NÐa CakEnøg EdllMhUrsila)asal;CaeRcIn)anRKbdNþbe; lItMbn;my Y EdlmanépÞ
500 000 K>m2 enAs½kTI 2 nigTI 3 ¬BIsm½ykaleRktaes rhUtdl;cugsm½y Eocene ~ 145-35
lanqñaMmun¦.
kemÞckMNén tephra manTMheM pSg²BIkemÞcepH EdlmanTMhMtcU lit¥ ²Cag 2 m>m eTAkemÞc
RKab;GEM bgPñeM PøgI ¬volcanic bombs¦ EdlmanTMhMFMCag 64 m>m ¬rbU PaBTI 5>24>k¦. CaTUeTA
RKab;GEM bgPñeM PøgI manragCadMNk;TwkEPñk enAeBlBYkvaehIreTAkñgú briyakas. Tephra PaKeRcInRtUv
)ancak;bgÁrtamTisedAxül; ehIybegátI )anCakemÞckMNCaRsTab;². eBlPñeM PøgI pÞHú rUbFatuepHRKab;FM²
ehIyF¶n;RtUv)ancak;bgÁrCadMbUg nigenAEk,rPñMePøIg. enAeBlmanbnÞúH epHPñMePøIg)acsaceTAkñúgbriya-
kasrab;Ban;KLI EÚ m:RtBIPeMñ PøgI enaH. edaysarEtvaGacRtUv)ankMNt;kalbriecäTtamviFvI Ti üúskmµ dUcecñH
tephra pþl;RsTab;si laEdlmankalbriecäTd¾manRbeyaCn_ edaypþl;nUvGayukalépÞ dI nigkM Nt;RtaBI

skmµPaBrbs;PeMñ PøgI Ebøk². CaBiess smasFatupSMPKU BÖKImIénRsTab; tephra epSg² GacRtUv)aneK

tamdancMeBaHPñeM PøgI rbs;va.
kñgú karpÞHú PñeM PøgI xøagM mYycMnnY dMfu Pµ eMñ PøgI ¬pyroclasts¦ )anP¢ab;CamYynwgbrimaN]sµn½ ekþA²Ca
eRcIn edIm,IbegáIt)anCalMhUrénepHPñMePøIgy:agekþA nigelOn ¬pyroclastic flows, ash flows b¤CaPasa
)araMg {nuées ardentes}¦ ¬rbU PaBTI 5>24>x¦. kemÞckMNénlMhUrkemÞckMTIPñMePøIgkøayCasila
ignimbrite EdlGacRKbdNþb;elItMbn;FM². mansila ignimbrite enAtMbn;bwgfUb½ r ¬Lake Toba¦

enAekaHsUm‘ a: Rta Edl)anRKbdNþb;elIépÞRkLa 25 000 K>m2.

skmµPaBPñMePøIgmYycMnYnTak;TgnwgbnÞúHénTwk nigcMhayTwkEdlmankemþAxøaMgecjBIExSTwkekþA
¬geysers¦ ¬rbU PaBTI 5>24>X¦. CaerOy²skmµPaBénTwkekþAenH rYmbBa©ÚlrUbFaturlayCaeRcIneTot
CaBiesssIlu Is ¬SiO ¦ nigkal;süÚmkabUNat ¬CaCO ¦. ]TahrN_TaMgenHrYmbBa©ÚltMbn;eyLÚsnÚß
2 3

enAv:ayGUmIg énshrdæGaemrik nigekaHxageCIgénRbeTsjÚesELn. CacugeRkay kEnøgEdlkemÞc

203
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

k x

K X

rbU PaBTI 5>24 lTp§ lnanaénskmPµ aBPeMñ PgIø ³ ¬k¦ BBkepH ¬PBMñ N I aTbU U hlIV BI nI ¦ ¬RbPB ³ D.
Harlow¦ ¬x¦ lh M rU én epHPeMñ PgIø ya: gekAþ ngi elOn ¬pyroclastic flow¦ ¬PmMñ a: ygu: PIlBI nI ¦ ¬RbPB³
C. Newhall¦ ¬K¦ paÞ g M )asalF; TM lU ay ¬flood basalts¦ ¬PaKBayB½ üén s>r>G¦ ¬X¦ ExSTkw ekAþ
¬geyser¦ ¬va: yGmU gI s>r>G¦ ¬RbPB³ R. Andrle¦ ngi ¬g¦ lhM rU énPkP; eMñ PIøg ¬lahar¦ ¬PMñ St
Helens én s>r>G¦ ¬RbPB ³ USGS¦

kMTIPñMePøIgRtUv)anP¢ab;CamYyTwk ehIykøayCalMhUrénPk;PñMePøIgy:agelOn ¬lahar¦ GacekItmaneLIg

¬rbU PaBTI 5>24>g¦. BYkvaGacCab;Tak;TgCamYynwgkarpÞúHéndMufµPñMePøIg ¬pyroclasts¦ enAelITwkkk
204
 CMBkU TI 5

b¤RBil b¤ GesßrPaBénkemÞckMTPI ñMePøgI elICRmalPñeM PøgI edaysarEtePøógFøak;xaø Mg. karpÞHú énPñM St

Helens ¬v:asIu netan s>r>G¦ enAqña1
M 980 )aneFI[V manlMhUrPk;PñMePøIgmancm¶ay 27 K>m ehIy)an
cak;bMeBjnUvRClgEdlmanCeRmA 60 Em:Rt. lT§plmhnþraydUcKñaenHEdr GacekIteLIgxN³eBl
EdlskmµPaBPñMePøIgekIteLIgenAeRkamEpnTwkkk. ehtukarN¾enHekIteLIgjwkjab;enAGayEsø‘nd_
EdlCakEnøgénpÞagM TwkkkFM²)anrlay ehIy)anbeBa©jy:agqab;rh½s. skmµPaBenHbNþal[man
TwkCMnn;mhnþray eKehAfa {jökulhlaups}.
3>1>3 RbePTénbnÞúHPñMePøIg
bnÞHú PñeM PøgI Cab;Tak;TgnwgkarbeBa©jy:agelOnénbrimaNfamBld¾eRcInsn§kw sn§ab; ¬rbU PaBTI
5>25¦. bnÞHú PñeM PøgI kMNacd¾FmµtamYymanfamBlBI 1012 eTA 1015 s‘Ul. témøenHeRbobeFobnwg
témø 1016 s‘Ul énfamBl EdlbeBa©jedaymYyemhÁaetanénRKab;EbkGIuRdUEsn. bu:EnþkarpÞúHcm,g²
Tak;TgnwgbrimaNfamBld¾eRcInsn§wksn§ab;. Ca]TahrN_ bnÞúHénPñM St Helens enAqñaM 1980 KWesµInwg
mYyemhÁaetanénRKab;EbkGIuRdUEsncMnnY 24 RKab;. cMENkÉkarpÞHú PñeM PøgI Laki enAGayEsø‘nd_ kñúgqñaM
1783 vij eK)a:ns; aµ n;favaFøab;manbrimaNfamBl 1020 sUl‘ ¬KWesµnI gw mYyemhÁaetanénRKab;Ebk
GIuRdUEsncMnYn 10 000RKab;¦.
bnÞHú PñeM PøgI manbIRbePTsMxan;² ehIyRbePTnImyY ²Tak;TgCamYyrUbFatuBei ss² EdlpÞHú ecj
KWbnÞúHdkdegðIm ¬exhalative, EdlbegátI ]sµn½ cMhay¦ bnÞúHénlMhUr ¬effusive, EdlbegáItkMEGrPñeM PøgI ¦
nigbnÞúHrMesv ¬explosive, EdlbegáItbMENksila b¤ tephra¦. xN³eBlm:ak;m:aelceLIgeTAkan;épÞdI
enaHvadak;sm<aFxøagM eTAelIsli a EdlRKbelIva CaBiesstamry³karbegátI ]sµn½ ¬kabUnDIGuksIut CO 2

