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 Placenta .. . . . .. . .. .... . . ....... . .. .. ... . .. 94
Enteric Hormones . ....... .... .... . .. .. .. .. .. 94
PART FOUR • Phylum Chordata I
Subphylum Vertebrata-Lamprey . . .. . . .. . . .95
14 Lamprey .. . .... . .. . ................... . .. 97
External Anatomy. ................... .. . ... 97
Integu mentary System ..................... .100
Internal Anatomy ............. ............. 101
Skeletal System ........ . . . . . . ..... . .. . .. . . .102
Muscular System ....... . . . . . . .. . .. . ....... .103
Digestive System . . . . . .. . ....... . .. . ........ 104
Respiratory System .. . .................... .. 107
Excretory System ...... .. .... .... . .. . .. . ... 107
Reproductive System . .... . . ......... . .... . . 107
Circulatory System ....... . .. . .. . . . .. . .... . . 108
Nervous System and Sense Organs .. . .. . .... . . 109
Larval Lamprey .. . ............... . . . ....... 110
PART FIVE • Phylum Chordata I
Subphylum Vertebrata- Dogfish Shark ... 115
15 Dogfish Shark- External Anatomy
and Integumentary System ..... . . .. .. .. .. 117
External Anatomy ....... . ................. 117
Integumentary System ... . ..... . . . . . . .... . . 121
16 Dogfish Shark-Skeletal System ..... . .. .. 123
Axial Division ..................... . . . .. . . . 124
Appendicular Division ..................... .132
17 Dogfish Shark- Muscular System .... . .. . . 135
Skinning .................. . .. . .. . ....... .135
Trun k or Axial Muscles .... . ..... . .. . ........ 137
Pectoral Fin M uscles . . .... . ........ . ...... . .137
Pelvic Fin Muscles ..... ... . . ....... . ...... . .138
Dorsal Fin Muscle .... .... . ....... . .. . .. . ... 139
Muscles of th e Gill Arches
or Their Derivatives .. . . ....... . .. . .... . . 139
Branchiomeric M uscles .. . . .. • .. • . . .. . .... . . 140
Hypobranchial M uscles ... . .. • .. • . . . . . .... . . 143
Eye Muscles .. . .. . ............... . ......... 144
vi Contents
18 Dogfish Shark-Body Cavities
and Mesenteries . ............... . . ....... 145
Opening the Shark ...... .. . ....... . ....... .145
Mesenteries .. . .. ...... .. . ....... . ...... . .147
19 Dogfish Shark-Digestive
and Respiratory Systems ......... . ....... 151
Digestive System ....... . ..... . ........... . . 151
Respiratory System .............. . .......... 156
20 Dogfish Shark-Urogenital System . . ...... 159
Uri nary System ............................ 159
Reproductive System ... . ................... 160
21 Dogfish Shark-Circulatory
and Lymphatic Systems .. ...... .. . ....... 163
Heart and Arteries ....... . ...... .. . .. . .... . 163
Venous System . ....... . .. .. ...... . ........ 173
Lymphatic System .. ...... . . ....... . ........ 176
22 Dogfish Shark-Nervous System
and Sense Organs .... . .. . ....... . ....... 177
Brain and Nerves . . .. . . .. . . ....... . ....... . 177
The Brain: Ventral View . . .. . ....... . ....... . 183
Autonomic Nervous Syst em . . ....... . ....... . 185
Sense Organs . . .. ...... .. ...... .. . ... . ... . 185
23 Dogfish Shark-Endocrine System ........ 193
Hypophysis, or Pituitary . . .. . ....... . ...... . .193
PART SIX • Phylum Chordata I
Subphylum Vertebrata-Perch . .... . .. . .. . 197
24 Perch . . . .................. . .. . .. . ...... 199
External Anatomy ............. ... .... .. . . 199
Integumentary System . . ..... . .. ... .... .. .. 201
Skeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Fins. .. . ...... . .. . .. . .... . ..... . .. . .... . . 205
Muscular System .. . .. . .... . ........ .. ..... 205
Digestive and Respiratory Systems ... . ....... 207
Urogenital System ....... . . ....... . ....... 211
Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Circu latory System ..... . .. . .. • .... . .. • .... 212
Lymphatic System .. ...... . . ....... . ....... 214
Nervous System . .... . .. . .. . ....... . ....... 215
Endocrine System .... ............ . . ....... 216
PART SEVEN • Phylum Chordata I 33 Mudpuppy- Endocrine System .. . . .... .. . 279
Subphylum Vertebrata- Hypophysis or Pituitary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Mudpuppy (Necturus) .................... 217 Other Endocrine Tissues ................... . 281

25 Mudpuppy-Extemal Anatomy PART EIGHT • Phylum Chordata I

and Integumentary System . .. . . . . ....... . 219
Su bphylum Vertebrata-Bullfrog ......... 283
External Anatomy ..................... ... 219
Integu mentary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
34 Bullfrog-External Anatomy
26 Mudpuppy-8keletal System ........ . ..... 223 and Integumentary System ............... 285
Axial Division ..... . .. ... . .. . .. . . . .. . ..... 224 External Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Ap pendicular Division .................... . 229 Int egumentary System . . . .. .... . .. .... . .... 286

27 Mudpuppy-Muscular System . . .... . .. . .. 231 35 Bullfrog-skeletal System ........ .. . .... 287

Skinning .. . . . .. .. . . .... . .. . ....... . .. . .. 231 Axial Division .................... ... . .... 287
Axial M uscles . .. .... .... . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . . . 232 Appendicular Division ...... .. . . . ..... . .... 292
Do rsal and l ateral Muscles of t he Head ... ... . 234
Ventral Muscles of the Throat ....... . .. .. . .. 235
36 Bullfrog-Muscular System ........... . .. 293
Ventral Pectoral Muscles .. . .... . ... . .. .. . .. 237 Skinn ing ..... . .......... . ......... . .. .. . 293
238 Vent ra l Trunk Muscles .... . ...... . . . .. . ... . 294
Do rsal/l at eral/M edial Pectora l M uscles .. .....
M uscles o f th e Forelimb ..... . .. . ... . .. .... . 239 Dorsal Trunk Muscles ............ . . . .. . ... . 296
M uscles o f th e Pelvic Girdl e and Hindlimb . . . . . 240 Dorsal Muscl es of t he Head . ...... . . . .. .. .. . 299
242 Ventral Muscles of th e Head ..... . ... .. .. .. . 299
Flexors and Extensors of t he Hindlimb . ... . ...
Muscles of the Shoulder and Forelimb . .... .. . 300
28 Mudpuppy-Body Cavities Flexors and Extensors of the Forelimb . ..... . . 300
and Mesenteries . ....... . ....... . ........ 243 Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Hind limb ..... 300
Body Cavit ies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
37 Bullfrog-Body Cavities
Opening Necturus .............. . . ....... . 243
and Mesenteries ......................... 305
Mesenteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Opening the Body Cavity .. .. . ...... .. .. ....305
29 Mudpuppy-Digestive Body Cavities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
and Respiratory Systems ...... ........... 249 Mesenteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Digestive System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Respiratory System ........ .. .. . . . .. . . ..... 251
38 Bullfrog-Digestive and
Respiratory Systems ... .. .. . .... .... . .... 309
30 Mudpuppy- Urogenital System . . . .. . ..... 255 Digest ive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Urinary System .. .. . .. ... .. . . .. . .... . .. . .. 255 Respiratory Syst em .. . ... .. .... . ... ... . .... 31 5
Kidney and Ducts .. . . .... .. . . .. . .... . .. . . . 255
Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
39 Bullfrog-Urogenital System . ....... . .. .. 317
Uri nary Syst em .... .. ... .. . .. . . . ..... . .... 320
31 Mudpuppy- Circulatory Reproductive Syst em . ... .. . .. . ............ 321
and Lymphatic Systems . ....... . .. .. .. . . . 261
Circulat o ry System ....... . .... . ... . .. .. . .. 261
40 Bullfrog-Circulatory
261
and Lymphatic Systems ..... . ..... .. . . .. . 325
Heart ..... . . . ........... .. . . . ... . .. .....
Arteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 264 Circulatory System . ....... . . .... . . . .. . ... . 325
Veins .................. . .... . ... . ... . . . . 268 Lymphat ic System . . ............ . . . . .. .. .. . 333
lymphat ic System ....... . ....... . . . ... . ... 272
41 Bullfrog-Nervous System
32 Mudpuppy- Nervous System and Sense Organs . ... . .. . .. . .... . ..... . . 335
and Sense Organs ...................... . 273 Nervous System .................. ........ .335
Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Crania l Nerves ..... . ... .. ... .. . .. . ... . ... .336
Autonomic Nervous System ...... .. . ....... .337
Spinal Nerves and Spinal Cord ..... . . ....... . 276
Sense Organs ........................... . .337
Sense Organs . .. ..... ... ......... ....... . 277

