REPLEKTIBONG SANAYSAY WAKAS O KONKLUSYON
 Isang uri ng sanaysay na patungkol sa mga isyu, opinyon, karanasan, o pangyayaring
naisusulat ng may-akda nang komprehensibo kahit na hindi masyadong pinag-aralan
ang isang paksa o isyu.
 Ayon kay Michael Stratford, isang guro at manunulat, ang replektibong sanaysay ay
isa sa mga tiyak na uri ng sanaysay na may kinalaman sa pagsasanay na may
kinalaman sa pagsuri o pag-arok sa isip o damdamin (introspection).
 Ayon naman kay Kori Morgan, guro mula sa West Virginia University at University of
Akron, ang replektibong sanaysay ay nagpapakita ng personal na paglago ng isang
tao mula sa isang karanasan o pangyayari.
Mga dapat isaalang-alang sa pagsulat ng Replektibong Sanaysay
1. Bumuo ng isang tiyak na paksa o tesis na iikutan ng nilalaman ng replektibong
sanaysay.
2. Gumamit ng unang panauhan ng panghalip tulad ng; ako, ko, at akin sapagkat ito ay
nagpahiwatig ng personal na karanasan.
3. Mahalagang magtataglay ito ng patunay o patotoo batay sa iyong mga
naoobserbahan o katotohanang nabasa tungkol sa paksa nang sa gayon ay higit na
mabisa at epektibo ang pagkakasulat nito.
4. Pormal na salita ang gamitin sa pagsulat nito dahil kabilang ito sa akademikong
sulatin.
5. Gumamit ng tekstong naglalahad o ekspositori sa pagsulat nito. Gawin itong
malinaw at madaling mauunawaan sa pagpapaliwanag ng mga ideya o kaisipan
upang maipabatid ang mensahe sa mga mambabasa.
6. Sundin ang mga bahagi sa pagsulat ng sanaysay: introduksiyon, katawan, at
kongklusyon.
7. Gawing Organisado at Lohikal ang pagkakasulat ng mga talata.
Mga Hakbang sa Pagsulat ng Replektibong Sanaysay
INTRODUKSIYON
• Mga dapat tandaan sa pagsulat ng Introduksiyon: siguraduhing ito ay makapupukaw
sa atensiyon ng mambabasa.
KATAWAN
Sa pagsulat ng Katawan, dito inilalahad ang mga pantulong o kaugnay na kaisipan tungkol sa
paksa o tesis na inilahad sa panimula.
Sa pagsulat naman ng Konklusyon, muling banggitin ang tesis o ang pangunahing paksa ng
sanaysay. Lagumin ito sa pamamagitan ng pagbanggit kung paano mo magagamit ang iyong
mga natutuhan sa buhay sa hinaharap.
POSISYONG PAPEL
Ayon kay Jocson et al. (2005), sa kanilang aklat na Pagbasa at Pagsulat Tungo sa
Pananaliksik, ang
pangangatwiran ay tinatawag ding pakikipagtalo o argumentasyon na maaaring maiugnay sa
sumusunod na mga
paliwanag:
1. Ito ay isang sining ng paglalahad ng mga dahilan upang makabuo ng isang patunay na
tinatanggap ng nakararami.
2.Ito ay isang uri ng paglalahad na nagtatakwil sa kamalian upang maipahayag ang
katotohanan.
3.Ito ay isang paraang ginagamit upang mabigyang-katarungan ang mga opinyon at
maipahayag ang mga
opinyong ito sa iba.
Mga Dapat Isaalang-alang para sa Isang Mabisang Pangangatwiran:
Alamin at unawain ang paksang ipagmamatuwid.
2. Dapat maging maliwanag at tiyak ang pagmamatuwid.
3. Sapat na katwiran at katibayang makapagpapatunay.
4. Dapat ay may kaugnayan sa paksa ang katibayan at katwiran upang makapanghikayat.
5. Pairalin ang pagsasaalang-alang, katarungan, at bukas na kaisipan sa pagpapahayag ng
kaalamang
Ilalahad.
6. Tiyaking mapagkakatiwalaan ang mga ilalahad na katwiran.
Ang pagsulat ng posisyong papel ay isang paraan ng pagpapakita ng isang masining na
pagpapahayag ngmga katwiran. Ang layunin ng posisyong papel ay mahikayat ang madlang
ang pinaniniwalaan ay katanggap-tanggap at may katotohanan. Mahalagang maipakita at
mapagtibay ang argumentong ipinaglalaban gamit angmga ebidensyang magpapatotoo sa
posisyong pinaniniwalaan o pinaninindigan.
Ayon kay Grace Fleming, sumulat ng artikulong “How to Write an Argumentative Essay,” ang
posisyong papel ay ang pagsalig o pagsuporta sa katotohanan ng isang kontrobersiyal na
isyu sa pamamagitan ng pagbuong isang kaso o usapin para sa iyong pananaw o posisyon.