s<an;Fr½ DIGuksItu SO nigcMNayTwk¦. enAkñgú m:ak;ma: )as ¬]TahrN_ sila)asal;¦ EdlmanFaturav

2

BBuH]sµn½ GacrIkmaDedayesrI dUecñHenAeBlsilama:km; a:enaHmkdl;elIépÞdI enaH]sµn½ nwgrgnUvsm<aF

Tab. ehtudUecñH enATIenHskmµPaBbnÞúHrMesvRtUv)ankMNt; ehIylMhUrkMEGrPñeM PøgI Gacmansar³sMxan;
Cag. pÞyú eTAvij ]sµn½ minGacrIkmaDkñgú m:ak;ma: GasItu Edlxab;Gn§il ¬dUcCa silarIyU:ltI ¦ ehIyman
sm<aF]sµn½ xøagM Nas;. buBeV htuTaMgenHbNþal[manbnÞHú rMesvd¾xaø Mg EdlbMPaynUvTMhCM aeRcInén
tephra.

205
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

rbU PaBTI 5>25 bnHúÞ énPMñ St Helens s>r>G enAéfT¶ I 18 ]sPa qañ M 1980. bnHúÞ enH)anbeBaj©
famBl 24 emhaÁ etan ¬RbPB ³ USGS¦

206
 CMBkU TI 5

3>1>4 rUbsa®sþénPñeM PøgI

kemÞckMNénPñeM PøgI RtUv)ancak;bgÁrenACMvu ji rn§PeMñ PøgI ¬vent¦ EdlsßitenAkMBUl b¤enAelICRmal
rbs;PeMñ naH. mat;PeMñ PøgI ¬crater¦ KWCareNþAenAelIrn§kMBUlénPñMePøIg. Cak;Esþg TRmg;énPñMePøIgman
TMnak;TnM gy:agCitsñTi n§ gw RbePTm:ak;m:a edaysarkarN¾enHman\T§Bi ldl;RbePTbnÞHú nigTRmg;rUbFatu
Edl)anpÞHú . bERmbRmYlénsmasFatupSMm:ak;ma: GacekItmaneLIgenAkMLúgeBlbnÞúHekIteLIgdac;Et
Ég b¤ry³eBlrs;énPñMePøIg. kMLúgeBlénkarpÞúHnImYy² nigry³eBlrs;énPñMePøIgnwgb:HBal;dl;TRmg;
nigTMhMrbs;vapgEdr. lkçN³rUbsa®sþrbs;PñMePøIgnana KWpøas;bÚþrrUbrageRcInEbb ehIyPñeM PøgI RtUv)an
pøas;bÚþry:agelOnedaydMeNIrkarrbic nigsMNkw .
PaBxab;Gn§ilTabénkMEGrPñeM PøgI )asal;mann½yfa PñeM PøIg)asal;manlMhUrkMEGrPñeM PøgI FMTUlay
b:Eu nþvaminsUvmanrUbragsaCI ¬cone¦. dUecñH CaFmµtaPñeM PøgI )asal;begáIt[manTMhMFM² ¬manGgátp; ©itBI
2-20 K>m¦ edaymanCRmalecatTab ¬tUcCag 10 dWeRk¦. PñeM PøgI TaMgenaHeKehAfa {PñeM PøgI Exl} b¤
shield volcanoes ¬rb U PaBTI 5>26>k¦. PñMePøIgExlFMCageKenAelIEpndI KWmanenAekaHhaév: Edlkñúg
enaHPñmM N U: al½r ¬Mauna Loa¦ nigPñMm:UNaexo ¬Mauna Kea¦ )anelIkeLIg 9 000 Em:RtBI)atmha
smuRT)a:suIhkiV ¬Cag 4 000 Em:RtBInvI :UsmuRT¦ EdlmanGgátp; ©ti elIsBI 200 KILÚEm:RtenACuvM ji eCIg
Pñ.M fItV ,itEtTMhTM aMgenH)anrYmtUcedayPñeM PøgI FM² EdleKdwgfamanenAelIPBRBHGgÁarrYmmanPñM GULaM
Busm:unS ¬Olympus Mons¦ Edlmanry³km<s; 26 KILÚEm:RtBIépÞrbs;PBenaH.
eTaHbIPeMñ PøgI énkMEGr)asal;CaPñeM PøgI FMCageK k¾PñeM PøgI PaKeRcInmankarRcbl;Kañ én tephra nig
kMEGrPñeM PøgI . PñeM PøgI TaMgenHmanragCasaCI ehIyeKehAfa PñeM PøgI smas ¬composite volcanoes¦
b¤PeMñ PøgI RsTab; ¬stratovolcanoes¦ edaysarvamanrcnasm<n½ C§ aRsTab;én tephra nigkMEGrPñeM PøgI
¬rbU PaBTI 5>26>x ngi 5>27¦. CaerOy² vamanrUbragsIuemRTI nigmanCRmalEdlptcUlkñúg.
enAelIkMBUlénrn§PñMePøIg ¬vent¦ Rtg;kNþal PñeM PøgI PaKeRcInmanRbehagmYyragdUcCIvLav
ehAfa mat;PeMñ PøIg ¬crater¦. rUbragrbs;vaekItmkBIbnÞHú énsarFatuecjBIbMBg;kd¾ cU CakarFøak;rUbFatuBI
EKménmat;PñMePIøgcUleTAkúñgbMBg;. {reNþAPñMePøIg} ¬caldera¦ ekIteLIg enAeBlbnÞb;m:ak;m:aEdlpþl;
rUbFatueTA[PñeM PøgI mYyRtUvGs; ehIydMbUlrbs;vaRtUvFøak;cuH. enHbNþal[dIFaø k;cuHedaybnSl;Tuk
enAsñam)ak;Føak;ragCargVgm; anTMhFM M ¬FMCag 2 K>m¦. reNþAPñeM PøgI EdlRtUvbegátI eLIgedaybnÞHú PñeM PøgI
y:agxøaMgGacmanTMhyM a: gFMsem,Im. reNþAPñeM PøIgFMmYyEdlsitß enAelIx<g;rab eyLÚsnÚß ¬Yellow-