Contents vii
42 Bullfrog-Endocrine System .... . .. . .... . 339
Hypophysis, or Pituitary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Epiphysis, or Pineal Gland . . ....... . .. . .... .
Thyroid Gland . .. . .. .. ... . ....... . .. .. ... .
Parathyroid Gland .. .. ... . .. .. ... . .. .. ... .
Ultimobranchial Bodies ... . ....... . ........
Thymus ... . .... . .. . .....................
Suprarenal, or Adrenal, Gland ... ...........
Pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ovaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Testes ................................. .
Other Endocrine Tissues .. . .. . .. . ....... . ..
PART NINE • Phylum Chordata I
Subphylum Vertebrata- Pigeon .... . .. . .. . 343
43 Pigeon- External Anatomy
and Integumentary System . .... . . . . . .... . 345
External Anatomy ....... . ...... . . . . . ..... 345
Integumentary System ... . . . . .... . . . . . .... . 350
44 Pigeon-Skeletal System . ....... . .. . .... . 351
Axial Division . .. . ....... . ....... . .. . .... . 351
Appendicular Division .... . ....... . .. . .... . 357
45 Pigeon- Muscular System ...... . .. . .... . 359
Skinning ................................
Thoracic Muscles . .. .. ... . .. .. ... . .. .. ... .
Anterior Limb Muscles .................. . ..
Neck Muscle . . .. . .. . ....... .. ............
Posterior Limb Muscles....... ... ...........
46 Pigeon- Body Cavities
and ~1esenteries .. . .. ... . .. . .. . .... . .. . .. 367
Opening t he Pigeon .. ... . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . 367
47 Pigeon- Digestive
and Respiratory Systems . .. . .. . . . ..... . . . 369
Digestive System . .. . .... . .. . .. ... . . . .... . 369
Respiratory System ....... . .. . .. ... . . . .... . 373
48 Pigeon- Urogenital System . ... . . . . . . .... . 375
Urinary System . .. ....... . ..... . . . .. . ..... 375
Reproductive System ..... . ....... . .. . ..... 377
Reproductive Behavior .... . ....... . .. . ..... 378
49 Pigeon-Circulation
and Lymphatic System .. . ....... . .. . .... . 379
Circulatory System ............... . .. . .... . 379
Lymphatic System ... ..... . ....... . .. . .... . 385
viii Contents
50 Pigeon-Nervous System
339 and Sense Organs .. . . . .. . ....... . ....... 387
339 Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
340 Sense Organs ............................ 389
340
340 51 Pigeon-Endocrine System ............... 391
340 Pituitary Gland ........ . ..... . .... . ....... 391
340 Thyroid Gland ............................ 391
340 Parathyroid Glands ....................... 391
340 Thymus . .. . . . . .. . .. . . .... .. .. ... .. . . .. . . 391
340 Adrenal Gland . .. . .. . . . .. .. . .. ... . .. . .. . . 392
342 Pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Ovary .. . .. ... .. . . .. . . .. .. ...... . .. . .. . . 392
Testes .. . .. ... .. . .. . . . .. . .. . .... . .. . .. . . 392
PART TEN • Phylum Chordata I
Subphylum Vertebrata· Cat ............... 397
52 Cat- External Anatomy
and Integumentary System ...... . . ...... . 399
External Anatomy ..... . .. . ....... . ....... 399
Integumentary System . . . .. . ....... . ....... 400
53 Cat- Skeletal System . . .. . ....... . ....... 403
Axial Division . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . .... . ... . ... 404
Append icular Division ... .. .. . .. ... . ....... 422
359
360 54 Cat-~fuscular System . .. .. . .. ... . ....... 429
362 Skinning .. . ... .. .. . ... .. .. . .. ... . .. .. . . . 429
364
Superficial Thoracic Muscles .. . . .... .. . . .. . . 431
364
Abdominal Muscles ....................... .432
Superficial Back Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Deep Thoracic Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Lower Back Muscles: Lumbar and Thoracic .. . . 437
Muscles o f the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Deep Neck and Back Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Muscles of the Head .. . .... . .. . .... . .. . .. . . 443
Muscles of the Shoulder . .. . .. . .... . ....... 444
Muscles of the Upper Forelimb,
or Brachium . ....... . .. . ...... . . .. . ... . .446
Muscles of the Lower Forelimb,
or Antebrachium ... . . . . ...... . . .. . ... . 447
Muscles of the Manus .. . .. . ....... . ....... 451
Muscles of the Thigh ... . .. . ....... . ....... .451
Muscles of the Shank . . . . .. . ....... . ....... 457
Muscles of the Pes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Muscles of the Hip . .... . .. . ....... . ....... 459
Tail Muscles ... . ..... . . . .. . ....... . ....... 462
55 Cat- Body Cavities and Mesenteries ....... 463
Opening t he Cat .... ............ . ........ 463
Body, or Coelomic, Cavities . ....... . ....... . 465
Mesenteries of the Thoracic Cavities . . . . . . . . . 466
Mesenteries of the Abdominopelvic Cavity ... . 467
56 Cat- Digestive
and Respiratory Systems ............ ..... 473
Digestive System .......................... 473
Alimentary Canal ..... ... .. . . .. . .......... 473
Respiratory System ........................ 483
57 Cat- Urogenital System ................ .. 487
Urinary System .. ......... .. . .. .. ... . .. . .. 487
Reproductive System . .... . .. . .. . .......... 491
58 Cat- Circulatory
and Lymphatic Systems .. ...... .. . . ..... . 497
The Heart ... . ........................... .497
Lymphatic System ......................... 521
59 Cat-Nervous System
and Sense Organs .... . .. . ....... . ....... 525
Brain . .. .. ... ..... . ........... .. . ... . ... 525
Spinal Cord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Sense Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
60 Cat-Endocrine System .. ....... . . .... . .. 543
Pitu itary Gland, or Hypophysis ........... . .. 543
Pineal Gland ............................. 543
Thyroid Gland ............................ 544
Parathyroid Gland . .. ... .. .... . ... ... . .... 544
Thymus Gland ............................ 545
Adrenal Glands . .......................... 545
Pancreas .. ... ..... . ... .. .... . . ..... . .... 545
547
Ovaries .................................
Testes .. . .... .... .. ... .. . .. . ........... . 547
Other Endocrine Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 549
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . 551
Index .... ...... .. ........ .. ...•.. ... 559
Contents ix
Introduction