Mga Hakbang sa Pagsulat ng Posisyong Papel
1. Pumili ng paksang malapit sa iyong puso
2.Magsagawa ng panimulang pananaliksik hinggil sa napiling paksa
3.Bumuo ng thesis statement o pahayag n tesis
4.Subukin ang katibayan o kalakasan ng iyong pahayag ng tesis o posisyon
5.Magpatuloy sa pangangalap ng mga kakailanganing ebidensya.
6.Buoin ang balangkas ng posisyong papel.
Ayon kay Constantino at Zafra, nauuri sa dalawa ang mga ebidensiyang magagamit sa
pangangatwiran:
1. Mga katunayan (facts)-Ito ay tumutukoy sa mga ideyang tinatanggap na totoo
dahil ang mga katibayan nito ay nakabatay sa Nakita, narinig, nalasahan, at nadama.
2. Mga opinyon- Ito ay tumutukoy sa pananaw ng mga tao, mga ideyang nakasalig
hindi sa kayunayan kundi sa ipinapalagay lamang na totoo.
I. Panimula
Sa pagsulat ng panimula, mahalagang maunawaan na ito ay may dalawang layunin. Una,
upang ipakilala ang paksa at ang tesis at pangalawa,upang maantig ang interes ng mga
babasa nito.
II. Paglalahad ng Counterargument o mga Argumentong Tumututol o Kumokontra sa Iyong
Tesis
III. Paglalahad ng iyong posisyon o Pangangatwiran Tungkol sa Isyu
IV. Konklusyon
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 REVIEW MATERIALS
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Descriptive research design
It is an appropriate choice when the research objective is to identify characteristics,
frequencies, trends, and categories.
Correlational research design
It is the design of choice if
1) you want to find out if there is a relationship between two variables, but you don't expect
to find a causal relationship between them and if
2) statistical relationship of interest is thought to be causal, but the
researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable because it is impossible,
impractical, or unethical.
Experimental research design
This research design is suitable for research whose goal is to examine cause-effect
relationships. It is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause
precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the
same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great.
SAMPLING METHODS
- refer to how we select members from the population to be in the study. If a sample
isn't randomly selected, it will probably be biased in some way and the data may not
be representative of the population.
- Sampling means choosing from a large population of respondents or subjects to
answer your research questions. The entire population is involved however, for your
research study, you choose only a part of the whole.
-
Sample – a subgroup of the target population that the researcher plans to study for
generalizing about the target population
Target Population - a group of individuals with some common defining characteristic that
the researcher can identify and study
Population - a group of individuals who have the same characteristic
GROUPS OF SAMPLING METHODS
A. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
This sampling method makes you base your selection of respondents on pure chance. All
are given equal opportunity to be chosen as a sample for the research.
DIFFERENT PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
1. Simple Random Sampling:
Every member and set of members has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Technology, random number generators, fishbowl technique can be used to select you
sample.
2. Systematic Random Sampling:
Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which sample members
from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point but with a fixed,
periodic interval.
3. Stratified Random Sampling:
The population is first split into groups. The overall sample consists of some members from
every group. The members from each group are chosen randomly.
4. Cluster Sampling:
The population is first split into groups. The overall sample consists of every member from
some of the groups. The groups are selected at random. A cluster sample gets every
member from some of the groups, so it's good when each group reflects the population as a
whole.
B. NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
DIFFERENT NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
1. Convenience Sampling:
The researcher chooses a sample that is readily available in some non-random way.
2. Voluntary Response Sampling:
The researcher puts out a request for members of a population to join the sample, and
people decide whether or not to be in the sample.
3. Snowball Sampling:
Snowball sampling method is purely based on referrals and that is how a researcher is able
to generate a sample.
Data gathering or collection is a process of collecting information regarding the variables
that the researcher sought to examine, and to answer the objectives of the researcher.
Common data collection methods used in quantitative research are survey, experiment, and
observation.
Research Instruments are measurement tools (for example, questionnaires or scales)
designed to obtain data on a topic of interest from research subjects
DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Questionnaire
This is the most common instrument or tool for obtaining data in research. It is a list of
planned, written questions about a particular topic, with spaces provided for the response
to each question, intended to be answered by a number of respondents.
Survey
Survey is a quantitative research method for which a researcher poses the same set of
predetermined questions to a sample of individuals. In doing survey, the researcher can
use either a questionnaire or interview as data gathering instrument.
Observation
Using your sense organs, you gather facts or information about people, things, places,
events, and so on, by watching and listening to them; then, record the results of the
functioning of your eyes and ears.
Experiment
An experiment is a scientific method of collecting data whereby you give the subjects a sort
of treatment or condition then evaluate the results to find out the manner by which the
treatment affected the subjects and to discover the reasons behind the effects of such
treatment on the subjects.