207
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

stone ¦ énshrdæGaemrikmanépÞRkLa 2 500 K>m2. ]TahrN_d¾l,ImYyKW bwgénreNþAPñeM PøgI ¬Crater

Lake¦ enAGUrIhÁn ¬s>r>G¦ EdlmanGgát;p©it 9 K>m ¬rb U PaBTI 5>26>K¦.
PñeM PøgI saCImUléndMeu pH ¬cinder cone volcanoes¦ manlkçN³TMhMtUc nigCRmalecat ¬35-
40 dWeRk¦. vaRtUvbegátI eLIgedaykarRbmUlpþkMú MEGrPñeM PøgI enACMuvijmat;PeMñ PøgI tUc²enAelIPñeM PøgI mYy.
saCImUléndMeu pHRtUv)anbegáIteLIgBIepH nigRKab;fPµ eMñ PøgI ¬tuff¦ EdlRtUv)anbeB©ajBImat;bnÞHú .
bMBg;kMEGrPñMePøIg ¬lava tubes¦ RtUv)anbegáItenAeBllMhUrénkMEGrPñMePøIgravcuHRtCak;RKb;RKan;
enAEpñkelIépÞkMEGr edIm,IbegáItCasm,krwg. enABIeRkamsm,kenaH kMEGrPñeM PøIgGacbnþhUrCavtßrú av.

k x

K X

rbU PaBTI 5>26 ¬k¦ PmMñ N U: alm’ ¬rbU xageRkay¦ ngi lhM UrénkMEGrrbsv; a ¬rbU enAxagmxu ¦ enAekaH
haév.: PeMñ PgIø enH CaPeMñ PgIø Exl ¬shield volcano¦ FmbpM tu enAelIEpndI ¬RbPB ³ J.M. Daniels¦¬x¦
PhMñ C‘ÚV I rbsC; bnu: KCW aPeMñ PgIø RsTab; ¬stratovolcano¦ Edl)anektI eLgI BsI li aGge; dstuI RbePT)asal;
¬K¦ bgw énreNAÁ PeMñ PIøg ¬Crater Lake¦ enAGrU hI nÁ s>r>G. reNþAPeMñ PgIø ¬caldera¦ enH)anpHúÞ eLgI
RbEhlenA 7 700 qañ mM nu . PeMñ PgIø saCI ¬cinder cone volcano¦ tcU myY GacRtvU )aneKeXjI psu
eLgI BkI gúñ bgw ¬RbPB ³ A. Ditmer¦ ¬X¦ bBM gk; EM GrPeMñ PgIø enAkalIhnV a s>r>G ¬RbPB ³ A. Ditmer¦

208
 CMBkU TI 5

enAeBllMhUrenHekItmanenAelIry³eBlyUr enaHbgðÜrkMEGrPñeM PøgI GacbegátI CapøÚvrUgkñgú dI b¤CabMBg;

kMEGrPñeM PøgI . TRmg;deI naHGacnaMyksila EdlrlayCaeRcInKILÚEm:RtBImat;PeMñ PøgI edayKµankarcuH
RtCak;eRcIneT. CaerOy² bMBg;kMEGrPMñePøIgTaMgenHhUrecj enAeBlEdlkarpÁt;pÁg;énkMEGrPñMePøIgfµI²
)anbBaÄb; ehIybnSl;TuknUvRbEvgpøÚvrUgkñúgdIya: gTUlayenAkñgú lMhUrkMEGrPñeM PøgI .
ssrénepHPñeM PøgI
¬ash column¦
BBkepHPñMePøIg

bMENkPñeM PøgI
¬tephra¦
lMhUrepHPñMePøIg
kemÞckMTIPñMePøIg ¬pyroclastic flow¦ RKab;epHPñMePøIg
¬ignimbrite: ash- lMhUrkMEGr lMhUr ¬ash-fall tuff¦
RKab;fµPñMePøIgP¢ab;Kña flow tuff¦
¬welded tuff¦ PñMePøIgrIy:UlIt kemÞckMTI RKYsPñMePøIg
nIv:UTkw kMEGrPñM
smuRT ePøIgragexñIy

rbU PaBTI 5>27 deM NrI karTeU TAénsila ngi TRmgd; eI pSg²rbsb; nHúÞ PeMñ PøgI RsTab; ¬stratovolcano¦
¬RbPB ³ after Smithson et al, 2002¦

3>2 sN§andIénkareRCotcUlsilam:ak;m:a
PñeM PøgI nigkMEGrrbs;vaRtUvbegátI eLIgedaybnÞHú énrUbFatuma: k;ma: enAelIépÞd.I b:Eu nþ EtmYyPaKbI
rbs;m:ak;m:a EdlRtUvbegáItkñgú BiPBelakpuseLIgeTAelIépÞEpndI. m:ak;ma: PaKeRcInenAeRkamépÞdI Edl
vacuHRtCak; eFV[I kkrwg nigkøayCasilam:ak;m:axagkñúg ¬intrusive igneous rocks¦ b¤kareRCotcUl
¬intrusions¦ énsilam:ak;m:a. kareRCotcUlenH ekItmaneLIgtamry³kareRCotcUlénbNþúMsila
m:ak;ma: enAkñgú silaCMvu ji va ¬KWeKehAfa country rock¦ ¬rbU PaBTI 5>20 ngi 5>28¦. sila
m:ak;ma: enHGacCasilaEdlrlay b¤sli arwgEdlhUreRkamsm<aFd¾yrU . kareRCotcUlénsilaGacpSMBI