o d iscover the evolutionary relationships among animals, we must examine the

T anatomy of a number of animals in detail. For example, to make some sense of the
history of the development and function of an organ or a structure in a mammal, we may
have to search for its possible origin among norunammalian vertebrates. Perhaps what
makes comparative anatomy most fascinating is that the fm1ctional organ in a vertebrate
may not even resemble its homolog in its ancestor, bur the relationship often can be
demonstrated by carefully examining the morphology, embryology, histology, and
physiology of ancestral structures.
To make this experience possible and meaningful, we will study and compare the
anatomy of the lamprey, the dogfish shark, the perch, the mud puppy, the frog, the car,
and the pigeon as important representative members of the subphylwn Vertebrata. This
selection of animals introduces the student to taxa that play or have played an imporranr
role in inrerprecing the evolutionary history of vertebrates. Each of these modern
vertebrates chosen for our study is the result of millions of years of evolution, and all
are adapted to their current environments. None of these are "primitive" animals or
"more primitive" than others, nor are they ancestral to each other; however, some retain
ancestral traits that help us understand how vertebrates evolved.
e T he jawless lamprey is an example of the earliest vertebrates in wh ich we find
a combination of ancestral vertebrate stntctures an d some highly specialized
structures ro a llow it to functio n as a viable member of the modern fish fauna.
• T he dogfish shark is a gnathostomc, or jawed vertebrate, in which we again see a
combination of ancestral and derived structures. Much o f the ancestral anatomy
fo reshadows anatomical conditions found among the tetrapods.
e The perch is a lso a gnathostome, possesses a bony skeleton, a number of derived
characteristics, and is a member of the most numerous of vertebrates.
e The mudpuppy is a tetrapod, or four-legged vertebrate, w hose anatomy is pre-
dominantly ancestral with specialization that allows it to function as an obligate
aquatic vertebrate.
e The frog is a tetrapod member of the tailless amphibians, which exhibit a number
of derived characteristics, enabling them to occupy a wide range of terrestrial niches.
 e The pigeon is a flighted, fully feathered reptile with
many derived characteristics, setting it apart from its
dinosaur ancestors.
e The car is a mammal that exhibits a body plan that is
unspecialized and similar to our own. Most of us are
intrigued by our history.
Notice that many of the characteristics of the vertebrates
used in ou r comparative study are ancestral. Rarely, however,
do we find an animal existing in an environment without
some specialization. Therefore, in the lamprey and shark,
for example, we see anatomy and physiology that arc
adapted ro the conditions of their habitat.
What Is a Chordate?
The relationships among animals have been, and remain,
a major point of interest among biologisrs. Two distinct
groups of animals have evolved: the protostomes and the
deutcrosromes. The prorostomes include many of the most
numerous and successful animals-mollusks (cla ms, snails,
squids), annelids (ea rthworms, leeches) and arthropods
(crayfish, lobsters, insects, ticks, mites, spiders). The deurero-
stomes arc nor as numerous, and include the echinoderms
(starfish, brirrlestars, sea urchins), the hemichordares (acorn
worms, pterobranchs), and the chordates (urochordates,
cephalochordates, vertebrates or craniates).
The major reason that protostomes and deuterostomes
can be recognized is based on events that occur during
embryonic dcvclopmem. Early cleavages in both groups
lead to a more or less hollow ball of cells known as the
blastula. It is the manner by which the next developmental
stage, the gastrula, in each group is formed that distinguishes
the two. In both prorostomes and deuterosromes, the gastrula
is formed through an invagination of a wall of the blastula
forming the primitive gut, the archenteron, leaving an open-
ing called the blastopore. The blastopore in protostomes
gives rise to the mouth of the animal. In contrast, in deutero-
stomes, the blastopore gives rise to the anus, and the mouth
arises from a second invagination in an area of the gastrula
that is destined to become the head of the animal (Fig. 1.1).
Protostome Deuterostome
Blastopore Formation
fonns mouth of mouth
FIGURE 1.1 Comparative gastrulation of protostomes and
deuterostomes.
2 Introduction
In addition, during developmem, protostomes and deutero-
stomes exhibit differences in cleavage patterns, mesoderm
and coelom (body cavity) formation.
All chordates possess certain characteristics at some
rime during their life that may persist as permanent adult
structures or in a transitOry embryological developmental
sequence. This suite of characteristics includes:
1. a longitudinal supporting rod, the notochord
2 . a dorsal, hollow nerve cord
3. pharyngeal slits (this characteristic is shared with other
animal groups, e.g., the hemichordates)
4. a subpharyngeal organ (endosryle or thyroid gland) that
binds iodine
5. a postanal rail.
An old maxim among vertebrate zoologists emphasizes
that "all vertebrates are chordates, but not all chordates are
vertebrates." Two of the three groups of chordates-the
urochordata and the cephalochordata-arc not vertebrates.
Do chordates have any relatives an1ong the rest of the
invertebrates? T he answer seems to be "yes." Most biologists
now consider a group of animals, the hemichordates, for-
merly classified with the chordates, to be a separate phylum
(phylllln Hemichordara). Of the definitive traits exhibited
by members of the phyllll11 Chordata, the hemichordares
share only pharyngeal slits with them. The hemichordates
produce a larva that is similar to the larva of echinoderms,
thereby possibly providing a bridge between the phylum
Chordata and rhe phylum Echinodermata. Our closest
living relatives among non-chordate invertebrates are
starfish, sea urchins, sea cuclll11bers, and their relatives!
Classification
For centuries scientists have dealt with relationships among
organisms. Determining how closely organisms are related
depends on the past evolutionary history of these groups.
Currently, the £\VO major classification systems are tradi-
tional, or evolutionary, and cladistic, or phylogenetic.
Evolutionary System
l11e evolutionary system of classification had its origin prior
to Charles Darwin and remains dependent upon some of
the philosophy and taxa of a famous Swedish natural
historian of the 18th century, Carl von Lin ne. You probably
know him better by his Latinized name, Carolus Linnaeus,
often shortened to Linnaeus.
Our system of naming organisms is based largely on
methods he proposed and established. He invented a system
using £\vo terms for each organism. The ftrst, called the
genus, refers to the generic name, usually a Latin noun or
Latinized name and the second or the specific epithet, is
usually a Latin adjective or similar word to describe the
generic name. The system has become known as binomial
nomenclature. This is the system we continue to use today.
In this system, onl y one orga nism can be assigned a
binomial name-e.g., Lithobates catesbeianus, the bullfrog.
The generic name, Lithobates, can be used to name other
frogs, and the specific epithet, catesbeianus, can be used to
describe other genera, bur there can only be one Lithobates
catesbeianus. Because other frogs can share the generic and
higher categories, a related, bur distinct species, Lithobates
sylvaticus, the wood frog, belongs to the same genus, the
family Ranidae, and all other categories to which ranid frogs
belong. But only one narrowly defined group of animals
possesses the criteria that qualify it as a distinct species.
Further, Linnaeus and other naturalists of his rime
recognized that similar organisms were related to one
another, and they grouped similar species together into
higher categories that were increasingly inclusive, with
broader criteria, and conseq uently more subjective. Later,
taxonomists developed a scientific classification scheme in
which organisms were placed in the following seven funda-
mental categories, listed in increasing order of objectivity:
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
In an attempt to refine the system, super-categories and
subcategories have been added-subspecies, superorder,
subphylum, and so forth.
Cladistic System
ProponentS of the cladistic system, employed by phylo-
genetic systematists, consider it to be more objective, and
possibly yieldi ng a truer idea of the actual sequence of
events in the evolutionary history of organisms. Two types
of characteristics can be recognized in any taxon: those that
are ancestral and those that are derived from ancestral traits.
All organisms in any taxon exhibit a number of char-
acteristics, or plesiomorphies, that were inherited from a
common ancestor. Ancestra l characteristics that arc shared
with related organisms a re called symplesiomorphies. An
example among chordates, the group to which vertebrates
belong, is the presence of a notochord at some time during
the life cycle. Other than permitting us to separate chordates
from other animals, it indicates nothing concerning the
relationships among the chordates.
By contrast, apomorphics, characteristics derived from
the ancestral condition, are useful in establishing relation-
ships. In the phylogenetic classification, the more shared
derived characteristics, or synapomorphics, between animals,
the more likely they are to have had a recent conunon
ancestor and to be closely rel ated. The sharing of derived
characteristics is what indicates relatedness among organisms,
as these have arisen more recently than ancestral character-
istics. Generally, relationships are detennined by consideration
of the number of shared derived characteristics among
groups; and the greater the number of synapo morphies
occurring between groups, the more closely related they
are thought to be and are referred to as sister groups.
Organisms that are nor included in sister groups are referred
to as ourgroups. This implies that they share a greater