Research Intervention
Intervention in research is an introduction of a systematic change in condition to determine
and measure the significant effects of its subjects. An intervention could include a medical
or surgical intervention, a new drug, or an intervention to change lifestyle
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Nominal scales are used for labelling variables without any quantitative value. It simply
called “labels”. A good way to remember is that nominal sounds like name and nominal
scales are kind of like “names” or labels. Examples are the following:
a. Gender c. Place of residence
b. Hair color d. School
Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness,
discomfort, etc. It easy to remember because it sounds like “order” and that’s the key to
remember with ordinal scales. Below are examples of ordinal scales.
a. Happiness c. Pain
b. Satisfaction d. Agreement
Interval scales are numeric scales which we know not only the order, but also the exact
difference between the values. “Interval” itself means “space in between” which is the
important thing to remember because it does not only tell us order but also the value
between each item.
Ex. Temperature in Fahrenheit and Celsius (not for kelvin)
Time, IQ test (intelligence scale), Age
Ratio scales are the most ideal type of scale of measurement because they tell us about the
order, exact value between units and have absolute zero which allows for a wide range of
both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied. Examples can be of the following:
a. Weight c. The Kelvin scale: 50 K is twice as hot as 25 K.
b. Heigh d. Income earned in a month
INTERVIEW GUIDE
The interview guide is a list of questions you will ask your participants during the interview.
There are three standard types of interviews one can choose to conduct: structured,
unstructured or semi-structured. With a structured interview, each participant is asked the
exact same question in the same order that is in the interview guide.
OBSERVATION GUIDE
Observation is a systematic data collection approach wherein the researchers use all of their
senses to examine people in natural settings or naturally occurring situations. The
researcher uses a guide to record the behavior of the participants that they observed.
CHECKLIST
Checklists are used to encourage or verify that a number of specific lines of inquiry, steps, or
actions are being taken, or have been taken, by a researcher.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Mean is the most common average used to indicate the most typical response. It is
computed by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values or cases. It can only be
subjected to arithmetical operations.
Median is the middlemost value in an array, such that 50% are below it and 50% are above
it. This is the appropriate average to use when the data are ordinal.
Mode is the category or value with the greatest frequency of cases. It is the only acceptable
indicator of the most typical case for data which are nominal or categorical.
How to find the median?
Step 1: Order the numbers in the set from smallest to largest
Step 2: Find the middle number
If the is an odd number of values in the set, then the median is the middle value.
If there is an even number of values in the set, then the median is the average of the two
middle values.
Here is a sample of getting the median:
1. Find the median of 5, 7, 8, 2 and 4
Step 1) Put the numbers in order: 2, 4, 5, 7, 8
Step 2) There is an odd number of values in the set, so the median is the middle value which
is 5.
Answer: the median is 5.
2. Find the median of 23, 27, 16, 31
Step 1) Put the numbers in order: 16, 23, 27, 31
Step 2) There is an even number of values in the set, so the median is the average of the
middle two values. (23+27) ÷ 2 = 25
Answer: the mean is 25
3. Mode-the most frequent value; the observation with the highest frequency, the most
“fashionable value”
How do we find the mode?
Step 1: Order the numbers from smallest to largest
Step 2: Find the number that occurs most often.
What if there is more than one number that appears the most amount of times? Then there
is more than one mode.
What if all the numbers appear the same amount? In this case, there is no mode.
Different Kinds of Graphs and Charts
1. LINE GRAPH
It shows relationship between two sets of quantities. This is done by plotting point of X set
of quantities along the horizontal axis against the Y set of quantities along the vertical axis in
a Cartesian coordinate plane. Those plotted point will be connected by a line segment which
finally forms the line graph. It is often used to predict growth trends for a longer period.
2. BAR GRAPH
It consists of bars or rectangles of equal widths, either draws vertically or horizontally
segmented or non-horizontally segmented or non-segmented. This is done by drawing
rectangles with length proportional to the frequencies of observed items or magnitude of
classes under study. Two or more kinds of information can be compared by showing them in
multiple bar graphs, each of which is shaded with different colors to give distinction of each.
3. CIRCLE GRAPH OR PIE CHART
It represents relationship of the different components of a single as revealed in the sectors
of a circle. The angles or size of the sectors should be proportional to the percentage
component of the data which give a total of 100%. Color, legends, and cross hatching will be
useful in identifying each component.
SCATTER POINT DIAGRAM
It is a graphical device to show the relationship between quantitative variables.
Unlike the line graph, the plotted point for every pair of X and Y set quantities are not
connected by line segments but are simply scattered on the Cartesian coordinate plane. In
this diagram, a line that provides an approximation of the relationship between the
variables is known as a trend line.