209
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa
TRmg;dPI eMñ PøgI skmµ TRmg;dPI eMñ PøgI skmµcas;
sþúk ¬stock¦ Edl
BBkepHPñMePøIg manDIkenACMuvij
PñMePøIgsmas PñMePøIgsaCI kMEGrPñMePøIgfµI² CBa¢aMgDIk ¬pallisade¦

Lak;kUlIt
bMBg;m:ak;m:a RcksuIl
RcksuIl
DIk

rbU PaBTI 5>28 TRmgd; mI yY cnM nY EdlTakT; gngw skmPµ aBma: km; :axagkgúñ ¬intrusive igneous activity,
xagsaþ ¦M ngi skmPµ aBm:akm; a: xageRkA ¬extrusive igneous activity, xageqgV ¦. skmPµ aBma: km; :aPaK
eRcnI ektI maneLgI enAeRkamépdÞ I ¬RbPB ³ after USGS¦

RbePTsilam:ak;m:aCaeRcInRbePT b:Eu nþkareRCotcUlénsilaFM² ¬TMheM nAelIépÞdFI MCag 100 K>m2¦ eK

[eQµaHfa {)atUltI } ¬batholiths¦ ehIyCaerOy²vamansmasFatupSMsli aRkanItGasItu ¬rbU PaBTI
5>29>k¦. sMNwkénsilaenAépÞdIenHbgá[ batholiths )anRtUvdac;[eXIjenAÉépÞdI. sMNwkenH
nigkarykecjénsilaelIB)I atUlIt bNþal[mankarbeB©ajsm<aFkñgú RsTab;sli a EdlmanCeRmABI
épÞdtI ci Cag 100 Em:Rt. karbeB©ajsm<aFenH begátI )ansñameRbHCaeRcInRsbnwgépÞEpndI ¬rbU PaBTI
5>29>x¦. RbB½n§sñameRbHTaMgenHmantYnaTIy:agsMxan;kñgú karvivtþénsNæandIrbic nigKMrUlhM UrTenø.
kareRCotcUlEdlTMhMFMenAelIépÞdItUcCag 100 K>m2 eK[eQµaHfa {sþúk} ¬stocks¦.
kareRCotcUlénsilatUc²GacRtUv)ancat;clU CacMNat;fñak;RsbKña ¬concordant¦ b¤minRsbKña
¬disconcordant¦ edayEp¥kelIfa etIBkY vadak;bB©aÚ ltamlMdab;sila b¤mintamlMdab;sli a. kEnøg
EdlsMEdg[eXIjedaysMNkw EdleFV[I kareRCotcUlénsilaGacCaTRmg;ddI c¾ m,g CaBiess Rbsin
ebIBYkvapSMBIRbePTsilamYy EdlFn;nwgrbiceRcInCagRsTab;én country rock EdlenAb:HKña. {Dik}
¬dykes or dikes¦ KWCakareRCotcUlénsilaminRsbKña ehIyCaerOy²pSMBIsiladULWrIt EdlCa
Fmµtamanry³TTwgBI 1-20 Em:Rt ¬rbU PaBTI 5>29>K¦. {RcksIul} ¬sills¦ KWCakareRCotcUlén

210
 CMBkU TI 5

silaRsbKña ¬rbU PaBTI 5>29>X¦ EdlmanTRmg;dUcbnÞH. kEnøgEdlvaenAelIépÞdIvamanTMhMFMTUlay

CaBiessRbsinebIBkY vapSMBRI bePTsila)as vaGacrIkraldalrab;Ban;KILÚEm:Rtkaer. manRcksIulmYy
RbePTEdleKsÁal;fa {Lak;klU It} ¬laccolith¦. vamankRmas;Rkas; ehIyvabegátI CasNæanmUl)an.
enHbgá[mankaregIbeLIgénsilaEdlRKbBIelI ]TahrN_dcU CaenAkULrÚ :adU ¬Colorado¦ én s>r>G
EdlPñMmYycMnYn)anegIbeLIg 1 500 Em:RtBIelIx<g;rabCMuvijva.

k EpnTIbgðajBIFrNIviTüarbs; x
{Cornwall} ¬Gg;eKøs¦

tMbn;sm,ÚrEr:xniC
RkanIt
silas½kTI 1

K X

rbU PaBTI 5>29 TRmgd; éI nskmPµ aBma: km; :axagkgúñ ³ ¬k¦ EpnTIEdlbgðajB)I atlU tI ¬batholith¦ én
sli aRkanIt ¬CaBNR’ bepH¦ enARbeTsGge; Ksø Eb:knri tI ¬RbPB ³ http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/ geologyof
cornwall/batholith.htm¦ ¬x¦ sñ ameRbHénkarbeBa j © sma< Fkgúñ sli a )atUltI ¬batholith¦ enARClg
Yosemite ¬s>r>G¦ ¬K¦ Dk I ¬dyke¦ énsli adLU rW tI ¬dolerite¦ enARbeTsNambI Í‘ ¬RbPB ³ F.
Eckardt¦ ¬X¦ Rcksl uI ¬sill¦ énsli adLU rW It enATRI kgu Edinburgh ¬RbeTsseGksU ¦