number of genes with one another than they do with
distantly related groups. Figure 1.2 shows the relationships
of animals discussed in this book.
Why do we classify some vertebrates as mammals?
Some of their characteristics are: hair, teeth specialized for a
variety of food habits, mammary glands, etc. These charac-
teristics distinguish mammals from other vertebrates, such
as reptiles, fish, ere., and are synapomorphic, i.e., they are
unique to mammals. When we attempt to learn about the
evolution of mammals, however, these characteristics
are useless because all mammals possess them and are
symplesiomorphic for mammals.
The ph ylogenetic system requires that all organisms
within a taxon have a common ancestry and include
all descendants of the common ancestor, i.e., tl1cy arc
monophyletic. This is nor a requirement in the evolutionary
system, although the assumption is that all organisms in
a family, order, class, and so on, have a common ancestry.
Evolutionary systematists place organisms in a common
category based primarily on their possessing similar char-
acteristics wirh the supposition that similar characteristics
indicate a common ancestry. For example, the hagfish (a
jawless relative of lampreys) and the dogfish shark are
placed in the phylum Vertebrata.
In the phylogenetic classification system, the hagfish
and dogfish shark are placed in the taxon Craniata, which
refers to the fact that they have a braincase, or cranium.
In contrast to the evolutionary system, however, only the
dogfish shark is classified as a vertebrate, as hagfish do
not have vertebrae. Moyle and Cech (2000) have placed
the hagfish in its own subph ylum, the subp hylum Myxini,
phylum Chordata. More recent evidence suggests that
hagfishes and lampreys are probably monophyletic,
however (Ora and Kuratani, 2007).
Sometimes evolmionary systematists place organisms
that seem to have distinctive characteristics, such as birds
and dinosa urs, in two widely separated groups: class Aves
and class Reptilia, respectively. Fossil evidence suggests that
a number of related dinosaurs shared feathers with birds,
once thought to be a unique bird characteristic.
ln addition, some lines of dinosau rs shared a number
of other anatomical characteristics and probably some
Introduction 3
AGURE 1.2 Cladogram
illustrating the possible
phylogenetic relationships
of animals encountered in
th is manual. The charac-
teristics appearing below
each branch are newly
derived traits (apomorphies)
that distinguish that group.
Each new group shows all
of the characteristics below
it-<alled plesiomorphies.
Because they are shared,
t hey are known as Pharynx with slits
symplesiomorphies.
/
behavioral traits with birds. Therefore, because birds and
dinosaurs exhibit a considerable nwnber of synapomorphies,
phylogenetic systematists place birds and dinosaurs in the
raxon Dinosauria.
Homologous or Homoplastic?
How do evolutionary systematists or phylogenetic
systematists determine what information to use to construct
a classification scheme? They look for inheritable
similarities among the organisms with which they are
dealing. Only the structures or organs inherited through a
common ancestry are important. These characteristics are
homologous, or exhibit homology. Homologous structures
may or may nor resemble each other.
Where did the middle ear bones (ossicles) of mammals
originate? If we study their embryology, we discover that
they develop in the same area from similar tissues that give
rise ro jaw suspension elements in fish. The ear ossicles of
mammals-the stapes, incus, and malleus-are homologous
with the hyomand ibular, quadrate, and articular cartilages,
jaw suspension elements, of sharks!
What is so difficult about determination of homologous
characteristics? The challenge lies in the fact that sometimes
structures and organs resemble one another or have similar
fw1ctions bur do nor share a common ancestry. A classic
example is the evolution of wings in three different groups
4 Introduction
Feathers, hard-shelled eggs
/
Ta1lless, exh1b1t1ng a lUmping
or hopp1ng locomotion
Internal nares w"h lungs, four legs with
tail exhibiting a primitive locomotion
Bony skeleton, lungs,
thin dermal scales
Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord ,
postanal tail, subpharyngeal gland
of vertebra res-birds, reptiles, and mammals. Although
the organs resemble one another and are used in the same
fashion, they evolved independently and are not
homologous bur, rather, are homoplastic. On the other
hand, many of the bones inside the wings of the three
groups are homologous. Forms of homoplasry include
analogy, parallelism, and convergence.
During our discussion of the animals selected, we will
use the traditional, or evolutionary, system because of irs
convenience.
Terms: Anatomical
and Directional
To comprehend dissection instructions and become a
literate anato mist, you must understa nd and speak the
language of anatomy. You are expected ro pronounce
and spell anatomical and d irectional terms correctly. To
appreciate the biology of vertebrate anatomy, you must
read the text, consult the illustrations and actually do
dissections. " Picrure-book dissection" does not work!
General directional terms include dorsal (toward tl1e
back of the animal), ventral (toward the belly of the animal),
cranial (toward the head), and caudal (toward the tail) (Fig.
1.3). just as often, among animals, anterior (meaning ahead
or before) and poSterior (meaning after or behind) are
encountered in descriptive anatomy. Conm10nly, students
are directed roward the medial (toward the midline) or
lateral (toward the side) aspect of the animal. The midline
is an imaginary line that extends directly down the middle
of rhe ventral and dorsal surfaces. Frequently, you will
encounter the directional terms proximal (nexr ro or nearest
the point of origin or attachment) and distal (some distance
from the point of origin or attachment) (Fig.1.3).
Often, planes of reference are important in
understanding relationships of the morphology of organs,
relationships among organs of a system within a body
cavity, or relationships of organs and systems in a presented
view. Referring ro Fig. 1.3, a section parallel to the midline is
a sagittal section (plane). Thus, there are numerous sagittal
sections (planes), as long as you do not run our of animal.
Bur rhere is only one midsagittal section (plane), which
passes exactly down the midline of the body. Figure 1.3
shows a transverse or cross-section (plane). Just as many
sagittal sections (planes) are possible, so, too, numerous
transverse sections (planes) may extend from the tip of the
snout ro rhe rip of rhe rail. Transverse sections (planes) are
analogous ro rh e slices of a loaf of bread, al though usually
much thinner. A frontal section (plane) is made along rhe
entire length of the animal parallel ro the belly and back.
Numerous frontal sections (planes) also are possible.
FIGURE 1.3 Planes (sections) of the body and anatomical terms.
Suggested Equipment List
To produce well dissected specimens, good tools are neces-
sary. The following list is suggested; however, consult with
your instructor before purchasing any of the following.
Dissection Tools
e 1 pair of fine point dissection scissors
e 1 scalpel handle, preferably No.4
e Replaceable blades, preferably designated as 21- 25
e 1 steel probe, preferably a Huber-Mall
e 2 pairs of straight forceps, one with medium points and
one with fine points
• Dissecting pins
Other Equipment
e Safety goggles-strongly recommended
e Gloves-optional bur strongly recommended
e Lab coat-optional bur strongly recommended
e Small sp ray bottle to hold preservative fluid ro prevent
dehydration and deterioration of the specimens
Midline
Introduction 5
Phylum Hemichordata
The Hemichordates
he hemichordares consist of a marine group of inverte-
T brates rhar once were considered ro be members of rhe
phylum Chordata. Of the five diagnostic chordate charac-
teristics, only the pharyngeal slits are present. A structure
formerly thought to be the notochord, but now called the
stomochord, seems to be an outpocketing of the primitive
gut and does nor have the rypical histological composition
of the notochord of chordates. The nervous system consists
of a dorsal and ventral nerve cord, bur the dorsal cord is nor
hollow. Further, no iodine-binding tissue has been found
and no posr-anal tail is present. Regardless, hemichordares
seem ro be related ro the chordates and, because they possess
larvae similar ro those of the phylum Echinodermata
(starfish, brittle stars, and sea urchins), they bridge the gap
between the chordates and other invertebrates.
Hemichordares are recognizable as two classes quire
different in appearance, the Enteropneusta and the
Prerobranchia. The enreropneusts, also known as acorn
Proboscis
Stalk Collar
AGURE 1.1 External features of Balanoglossus, acorn worm.
worms, are sedentary, wormlike animals that burrow into
rhe substratum of shallow waters.
) ) obtain available slides or plastic mounts and find
the following structures.
The body of the acorn worm has three regions: the
proboscis, the collar, and the trunk (Fig. 1.1). The proboscis
and collar are used during burrowing and locomotion.
Movement is similar ro wormlike invertebrates. The
proboscis is anchored while the rest of the animal is pulled
roward it. Some acorn worms feed by projecting their
proboscis above the burrow. Cilia on the surface of the
proboscis create currents that flow over the mucus covering
the proboscis (Fig. 1.2).
Microscopic organisms and particles in the water are
trapped in the mucus and are directed into the mouth by the
cilia. The mouth lies ventral and anterior to the collar and
opens into the pharynx in Balanoglossus (Fig. 1.3). Other
species ingest suspended material while in the burrow,
digesting the organic material and passing the inorganic
matter (e.g., sand) from their anus as a cast on the substrate,
similar to earthworms. The sromochord projects into the
cavity of the proboscis and is capped by a small organ that
may be excretory in function (Fig. 1.3).
The anterior end of the trunk is characterized by a large
number of U-shaped internal pharyngeal slits that open
to the outside through small, round, porelike openings,