211
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

etIPñMekIteLIgy:agdUcemþc?
PñTM aMgLay KWCaTRmg;dEI dlegIbeLIgy:agx<s;elIsNæandInana Edlsßti enACMvu ji va eTAkan;kBM lU ceg¥ótmYy. Et
eTaHCay:agNa EpñkEdlGacemIleXIjCYrPñM KWRKan;EtCaEpñkmYyénkRmas;srubb:eu NÑaH. mansilaCaeRcInenAxageRkamCYrPñM
TaMgenH KWmaneRcInCagsilaEdleyIgemIleXIj. ]TahrN_ ³ CYrPñhM mi a: éL egIbeLIgCag 8 K>m x<s;CagnIvTU: kw smuRT
ehIyEpñkxageRkamrbs;vamanCeRmArhUtdl; 65 K>m eTAeRkamnIvsU: muRT.
PñPM aKeRcIn minekItmaneLIgdac;qa¶ yBIKañ eT EtvaekIteLIgCaRkum EdlP¢ab;Kañ CaCYr b¤CaRkvat;PyMñ a: gEvg edayman
RbEvgrab;ry b¤rab;Ban;KLI ÚEm:Rt. CYrPñM KWman\T§Bi leTAelIFatuGakas eGkULÚsIu kareFVdI eM NIr nigKmnaKmn_. kalBIGtIt-
kal CYrPñ)M anx½NEÐ cksasna nigvb,Fm’epSg² ehIyCYnkalk¾begátI CaExSRBMEdnneya)aypgEdr. CaerOy² vamansar³
sMxan;Epñkesdækci ©xagvis½yFnFanEr: RbPBfamBlvarIGKÁsi nI nigvisy½ eTscrN_CaedIm.
vamandMeNIrkarsµKú sµajmYycMnnY EdlTak;TgnwgedImkMe NIténPñM nigCYrPñM. dMeNIrkarTaMgenH manrYmbBa©lÚ TaMg
¬1¦ BMenIgpñt; ¬2¦ bMNak;Rsut nig ¬3¦ skmµPaBPñeM PøgI .
PñBM eM nIgpñt; ¬Fold mountains¦
CYrPñsM xM an;²elIEpndI dUcCaCYrPñhM mi a: l½y CYrPñGM ab;)a:Las CYrPñfM µ nigCYrPñMGal; manry³km<s;xs< ; EdlTak;Tgnwg
karbgá[manPaBesþIg nigPaBRkas;énsm,kEpndI. dMeNIrkarenH ekItmaneLIgenAÉRBMEdnpøakTajcUlKña CaBiessenA
kEnøgEdlpøakTVbI BIrbukKña. ]TahrN_ ³ GñkviTüasaRsþ)an)a:ns; aµ nfa silakemÞckMNenACYrPñGM al; Føab;RKbdNþbe; lI)at
mhasmuRTEdlmanTTwg 500 K>m enAeBlEdlkemÞckMNenaH RtUv)ancak;bgÁr. eRkaymk vaRtUv)anbENÑneTAkñgú ry³
TTwgénCYrPñMGal;bc©bú ,nñ EdlmanTTwgticCag 200 K>m. dUecñH BMenIgpñt; KWCalkçN³sMxan;énCYrPñMTaMgenH b:Eu nþman
bMNak;Rsut nigkareRCotcUlénm:akm:aenATIenaHpgEdr.

PBMñ eM ngI ptñ ; ³ PeMñ GveWu rs: ¬Mount Everest¦ ry³kms< ; 8848 m enACrY PhMñ mi a: éL ¬RbPB ³ K. Barut¦

PñbM kúø bMNak;Rsut ¬Fault-block mountains¦

karGnuvtþ nigkarsRmakénkmøaMgCRmujpÞbe; TAtammaRtdæantMbn;FM k¾GacbegátI [mannUvbMNak;RsutEdlmanmaRtdæan
FMpgEdr EdlvarMkli bøkú sm,kEpndIFM²[egIbeLIg b¤RsutcuH. tamrebobenH bøkú silaFM² GacRtUv)anrujeLIgeTACaPñxM s< ²;
Edl)anbegátI CaPñbM kúø bMNak;RsutmYyCYr. PñTM aMgenH egIbeLIgy:agecatBITwkdICvuM ji va tambeNþayépÞrabbMNak;Rsut Edl

212
 CMBkU TI 5

manmMeu catxøaMg. eTaHCay:agNa PñTM aMgenH emIleTAmindUcCabøkú eLIy xN³eBlEdlrbic nigsMNkw )ankat;vaeTACarUbrag
dUcCaPñMEdr. ]TahrN_ ³ CYrPñRM kg;ettun ¬Grand Tetons¦ enAv:ayGUmgI ¬rUbPaBTI 4>12¦ nigCYrPñeM sor:aeNv:ada
¬Sierra Nevada¦ enAkalIhVna.

PñbM kúø bMNak;Rsut ³ CYrPñMesor:aeNv:ada kalIprnI s>r>G

PñeM PøgI ¬Volcanic mountains¦
TItaMgbukTgÁci KñaénpøaktictUnic rYmmankarRsutcuHén
sm,kmhasmuRT nigkarrlayénsm,kEpndI naM[ekItman
skmµPaBm:ak;m:a. karpuseLIgénm:ak;m:a eFVI[sm,kEpndI
kan;EtRkas; nigbgá[mankaregIbeLIgCaPñM nigCYrPñM. CaTUeTA
vaekItmanskmµPaBTaMgxageRkA ¬PñeM PøgI ¦ nigskmµPaBm:ak;ma:
xagkñgú bEnßmeTAelIBeM nIgpñt; nigbMNak;RsutEdlsµKú sµaj.
enHKWCakrNIsRmab;PTMñ aMgLayenACMvu ji mhasmuRT)a:sPuI ci
dUcCaPñGM g; CYrPñeM nAGaemrikxageCIg \NÐeÚ nsIu PIlIBnI Cb:nu
nigFñrÚ ekaH b¤keM NagekaHCaeRcInEdlCakUnPñeM PøgI . eTaHCay:ag
Na CYrPñeM PøIgEdlEvgbMptu CaRTnugkNþalmhasmuRTEdl)an PñMePøIg ³ CYrPñMGg; enARbeTsbUlIvI CaPñMePøIgGskmµ
ekIteLIgedaykaregIbeLIgénm:akm:aenAÉRBMEdnpøakEbkecjBIKañ . PñEM dlsßti enAdac;qa¶ yBIKañ b¤RkumPñtM cU ² GacnwgekItman
eLIgenAelIcN M ucekþA b¤TtI aMgNaEdlsilam:akm:aeRCotEdlmaner:ssuI gþ x; s< ; )anpuseLIgenAÉépÞEpndI edaysMNkw sila
exSayCagenACMuvijva.
CaTUeTA CYrPñsM xM an;²Edlmanry³km<s;xs< ;² TMngCaPñeM kµgCagPñEM dlTabCagva. kMNkMeNIténCYrPñhM mi a: éL
¬ry³km<s;dl; 8848 m¦ )ancab;epþImegIbeLIgRbEhl 45 lanqñaMmun k¾b:uEnþkMNkMe NIténCYrPñMGab;Las ¬ry³km<s ;
2037 m¦ )anQb;egIbeLIgkalBI 250 lanqñaMmnu . TIbBa©b; CYrPñTM aMgLay RtUv)anrgsMNkw eTACavalrab. Epñksßti
esßrCaeRcInenAkNþalTVIb Føab;CaEpñkxageRkameRCA²énExSRkvat;PñMburaN EdleKehAfa {silaCan;eRkam} ¬basement
rocks¦. enATI NaEdlva)anpuseLIgenAÉépÞEpndI enaHvabegát I )anCa {ExlTVbI } ¬continental shields¦ dUcenAPaKxag
ekIt nigPaKxageCIgénRbeTskaNada RKInEln ¬Greenland¦ eRbsIlu GaRhVki kNþal \NÐa GURsþalI hVaMgLg; s‘yu EGt
nigPaKxagekIt énGg;tak;Tik.