FIGURE 1.2 Proboscis

of Balanoglossus, acorn
worm: Sagittal section.

Collar

AGURE 1.3 Collar region of Balanoglossus, acorn worm: Sagittal section.

10 PART 1 • Phylum Hemichordata

pharyngeal pores, and during filter feeding allow Pharyngeal pores
water directed into the pharynx through the mouth
to escape from the pharynx (Fig. 1.4). Posterior to
the pharynx is the simple intestine (Fig. 1.5), where
food particles trapped in the mucus are digested,
the nutrients absorbed, and UJJdigestible material
such as sand is eliminated through the terminal
anus (Fig. 1.1 ).
The prerobranchs are a sessile group of heiDi-
chordates with a body plan similar to that of the
emeropneusts (Fig. 1.6). ln contrast to enteropneusts,
they are confined to a tubelike structure that may
be part of a colony. The feeding mechanism consists
- - - - - - -- -77 Pharyngeal
of armlike srrucrures called lophophorcs. Cilia on chambers
the lophophores assist in directing food toward the
mouth.

AGURE 1.4 Pha rynx of Balanoglossus, acorn worm:

Transverse section.

---~~:::::!!!!!!!!!!~-~.; - --'--;-- ;- Lumen of

the intestine

FIGURE 1.5 • Intest ine of Balanog/ossus, acorn worm: Transverse section.

CHAPTER 1 • The Hemichordates 11

 FIGURE 1.6 Pterobranch.

12 PART 1 • Phylum Hemichordata

Phylum Chordata

The Non-Vertebrate
Chordates
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 (3.) Brooklyn.

(4.) Queens, consisting of that portion of Queens County to

be incorporated into the Greater New York.

(5.) Richmond, that is, Staten Island.

Power is given to the Municipal Assembly to subdivide these

Boroughs still further, in case of need. The Greater New York
will start with these five Boroughs for administrative
purposes. Your Committee have reconstructed the Borough
system, as submitted in the tentative draft, upon lines which
we are of one accord in believing to be a better and more
appropriate development of the plan for the Greater New York.
These lines give to each Borough various boards through which
the prosecution of local improvements may be facilitated
within the limits of small districts, but reserve to the
Municipal Assembly the right to incur indebtedness and to
authorize the making of contracts."

The draft thus prepared was subjected to criticism in the

commission and in public hearings, and, after amendment and
revision, was reported to the Legislature in February, 1897,
as the charter recommended by the Commission for the
consolidated city called "The Greater New York." It received
some amendment and was passed. On submission, as required by
the State constitution, to the mayors of New York and Brooklyn
and the mayor and Common Council of Long Island City, it was
approved in Brooklyn and Long Island City, but returned
without approval by the mayor of New York. The Legislature
then re-enacted the bill, and it was made law, by the
governor's signature, on the 4th of May, 1897.

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1897 (September-November).

Election of the first Mayor of Greater New York.
The first municipal election in Greater New York excited a
passion of interest that was natural in the city itself, but
extraordinary in the degree and the extent to which it spread,
not only throughout the United States, but widely in the
foreign world. The election was looked upon as the test of a
vastly important experiment in the democratic government of an
enormous city. The charter of the great consolidated
municipality had lodged tremendous, unprecedented power and
responsibility in the office of its mayor. The people were
given an opportunity to determine by a single act of suffrage—
by their choice of a single man—the character of their
government. Would they choose that man, at the beginning of
the new system, in the interest of the corrupting organization
in party politics which had misruled the old city of New York
for years, or would they rise to the grand opportunity
afforded them, and set a strong, free, independently honest
man at the head of their local government. Democracy in
municipal affairs, at least, had never been put on trial so
sharply before. To a great number of the citizens of New York
the duty of the hour was plain, and they promptly set their
hands to it. Many months before the election they began the
organization of a Citizens' Union, in which men of all
political parties, sinking every other difference, should join
for the defeat of Tammany and "Boss" Croker, and for the
election to the mayor's office of the best mayor to be found.
With remarkable unanimity, their thought of the man turned to
Seth Low, President of Columbia University, but one time mayor
of Brooklyn, where his vigor, his firmness and his
independence had been conspicuously proved. An extensive
canvass of the city showed so widely spread a feeling in favor
of Mr. Low that he was named at the beginning of September as
the candidate of the non-partisan Citizens' Union. It was
hoped that the whole opposition to Tammany Hall could be
united in support of Mr. Low, representing as he did no
partisan hostility to any organization in national or state
politics. It was especially hoped and believed that the
Republican party organization would endorse the choice of the
 Citizens' Union and make Mr. Low (himself a strong Republican)
its own candidate. By nothing less than a general combination
could the compact forces of Tammany Hall be overcome, and that
fact was well understood.
{324}
It was a fact so plain, indeed, that when the head of the
Republican organization in New York persisted in setting a
party candidate in the field, to divide the opposing voters of
the city, there seemed to be small doubt of the intention with
which it was done. The master politicians of the party were
evidently more willing that the vast powers of the mayoralty,
in the organization of the government of Greater New York,
should be wielded by their prototypes of Tammany than that
they should be given to independent hands. The party was
obedient to them, and General Benjamin F. Tracy was put
forward, by a Republican convention held September 28, in
opposition to Mr. Low. The night previous, another candidate
had appeared, in the person of Mr. Henry George, author of the
economic doctrine of the "single tax," supported ardently by a
large following, especially in the Democratic party. A section
of that party, organized under the name of the United Democracy,
had nominated Mr. George, and his nomination was endorsed a
week later by a great assembly which claimed to represent the
Jeffersonian Democracy of New York. On the 30th of September
the nomination of the Tammany Democracy was given to Judge
Robert A. Van Wyck. Between these four principal candidates,
the result of the election was only put in doubt by some
question as to the strength of the Democratic vote which Mr.
George would draw away from Judge Van Wyck. It was a question
extinguished sadly, three days before the election, by the
sudden death of Mr. George. He had not been in good health,
and the strain of the exciting canvass broke him down. His
followers made a hasty nomination of his son, Henry George,
Jr., in his place; but the personal prestige which might have
carried a large vote with them was lost. Of the triumph of
Tammany there was no longer any doubt, and no surprise was
felt (though abundant grief and anger found expression) when
 the returns of the voting on November 2d were announced. Judge
Van Wyck was elected by the ballots of 233,997 citizens, against
151,540 cast for Mr. Low, 102,873 for General Tracy, 21,693
for the younger Mr. George. Tammany would have been beaten if
the Republican vote had gone to Mr. Low. Besides the four
principal candidates here named, there were four other
nominees who received small numbers of votes. Lucien Sanial,
put forward by the Social Democrats, received 14,467; William
T. Wardwell, named by the Prohibitionists, received 1,359;
Patrick J. Gleason and Alfred B. Cruikshank, running with
little more than some personal support, received a few
hundreds of votes each.

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1899 (April-December).

The Mazet Investigation.

An investigation of charges against the city government, by a

committee of the Legislature, Mr. Robert Mazet, chairman, was
opened in April, 1899, the examination of witnesses being
conducted by Mr. Frank Moss. The investigation followed lines
much the Same as those pursued by the Lexow committee, in
1894, and revealed much the same foul state of things,
especially in the department of police. But there was
evidently less earnestness in the committee; the probing of
iniquities was fill less thorough, and the whole proceeding
was stopped with suspicious suddenness as soon as it drew near
to prominent members of the party by which it was controlled.
It called fresh attention to the rottenness in municipal
politics, and it led to the creation of a new commission for
the revision of the Greater New York charter; but otherwise it
was most unsatisfactory.