213
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

karEbkecjénTVIbFM² . etIGñkdwgeTfa >>> ?

enAkñúgCMBUkTI4 eyIg)ankt;smÁal;fa kalBIRbEhl 350-200 lanqñaMmun TVIbTaMgLay)anrYmCab;KñabegáIt)anCa
TVIbd¾FMmYyehAfa {b:g;eso} Edl)anrsat;ecjedayELk nigEbk)ak;tamEpñk. karBiPakSaGMBIdMeNIrkarEdlsRmutTIVbekIt
man nigrebobEdlCYnkalvavivtþCatMbn;énkarlatsn§gw enA)atmhasmuRT )an[eyIgKitGMBsI MNrY y:agTUlMTlU ayfa {ehtuGVI
)anCaTIbV FMEbkecjBIKañ ?} cemøyI mYycMnnY cMeBaHsMNYrenH KWstßi enAkñúgPaBpÞyú KñaénlkçN³kemþAénsm,kEpndIelITbVI nig
sm,kmhasmuRT. sm,kmhasmuRTmanPaBcmøgkemþA)anl¥Cagsm,kTIbV BIrdg. dUecñHenAeBlTVbI FMmyY ekIteLIg kemþAnwg
ekIneLIgenARsTab;mg: t; BU xI ageRkamva. bnÞab;BrI y³eBlRbmaN 80 lanqñaM kMeNInsItuNPð aBénm:gt; U naM[mankaregIb
eLIg karEbk sRmutcuH nigkarEbkecjénTIbV . )asaMgmhasmuRTfµ²I RtUv)anbegátI eLIg Edl)ankøayCaFMeTA²tamry³eBl
evlarhUtdl;tMbn;Føak;cuH ¬subduction zones¦ RtUv)anbegáIteLIg. skmµPaBenHnaM[karERbRbYl BIkarEjkecjénTIbV eTA
CakarRbmUlpþéMú nTIbV EdlCacugeRkay naM[mankarRbmUlpþCMú aTIbV FMEtmYyvij. KMnti énlMdab;dEdl²EbbenH ³ karEbkecj
karEjkecj nigkarRbmUlpþeMú LIgvijénTIVb KWmaneQµaHfa {vdþvIlsun} ¬Wilson cycle¦. enAelImUldæanPsþútagFrNIviTüa
ry³eBlénvdþnmI yY ²manRbmaN 500 lanqñaM. sm,kEpndIbc©bú ,nñ KWmanBak;kNþaltamry³vdþEbbenHmYy Edl)ancab;
epþmI edaykarEbkecjénTIbV FM {b:ge; so} RbmaN 200 lanqñaMmnu .

k x K

rbU PaBTI 5>30 vdmþ haTbVI bv¤ dvþ lI snu ¬Supercontinent, or Wilson cycle¦³ ¬k¦ TbVI FM A cabe; pmIþ EbkenA B bNaþ l[
karFaø kc; Hu ¬mhasmRu T-TbVI ¦ ngi karrjY énmhasmRu TBPi Belak C ¬x¦ mhasmRu T B eF[VI lci lg; ngi rkI maDenAeBlEpkñ
énTbVI A1 ngi A2 rsatd; ace; cjBKI añ ¬K¦ mhasmRu T C bTi ehyI TbVI A1 ngi A2 Cacgu eRkaybku Kañ edaykarFaø kc; Hu ¬A-
subduction, Tb VI -TbVI ¦ EdlCnM sY edaykarFaø kc; Hu ¬B-subduction, smRu T-TbVI ¦ ¬RbPB ³ Smithson et al, 2002¦

4 - esckIs
þ nñdi æan
cugbBa©b; cMNcu sMxan;²EdlTak;TgnwgCMBUkenHGacRtUv)ansegçbdUcxageRkam ³

214
 CMBkU TI 5

1- clnaénpøaktictUnicman\T§iBlsMxan;enAelIkarvivtþrbs;sNæandIenAtMbn;RBMEdnpøak
nigenAtMbn;Epñkxagkñgú pøak nigtamry³skmµPaBm:ak;ma: pgEdr.
2- RbePTsNæandIsMxan;²ekItmaneLIgenAtamRBMEdnpøakEdlTajKñacUlenAkEnøgEdl
pøakTaMgBIrrMkli cUlKña KWmanenAExSRkvat;PMñ nigkMeNagekaH. ynþkarTaMgBIrxageRkam
enHeqøyI tbnwgkarvivtþrbs;vaKW karbukKña ¬collision¦nigkarFøak;cuH ¬subduction¦.
3- RBMEdnpøakEdlpøas;bþÚr b¤rGil ¬transform boundaries¦ mansNæandICaeRcIn Edl
Tak;TgnwgbMNak;Rsut dUcCa muxcMeNatbMNak;Rsut nigRClgCaCYr. eTaHbIclnaPaK
eRcInenAtamRBMEdnpøakenHCakarrGiltambMNak;Rsut CaFmµtavarYmmanclnaTajcUl
Kña b¤EbkecjBIKñaxøH²Edr.
4- sNæandIsMxan;²énEpñkxagkñúgpøakrYmmanx<g;rabFM² )asaMgFM² sRmutTIbV nig mux
cMeNatFM². enAtambeNþayRBMEdnpøak clnatamTisedkénpøak KWCabuBVehtucm,g
énkaregIbeLIg EdlekIteLIgenAkñgú ExSRkv:at;P.Mñ b:Eu nþenAEpñkxagkñgú pøak clnatam
TisQrénsm,kEpndImansarRbeyaCn_bMput. Epeirogeny KWCakaregIbeLIgenAtMbn;
FM²énEpñkxagkñgú pøakedayKµanBMenIgpñt; b¤bMNak;Rsut. karegIbeLIgenHTak;Tgnwg
cMNucekþA ¬hot spots¦ karpøas;bþÚrpas ¬phase changes¦ nigPaBsmlMnwg
¬isostacy¦.
5- skmµPaBm:ak;m:aCab;Tak;Tgnwgclnama:km; a:BRI sTab;m:gt; eU q<aHeTAkan;épÞEpndI
¬intrusive activity¦ nigeq<aHeTAelIépÞEpndI ¬extrusive activity¦. skmµPaBxag
elIépÞdIenH CaskmµPaBPñMePøIg ¬volcanism¦.
6- bnÞHú PñeM PøgI Gacman]sµn½ EdlRtUv)anbeB©ajeTAkñgú briyakas kMEGrPñeM PøIgEdlhUrcak;
elIépÞdI nigbMENksila b¤ pyroclasts EdlehIreTAkñúgbriyakasedaysarkmøaMg
pÞHú xøagM . ral;RKb;rUbFatuPeMñ PøgI TaMgGs; EdlFøak;BxI ül; b¤briyakaseKehAfa tephra.
7- bnÞúHPñMePøIgmanbIRbePTsMxan;²KW bnÞúHdkdegðIm ¬EdlbegáIt]sµ½ncMhay¦ bnÞúHénlMhUr
¬EdlbegáItkMEGrPñMePøIg¦ nigbnÞúHrMesv ¬EdlbegáItbMENksila b¤ tephra¦. TRmg;én
PñMePøIgmanTMnak;TMngnwgRbePTma:k;ma: nigPaBxab;Gn§ilrbs;va. PñMePøIgmanbIRbePT