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1899-1900.

The Ramapo Water Contract.

In August, 1899, Bird S. Coler, Controller of the City,

exposed a gigantic scheme of plunder involved in a contract
 with the Ramapo Water Company, which Tammany officials,
assisted, it was said, by some interested Republicans, were
attempting to crowd through the Board of Public Improvements.
The contract would have bound the city for forty years to pay
to the Ramapo Company $70 per million gallons for 200,000,000
gallons of water daily. In his Message to the State
Legislature, January 2, 1901, Governor Odell thus referred to
the matter: "Under chapter 985 of the laws of 1895, as
amended, the Ramapo Water Company was given the power of
condemnation for the purpose of securing to it the water and
lands necessary for its purposes. During the year 1899 an
attempt was made to enter into a contract with this company by
the municipal board empowered to make such contracts. This
proposition, when presented to the citizens of New York, was
severely criticised by them, and the question of continued
municipal ownership of their water supply was thus brought to
their attention. The Legislature of 1900 enacted a law which
made the consummation of such a contract impossible without
the unanimous consent of those empowered to make such
contract. The ownership of water rights sufficient to provide
the city of New York with an ample supply of pure and
wholesome water should be entirely under the control and
direction of the municipality." Action on the subject was
taken by the Legislature, which, in March, repealed the Act of
1895, thus stripping the Ramapo Company of its extraordinary
powers.

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1900 (January-September).

The Rapid Transit Tunnel Contract.
Projected Tunnel to Brooklyn.

"The great project of underground rapid transit is now an

assured thing. A few months ago the prospect seemed very dark.
It is true that the rapid transit commissioners, a very able
and upright body of men, with the invaluable aid of a
distinguished engineer, Mr. Parsons, had a good while ago
decided on the route and the plans; but the way seemed blocked
 by a series of semi-political and semi-legal difficulties. …
Suddenly these difficulties began to disappear. … The
financial plan adopted was that the city should provide the
money which a contractor would expend in building the road,
the contractor following the plans furnished by the city,
submitting to municipal inspection, and agreeing upon his part
to pay the interest on the bonds sold by the city to obtain
the money, and also to pay enough into a sinking fund to
provide for the ultimate redemption of the bonds. Bids were
called for on November 15, to be opened on January 15. … It
turned out that two well-known contractors were the only
bidders, and the award was given to Mr. John B. McDonald. His
bid was $35,000,000. The theory of this contract is that the
road is to be the property of the city, leased for fifty years
to the contractor, who is to pay a rental that will be large
enough so that the taxpayers will not have expended a penny. …
{325}
The main trunk line will start at the post-office (City Hall
Square) on the south and proceed northward along the spine of
Manhattan Island, following the general direction of Broadway
to Kingsbridge, a distance from the point of beginning of
twelve or thirteen miles. Near the upper end of Central Park,
at a distance of six or seven miles from the point of
beginning, a branch of the tunnel road will take a
northeasterly direction, terminating at Bronx Park, which is
about the same distance north as Kingsbridge, but several
miles further east. The road will have four tracks for six
miles of main line, two of which will be used for local trains
and two for express trains."

American Review of Reviews,

February, 1900.

Work on the great undertaking was begun promptly, and had made
great progress within the first twelve months.

In September, 1900, preliminary steps were taken toward the

construction of a connecting tunnel, under the East River, to
Brooklyn, and through the congested districts of the latter
borough. "At least three years will be necessary for the
preliminary work and actual construction before trains are
running. … Tentative estimates have been made, and these are
said to be from $8,000,000 to $10,000,000. … The route as
contemplated … starts in connection with the Manhattan
proposed tunnel at a point at or near the intersection of
Broadway and Park Row; thence under Broadway and Bowling Green
to Whitehall Street; under Whitehall Street to South Street;
thence under South Street to the East River, and under the
river, striking the Brooklyn shore at a point in Joralemon
Street between the East River and Furman Street, under
Joralemon Street to Fulton Street, to the Borough Hall, out
Fulton Street to Flatbush Avenue, and under this thoroughfare
to the railroad station. On the New York side the route
includes a loop to be built whose debouching point shall lie
between Bowling Green and Exchange Place in Broadway, running
under Broadway to Bowling Green, and thence under Bowling
Green to State Street, to and under Battery Park to Whitehall
Street, thence returning under Whitehall Street and Battery
Park to State Street and to Broadway. The construction calls
for two tracks, and avoids all grade crossings, each track to
have a separate tubular tunnel."

New York Times,

September 28, 1900.

On the 25th of January, 1901, announcement was published that

the Board of Rapid Transit Commissioners had adopted a
resolution definitely providing for the extension of the Rapid
Transit Railroad to Brooklyn. The original plan of route in
Brooklyn had been chosen. The only change made was in
Manhattan. The trains would be run through State St. instead
of Whitehall, as formerly planned, with a loop at the Battery
for Manhattan trains.
NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1900 (April-May).
Ecumenical Conference on Missions.

See (in this volume)

MISSIONS.

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1900 (June).

Great fire at the Hoboken piers.

See (in this volume)

HOBOKEN.

NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1900-1901.

Revision of the charter.

Carefully as the Greater New York charter had been drawn, it

proved unsatisfactory in the working, in various respects, and
a commission to revise it was appointed in 1900. The report of
the commission was submitted to the Governor on the 1st of
December, and transmitted, with his approval, to the
Legislature in the following month. In the hands of the
Legislature, the bill embodying the revised charter underwent
considerable amendment, very much, it would seem, to its
detriment. It was passed by the Senate on the 3d of April and
by the Assembly on the 4th, and went to the Mayor of New York
for the submission to his judgment which the State
Constitution of New York requires. Some of the more important
changes in the charter made by the revision, as passed, are
the shortening of the mayor's term of office from four years
(which the revision commission had advised retaining) to two
years, with eligibility for re-election (which the commission
had advised against); an increase of the administrative powers
of the presidents of boroughs; abolition of the municipal
Council and creation of a Board of Aldermen of 73 members;
reorganization of various departments of the municipal
administration.
NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1901 (March).
Offered gift of $5,200,000 to the Public Library
by Andrew Carnegie.

See (in this volume)

LIBRARY, NEW YORK PUBLIC.

NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1894.

The revised Constitution.

See (in this volume)

CONSTITUTION OF NEW YORK.

NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1896-1897.

Passage of the Raines Liquor Law.

An Act for the regulation of the liquor traffic, which was and
is the subject of much controversy, was passed in March, 1896,
by the Legislature of the State of New York. From its author,
Senator John Raines, it has borne the name of the Raines Law.
It heavily increased the tax on the selling of liquor, raising
it to $800 on common "saloons" in the city of New York; to $650
in Brooklyn; to $500 in other cities having more than 50,000
and not more than 500,000 inhabitants; and to rates in lesser
cities and towns which ranged from 8100 to $350. It forbade
the licensing of any liquor shop within 200 feet of a
schoolhouse or a church, and also forbade the opening of any
new shop of that character in a residence district without
consent of two-thirds of the property owners. It prohibited
the sale of liquor on Sundays, except in hotels and clubs; but
this provision furnished a means of evasion which was speedily
brought into use. "Raines hotels" and "Raines Clubs," as they
were called, sprang into existence everywhere, sufficiently
answering the requirements of the law to escape its penalties.
These and other defects were considerably remedied by
amendments of the Act in April, 1897. It survived a powerful
attack in the Legislature at that time, the whole strength of
 the leading cities in the State being brought against the law.
The country districts were generally united in supporting it,
partly on principle, and partly because of the extent to which
it lightened the burdens of taxation. By apportioning
two-thirds of the enormous revenue raised under the Act to the
towns, counties and cities in which it is collected, and
one-third to the state treasury, the Raines Law fortified
itself strongly in more than the moral sentiment of the
people. Under the Raines Law all local excise boards are
abolished, and the whole licensing and regulating of the
liquor traffic is placed under the supervision of a State
commissioner.

NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1897.

The Black Civil Service Law.

See (in this volume)

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: A. D. 1897-1899.

{326}

NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1898.

Primary Election Law.

An Act which aims to make the political party caucus for

nominating candidates, and for choosing delegates to
nominating conventions, a "primary election," conducted under
strict regulations of law and guarded by registration, was
passed by the New York State Legislature and signed by the
Governor March 23, 1898.

NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1899.

New Civil Service Enactment.

See (in this volume)

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM: A. D. 1897-1899.
NEW YORK STATE: A. D. 1899 (May).
Taxation of public franchises.

A measure of great importance, introducing a new and eminently

just principle in taxation, was carried through the
Legislature of New York in May, by the energetic influence of
Governor Roosevelt. Recommended by the Governor in a special
message on the 27th of March and passed in an unsatisfactory
form, a bill to provide for the taxing of public franchises
which did not promise successful working was being left on his
hands when the Legislature adjourned. He promptly called a
special session and renewed to it his urgent recommendations.
"I recommend," he said, "the enactment of a law which shall
tax all these franchises as realty, which shall provide for
the assessment of the tax by the Board of State Tax
Commissioners, and which shall further provide that from the
tax thus levied for the benefit of each locality, there shall
be deducted the tax as now paid by the corporation in
question. Furthermore, as the time for assessing the largest
and wealthiest corporations, those of New York and Buffalo,
has passed for this year, and as it will be preferable not to
have the small country corporations taxed before the larger
corporations of the city are taxed, I suggest that the
operations of the law be deferred until October 1, of this
year."

Within a few days, the desired bill was passed by both Houses
of the Legislature, signed by the Governor and became a law.
The public franchises to which it relates are defined in its
first section, as follows:

"The terms 'land,' 'real estate,' and 'real property,' as used

in this chapter, include the land itself above and under
water, all buildings and other articles and structures,
substructures, and superstructures, erected upon, under or
above, or affixed to the same; all wharves and piers,
including the value of the right to collect wharfage, cranage,
 or dockage thereon; all bridges, all telegraph lines, wires,
poles, and appurtenances; all supports and inclosures for
electrical conductors and other appurtenances upon, above, and
underground; all surface, underground, or elevated railroads,
including the value of all franchises, rights, or permission
to construct, maintain, or operate the same in, under, above,
on, or through streets, highways, or public places; all
railroad structures, substructures, and superstructures,
tracks, and the iron thereon, branches, switches, and other
fixtures permitted or authorized to be made, laid, or placed
on, upon, above, or under any public or private road, street,
or grounds; all mains, pipes, and tanks laid or placed in,
upon, above, or under any public or private street or place
for conducting steam, heat, water, oil, electricity, or any
property, substance or product capable of transportation or
conveyance therein, or that is protected thereby, including
the value of all franchises, rights, authority, or permission
to construct, maintain, or operate in, under, above, upon, or
through any streets, highways, or public places, any mains,
pipes, tanks, conduits, or wires, with their appurtenances,
for conducting water, steam, heat, light, power, gas, oil, or
other substance, or electricity for telegraphic, telephonic,
or other purposes; all trees and underwood growing upon land,
and all mines, minerals, quarries, and fossils in and under
the same, except mines belonging to the state. A franchise,
right, authority, or permission, specified in this
subdivision, shall, for the purpose of taxation, be known as a
special franchise. A special franchise shall be deemed to
include the value of the tangible property of a person,
co-partnership, association, or corporation, situated in,
upon, under, or above any street, highway, public place, or
public waters in connection with the special franchise. The
tangible property so included shall be taxed as a part of the
special franchise."

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY:

The Hall of Fame for Great Americans.
 See (in this volume)
HALL OF FAME.

----------NEW ZEALAND: Start--------

NEW ZEALAND: A. D. 1891-1900.

Democratic experiments.
Labor laws and the land system.
Compulsory industrial arbitration and its working.

"I have been a studious observer of every phase of social life

and legislative change that has taken place in this colony
during the past seven years," wrote U. S. Consul Connolly, at
Auckland, in July, 1896. "I arrived at the very beginning of
the experimental era—and it is no misnomer to call much of the
legislation of the past few years experimental in the truest
sense [see, also (in this volume), AUSTRALIA: RECENT
EXTENSIONS OF DEMOCRACY]. But while it is so, there is a most
gratifying feature which compensates for the violence done to
the feelings of those whose motto has been 'let us permit
matters to remain as they are, they suit us well enough.' That
the legislative innovations of the immediate past have shocked
the sensibilities of a large number of prominent and
well-to-do colonists is unquestionably true, but, at the same
time, as against any inconvenience they may have experienced
on this account, there is the fact of increased prosperity in
nearly every branch of trade and industrial life throughout
the country, farm products are fetching satisfactory prices,
manufacturing industries are running full time and paying good
wages and fair interest on the capital invested, labor is
remuneratively employed, interest on money has fallen from 6
and 7 per cent to 4 and 5 per cent (this of itself, is
sufficient to prove that money is abundant). Millions of
English capital are flowing in for the development of the gold
fields of the colony, and the credit of the country at no
period of its history stood so high on the English market as
 it does to-day.
{327}
I may also mention that, through the genuine encouragement
given by the Government to the small-farmer class, the waste
lands of the country are being rapidly taken up wherever land
is found suitable for farming or grazing purposes.
Notwithstanding the admitted prosperity of the colony and the
fact that the Government have had a substantial surplus over
expenditure now for a number of years, the national debt
continues to increase. But the increased indebtedness is not
of the usual character, for the reason that the country has
security for nearly all the money borrowed in recent years.
Money had to be borrowed under Government guaranty to save the
Bank of New Zealand from closing its doors. This was done to
avert financial disaster. …

"Money has been borrowed to purchase large estates for the

purposes of settlement. Those who take up land under this
system, as already stated, pay an annual rental sufficient to
cover the interest on the purchase money and the cost of
administration. The land is always vested in the Government
and this must be regarded as a good asset. One million and a
Half sterling was borrowed last year in England at 3 per cent
per annum. This £1,500,000 loan is called the ' advances to
settlers loan.' This money is lent out to farmers at 4 per
cent per annum. … I need scarcely add that the large
landholders, the mortgage companies, and the money lenders
generally did not favor this kind of legislation, particularly
the cheap advances to settlers, but their opposition was utterly
futile. With the advent of the one-man-one-vote and the
extension of the franchise to women, the power of corporate
wealth in this country appears to have been irrevocably
destroyed. Whether this be for good or evil, I am not, of
course, in a position to say. I can say, however, that no ill
effects of the change are apparent up to the present; on the
contrary, the country is more prosperous and at least as
honestly and as economically administered as it was under the
old régime.

"To say that this country is, in my opinion, more truly

democratic than any country in the world would be merely
stating a simple truth; and to say that the present Government
is a workingman's Government is equally true. A great deal of
the legislation of recent years, however, is in advance of the
requirements and ideas of the people, with the result that
some of it has proved to be annoying and irksome to many. This
is especially true of some of the labor laws. The Government
are honestly endeavoring to place the masses in possession of
their legitimate rights with as little friction as possible,
and at the same time with due regard to vested interests and
the propriety of things generally. But while struggling thus
with the duties and responsibilities of their official
positions, the members of the Ministry are torn asunder by the
clamorous and impracticable demands of the unreasonable and
irresponsible. The sympathies of the Government are
unmistakably with the people, but the honor, the dignity, and
the welfare of the country will not permit them to depart from
a course too inconsistent with the sense of obligation, fair
dealing, integrity, and responsibility which are the admitted
characteristics and duty of all civilized governments. The
great danger at the present moment is too much legislation in
one direction. This is the one thing wherein the Government
find it really hard to resist the demands of organized labor.
There is, however, a very gratifying disposition manifesting
itself among the more reasonable members of the labor
societies to let well enough alone for the present—a
disposition it is much to be hoped may extend throughout the
whole body of the workers. If not, I have no hesitation in
predicting a serious revulsion of public sentiment and
sympathy within the next few years."