215
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

sMxan;²KW PñMePøIgExl ¬shield volcanoes¦ PñMePøIgRsTab; ¬stratovolcanoes¦ nigPñM

ePøgI saCImUléndMeu pH ¬cinder cone volcano¦.
8- BIrPaKbIrbs;m:ak;ma: EdlRtUvbegáItkñúgBiPBelakminpuseLIgeTAelIépÞEpndIeT.
ma:kma:EdlcuHRtCak;enaH nigeFV[I kkrwgenAeRkamépÞdI CakareRCotcUlénsilam:ak;m:a
¬igneous intrusions¦. kareRCotcUlmaneRcInRbePT dUcCa )atUlIt sþkú DIk
RcksIul nig Lak;kUlIt. RbsinebIsilaTaMgenaHpSMBIRbePTsila EdlFn; nwgrbic
enaHBYkvaGacCaTRmg;ddI c¾ m,g.
enHbMeBjnUvEpñkTI1 rbs;vKÁsikSaBIrmuxviC¢aPUmisNæanviTüaDINamic. enAemeroncMnYnBIrcug
eRkayenH eyIg)anBicarNaBImeFüay)ayxøH²EdldMeNIrkarxagkñúg ¬endogenic¦ begáIteLIg nig
pøas;bÚþrsNæandI nigeTsPaBsNæan. eyIg)aneXIjfa RTwsþIpøaktictUnci Caynþkmµd¾man\TiB§ l ehIy
manTMnlY xusRtUvcMeBaHsNæandIEdlmanTMhMFM EdlenACab;ngw Caypøak Epñkxagkñgú pøak nigskmµPaB
m:ak;ma: .
eyIg)ankt;smÁal;rYcmkehIynUvrebobEdlépÞdqI Húø bBa©agM BIlT§plCab;²KñaéndMeNIrkarxagkñúg
¬endogenic¦ nigdMeNIrkarxageRkA ¬exogenic¦. enAkjnjugCMBUkTI 6-10 xageRkam eyIgnwgcab;
GarmµNe_ lIsN M g;rbU rag nigsMNnU rUbragsNæanénépÞEpndIedaydMeNIrkarxageRkA ¬exogenic¦ Edl
rYmmandUcCa rbicénsila dMeNIrkarCRmal dMeNIrkarTenø dMeNIrkarxül;bk; nigdMeNIrkareqñr.
dMeNIrkarxageRkAepSgeTotman dUcCa TenøTwkkk nigdIkk. enAeBleyIgeFIVkarBicarNaBIdMeNIrkarrYm
KñaenAépÞEpndI ¬KWenARBMEdnmNÐlfµ-mNÐlbriyakas-mNÐlCIv³-mNÐlTwk¦ enaHeyIgnwgTTYl
sÁal;nUvkarRtYtRtapÞúy²Kña 2 ya:gKW³ karRtYtRtaénGakasFatu nigFrNIvTi üa ¬RbePTsila nig
tictUnic¦.
BaküKnøwHsRmab;CMBUkTI 5
karbukKña ¬collision¦
karFøak;cuH ¬subduction¦
kMeNagekaHxagkñgú mhasmuRT ¬intra-oceanic island arc¦
ExSRkvat;PCMñ ayTVbI ¬continental-margin orogen¦

216
 CMBkU TI 5

kMeNagekaHCayTVbI ¬continental-margin island arc¦

ExSRkvat;PGMñ nþrTVbI ¬inter-continental orogen¦
bMNak;Rsutpøas;bþÚr b¤ bMNak;RsutrGil ¬transform fault¦
GagTajecjBIKañ ¬pull-apart basin¦
ExSRkvat;PpMñ øas;brÚþ ¬transform orogen¦
karbgðÚrTwkecjRtUv)anbg¥ak; ¬disrupted or offset drainage¦
RClgCaCYr ¬linear valley¦
muxcMeNatbMNak;Rsut ¬fault scarp¦
tMbn;Epñkxagkñgú pøak ¬plate interior¦
x<g;rab ¬plateau¦
)asaMg ¬basin¦
CayTIbV Gskmµ ¬passive continental margin¦
cMNucekþA ¬hot spot¦
PaBsmlMngw ¬isostacy¦
karpøas;bþÚrpas ¬phase change¦
eTsPaBsNæanén)asaMg-CYr ¬basin-and-range landscape¦
karRsutcuH ¬subsidence¦
karegIbeLIg ¬uplift¦
skmµPaBm:ak;m:a ¬igneous activity¦
skmµPaBm:ak;m:axageRkA ¬extrusive igneous activity¦
skmµPaBPñeM PøgI ¬volcanism¦
skmµPaBm:ak;m:axagkñúg ¬intrusive igneous activity¦
silaenACMuvijva ¬country rock¦
karRCotcUl b¤ Bøyú tugénsilam:ak;m:a ¬intrusion, or pluton¦
kMEGrPñMePøIg ¬lava¦
x<gr; abkMEGrPñeM PøgI ¬lava plateau¦
kMEGrPñeM PøgI eRKIm b¤ GrGr ¬aa lava¦