United States Consular Reports,

January, 1897, page 35.
"Australian experience seems in many ways to prove the value
of our system of written constitutions, to be construed and
enforced by the courts. The effect on the minds of
ill-informed legislators of the knowledge that they can do
anything for which they can get a majority, is naturally to
beget extravagance and an overweening sense of power, and lead
to excessive experimentation. … It is in devices for the
protection of labor that most of this experimentation occurs.
New Zealand affords the best example of it. It provides
elaborate legal protection for the eight-hour day. A workman
cannot consent to work overtime without extra pay. The state
sees that he gets the extra pay. It looks closely after the
condition of women and children in the factories. It sees that
servant girls are not overcharged by the registry offices for
getting them places. It prescribes one half-holiday a week for
all persons employed in stores and offices, and sees that they
take it. It will not allow even a shopkeeper who has no
employees to dispense with his half-holiday; because if he
does not take it, his competition will injure those who do.
The 'labor department' of the government has an army of
inspectors, who keep a close watch on stores and factories,
and prosecute violations of the law which they themselves
discover. They do not wait for complaints; they ferret out
infractions, so that the laborer may not have to prejudice
himself by making charges. The department publishes a
'journal' once a month, which gives detailed reports of the
condition of the labor market in all parts of the colony, and
of the prosecutions which have taken place anywhere of
employers who have violated the law. It provides insurance for
old age and early death, and guarantees every policy. It gives
larger policies for lower premiums than any of the private
offices, and depreciates the private offices in its documents.
It distributes the profits of its business as bonuses among the
policy-holders, and keeps a separate account for teetotalers,
so that they may get special advantages from their abstinence.
The 'journal' is, in fact, in a certain sense a labor manual,
in which everything pertaining to the comfort of labor is
 freely discussed. The poor accommodation provided for servants
in hotels and restaurants is deplored, and so is the
difficulty which middle-aged men have in finding employment.
More attention to the morals and manners of nursemaids is
recommended. All the little dodges of employers are exposed
and punished. If they keep the factory door fastened, they are
fined. If housekeepers pretend that their servants are
lodgers, and therefore not liable to a compulsory
half-holiday, they are fined. If manufacturers are caught
allowing girls to take their meals in a workshop, they are
fined.

{328}

"As far as I can make out, too, without visiting the country,
there is as yet no sign of reaction against this minute
paternal care of the laborer. The tendency to use the powers
of the government chiefly for the promotion of the comfort of
the working classes, whether in the matter of land settlement,
education, or employment, seems to undergo no diminution. The
only thing which has ceased, or slackened, is the borrowing of
money for improvements. The results of this borrowing have
been so disastrous that the present generation, at least, will
hardly try that experiment again."

E. L. Godkin,
The Australian Democracy
(Atlantic Monthly, March, 1898).

NEW ZEALAND:
Labor Laws.
Compulsory industrial arbitration.

"There is not in any other country in the world a more

valuable or more enlightened body of Labour laws than those
now upon the statute book of this progressive colony. They
cover almost every risk to life, limb, health, and interest of
the industrial classes. They send the law, as it were,
everywhere a worker is employed for daily wages to fling the
shield of the state over him or her in the labour of
livelihood. The bare enumeration of these laws will indicate
the far-reaching ground they cover:—The Coal Mines Act, the
Master and Apprentices Act, the Conspiracy Law Amendment Act,
the Trade Union Act, the Servant's Registry Offices Act (for
the protection of servant girls against the risks of dishonest
offices of that kind), Contractors and Workmen's Lien Act,
three amended Employer's Liability Acts, three amended
Shipping and Seamen's Acts, two Shops and Shop-assistants
Acts, the Factories Act, and the Industrial Conciliation and
Arbitration Act of 1894. … The Industrial Conciliation and
Arbitration Act, passed in 1894 … has attracted much attention
outside New Zealand. An Act with a similar purpose, but
permissive in its operations, was passed … in the New South
Wales Legislature in 1892. It was limited in duration to four
years, and was not a success. The New Zealand bill was more
skilfully drawn, and, possessing the element of a gentle
compulsion, has so far achieved its aim. The Act begins by
inviting all parties to join 'in lawful association for the
purpose of protecting or furthering the interests of employers
or workmen in, or in connection with, any industry in the
colony.' Such parties as accept the legal invitation are
allowed to register themselves as 'an industrial union,' and
this step once taken they are enticed on through a network of
solicitations, provisions, and safeguards, until they find
themselves, almost without knowing it, agreeing to everything
that follows. Trades Unions, or any other labour organization,
or any combination of employers, can register as individual
bodies without a mixed association of workers and employers.
Once registered, they are in the network of arbitration:—'The
effect of registration shall be to render the industrial
union, and all persons who may be members of any society or
trade union, so registered as an industrial union at the time
of registration, or who after such registration may become
members of any society or trade union so registered, subject
to the jurisdiction by this Act given to a Board and the Court
respectively, and liable to all the provisions of this Act,
and all such persons shall be bound by the rules of the
industrial union during the continuance of the membership.' …
'Every industrial agreement duly made and executed shall be
binding on the parties thereto, and on every person who at any
time during the term of such agreement is a member of any
industrial union, trade union, or association party thereto,
and on every employer who shall in the prescribed manner
signify to the Registrar of the Supreme Court where such
agreement is filed concurrence therein, and every such
employer shall be entitled to the benefit thereof, and be
deemed to be a party thereto.' … 'In and for every district
there shall be established a Board of Conciliation, to have
jurisdiction for the settlement of industrial disputes
occurring in such district, which may be referred to it by one
or more of the parties to an industrial dispute, or by
industrial agreement.' … 'Every Board shall consist of such
equal number of persons as the Governor may determine, being
not more than six nor less than four persons, who shall be
chosen by the industrial unions of employers and of workmen in
the industrial district respectively, such unions voting
separately, and electing an equal number of such members.' …
Should this body itself be unable to come to a satisfactory
decision it may refer the matter in question to a small
committee of its members fairly representing each side. If a
settlement or reconciliation be unattainable in this way,
either party to the dispute can appeal to the Court of
Arbitration, which is constituted as follows:—'There shall be
one Court of Arbitration for the whole colony for the
settlement of industrial disputes pursuant to this Act. … The
Court shall consist of three members to be appointed by the
Governor, one to be so appointed on the recommendation of the
councils or a majority of the councils of the industrial
associations of workmen in the colony, and one to be so
appointed on the recommendation of the councils or a majority
of the councils of the industrial associations of employers of
the colony.' … 'No recommendation shall be made as to the
third member, who shall be a Judge of the Supreme Court, and
shall be appointed from time to time by the Governor, and
shall be President of the Court.'"

M. Davitt,
Life and Progress in Australasia,
chapter 68.

Honorable W. P. Reeves, lately Agent-General of New Zealand in

England, but who was Minister of Education and Labor in New
Zealand from 1891 to 1896, and who is looked upon as the
principal author of the industrial arbitration laws in that
colony, wrote, during the summer of 1900, on the working of
those laws, in an article contributed to the "London Express,"
as follows:

"The arbitration law has been in constant use in New Zealand

for about four years and a half. During those years there has
never been a time when there has not been a dispute pending
before one or other of the Conciliation Boards or the Central
Arbitration Court. Writing, as I do, at some distance from
London, I cannot say from memory what the exact number of
disputes finally adjusted has been; but, so far, they cannot
be less than sixty or seventy. Most of these have been
carried, on appeal from some Conciliation Board, to the
Arbitration Court and settled there. In about two cases out of
seven the Conciliation Boards have been able successfully to
arrange the disputes. Even where they have not done so, it by
no means follows that their labors have been useless. Very
often the appeal to the Arbitration Court is merely on one or
two points out of many involved, and the advice of the
Conciliation Board is accepted on the others. Often, too, most
of the parties to a dispute have been ready to accept a board's
suggestions, but it has needed the firm hand of the
Arbitration Court to bring one or two stubborn men to
acquiescence.