217
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

kMEGrPñMePøIgRkmYn b¤ )a:h½yh½y ¬pahoehoe lava¦

kMEGrPñeM PøgI ragexñyI ¬pillow lava¦
bMENksilaPñMePøIg ¬pyroclasts¦
RKab;fPµ eMñ PøIg ¬tuff¦
epHPñMePøIg ¬ash¦
PaBxab;Gn§il ¬viscosity¦
kemÞcRKab;GEM bgPñeM PøgI ¬volcanic bomb¦
lMhUrénepHPñMePøIgy:agekþA nigelOn ¬pyroclastic flow¦
ExSTwkekþA ¬geyser¦
lMhUrénPk;PñMePøIg b¤ eLhar ¬lahar¦
TwkCMnn;BIPñMePøIg ¬jökulhlaup¦
bnÞHú PñeM PøgI ¬volcanic eruption¦
bnÞúHdMNkdegðIm ¬exhalative eruption¦
bnÞúHénlMhUr ¬effusive eruption¦
bnÞúHrMesv ¬explosive eruption¦
rn§PñMePøIg ¬vent¦
mat;PeMñ PøgI ¬crater¦
PñeM PøgI Exl ¬shield volcano¦
PñeM PøgI smas b¤ PñeM PøgI RsTab; ¬composite volcano, or stratovolcano¦
reNþAPñMePøIg ¬caldera¦
PñeM PøgI saCI ¬cinder cone volcano¦
bMBg;kMEGrPñMePøIg ¬lava tube¦
)atUlIt ¬batholith¦
sþkú ¬stock¦
DIk ¬dyke, or dike¦
RcksIul ¬sill¦
Lak;kUlIt ¬laccolith¦

218
 CMBkU TI 5

PñMBMenIgpñt; ¬Fold mountains¦

PñbM kúø bMNak;Rsut ¬Fault-block mountains¦
PñeM PøgI ¬Volcanoe, or volcanic mountains¦
vdþvIlsun b¤ vdþmhaTIVb ¬Wilson cycle, or Supercontinent cycle¦
sMnYrsRmab;CMBUkTI 5
1> etIehtuGVI)anExSRkva:t;PMñ nigkMeNagekaH CaRbePTcm,g²énsNæandIenARBMEdnpøakEdlTajecj
BIKña ?
2> etITRmg; b¤KMrUénRsTab;silaGIV EdlGñkrMBwgfanwgeXIjenACMuvijExSRkvat;PñMGnþrTIVb ?
3> cUrGñkbMeBjnUvtarageRkamenH edaykMNt;nUvRBMEdnpøakEdlcUlrYmCamYyRbePTsNæandInImYy²
nig[]TahrN_ceM BaHRbePTnImYy²pg ?

sNæandI pøaktictUnci ]TahrN_

k> ExSRkvat;PñMGnþrTIVb >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
x> ExSRkvat;PñMCayTIVb >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
K> kMeNagekaHCayTIVb >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
X> kMeNagekaHxagkñúgmhasmuRT >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

4> cUrGñkeRbIGiuneFIENt ¬]TahrN_ eKhTMB½r http://en.wikipedia.org¦ edIm,IeFIkV arRsavRCavBI

{San Andreas Fault} ³
k> etIbN M ak;RsutenHenAkEnøgNa ? etIvamanRbEvgb:unµan ?
x> etIvaCaRbePTbMNak;RsutGIV ?
K> etIpaø ktictUnci FM²TaMgBIrNaEdlCYbKñaenAbMNak;RsutenH ?
X>etIpøaknImYy²manel,Ónb:unµan ?
g> cUrGñkdak;eQµaHnUvRbePTsNæandITaMgBIrEdlrkeXIjenAtambeNþayRBMEdnpøakenH ?

219
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

5> k> cUrGñkeRbIEpnTIedIm,Idak;eQµaHnUvbwgcMnYn 5 enACMuvijRbB½n§RClgsRmutenAGaRhVikbUBa’ ¬East

Africa Rift Valley system¦.

x> etIbgw TaMg 5 enaHsßti enARbeTsNaxøH ?

6> k> etIGeVI TACaPaBxusKñacMeBaH ¬i¦ TRmg; b¤KMrUénRsTab;sila nig ¬ii¦ RTg;RTayénCYrPñM Edl
begátI eday {orogeny} nig {epeirogeny}?
x> etIGEVI dlbgá[man {epeirogeny} ?
7> sNæandIF²M PaKeRcInenAtMbn;Epñkxagkñgú pøaknana RtUvbegáItCalT§plénclnatamTisQrén
sm,kEpndI. eTaHCay:agNakþI karvivtþrbs;sNæandIF²M PaKeRcInenARBMEdnpøak RtUvbNþalmkBI
clnatamTisedk. etIehtuGVI ?
8> k> etIRbePTTaMgBIrénskmµPaBm:ak;m:a ¬igneous activity¦maneQµaHGVIxøH ?
x> etIRbePTcm,g²TaMg 5 énskmµPaBPñeM PøIg KWCaGIV ?
K> etIehtuGIV)anCaPñMePøIgenABiPBelak PaKeRcInsßti enAtamRBMEdnpøak b¤cMNcu ekþA ?
X>etIehtuGIV)anCama:k;ma:puseLIgEtenAelIépÞEpndI Edlmansm,kesþgI b¤ Ebk)ak; ?
g> etIPeMñ PøgI EdlskmµbpM tu enAelIBPi Belak manenAkEnøgNa ?
9> cUrGñkRsavRCavrkkarpÞHú PñeM PøgI enAPñBM N
I aTUbU ¬ Mount Pinatubo¦ enARbeTshVIlIBInkalqñaM
1991 ³
I aTUbCU aRbePTPñeM PøgI GIV ?
k> etIPBMñ N
x> etIkarpÞHú cm,genAéf¶TI 15 mifnu a 1991 KWCaRbePTbnÞHú GIV ?
K> etIvabegáIt)ankMEGr nigepHPñeM PøgI RbEhlb:nu aµ n ?
Q>etImanplb:HBal;GxVI Hø BIbnÞHú PñeM PøgI enHelI ³
i PUmisNæanviTüaenAkñg ú tMbn; ?
ii. mnusS ?

iii. tMbn;GasIu GaeKñy_ ?

iv. GakasFatus aklelak ?

220
 CMBkU TI 5

10> cUrGñkRsavRCavrk[eXIjGMBkI MEGrPñeM PøgI )asal;enARbeTskm<Cú a ³

k> etIkEM GrPñeM PøgI )asal;TaMgenaH sßti enATINaxøH ?
x> etIkEM GrPñeM PøgI )asal;TaMgenaH ekItmanenAeBlNa ?
11> cUrGñkbMeBjRbGb;TaMg 5 enAkñgú düaRkamxageRkamenH ³
lT§plrbs;bnÞúH
3> >>>>>>>>>>
5> >>>>>>>> ekaNrNb
skmµPaBPñeM PøIg RsTab;epH xageRkA ¬extrusive¦
¬volcanic¦
2> >>> 4> >>> xagkñúg ¬intrusive¦
skmµPaBBøyú tUnic EtkbBa©Úl
suIl
¬plutonic¦ lMnaMERbkMeNIt
1> >>>>>>>>>>

221
mUldæanRKwHénPUmsi NæanviTüa

222