GENERAL CHEMISTRY
2ND SEMESTER (MIDTERMS)
THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
The study of atoms started in Fifth Century
B.C by the Greek Philosophers Leucippus
and Democritus.
Atomic Theory
● Holds that matter is composed of tiny
particles.
John Dalton
● Published his atomic theory that
states that atoms of a given element
have the same size and weight.
Michael Faraday
● Published the Law of Electrolysis–
states that the amount of chemical
change produced by current quantity
electrode electrolyte boundary is
proportional to the quantity of
electricity.
Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer
● Published the Periodic Law– states
that elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic weights that will
show periodic chemical and physical
properties.
Henry Moseley
● Using X-ray spectra, he found out that
the nucleus is characterized by
atomic number and is equal to positive
charges.
Matter
● It is classified into pure substance
and impure substance or mixtures.
● Anything made of particles, has mass,
volume, and takes up space.
● Solid, Liquid, Gas
Element
● Is the simplest form of matter and
cannot be further subdivided by
ordinary chemicals.
Classification of Elements::
1. Metal- Shiny appearance,
malleable, and ductile.
1. Non-Metal- Dull appearance,
brittle, and poor conductor of
electricity.
2. Metalloid- has characteristics of
both Metal and Non-Metal.
Compound
● A chemical combination of two or
more elements in definite proportions.
Mixture
● A mechanical combination of two or
more substances.
Two Types of Mixtures:
1. Homogeneous– Combination of
two or more substances whose
components are equally
distributed.
2. Heterogenous– Combination of
two or more substances whose
components are not equally
distributed.
Physical Property
● A trait of matter that cannot be
observed or measured without
changing the chemical composition
of the matter.
● Has no chemical reactions.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
2ND SEMESTER (MIDTERMS)

Types of Physical Property: Melting Point/Freezing Point

Color ● The exact temperature at which a
● It is how objects absorb and reflect solid becomes a liquid or liquid
light. becomes a solid.
Texture Boiling Point/ Condensation Point
● How the substance looks and feels. ● The exact temperature at which a
Temperature liquid becomes a gas or gas becomes
● A measure of the average kinetic a liquid.
energy of particles in a substance.
Mass Intensive Property
● The amount of matter in an object ● One that does not depend on the
(grams or kilograms). amount of substance present.
Volume ● Are determined by the chemical
● The amount of space an object composition of the particles and their
occupies (in mL, L, cm3, m3, etc.) structure (arrangement).
Density Extensive Property
● The ratio of mass to volume; reflects ● One that does depend on the amount
the degree of packing of particles in of substance present.
matter. ● Depend only on the number of
● D= m/v particles not on their composition or
● Hydrogen– the lowest density internal arrangement.
element. 0.0009 g/cm3
● Osmium– the highest density Chemical Property
element. 23 g/cm3 ● A trait of matter that can only be
Luster observed if the substance has the
● The way a substance reflects light property. In the process of testing the
(metallic, non-metallic, glassy, dull, etc). chemical property, the substance
Ductility changes composition if it has that
● The ability of a substance to be property.
stretched into a wire.
Malleability Types of Chemical Properties:
● The ability of a substance to be Reactivity with oxygen– rusting iron.
hammered flat and to retain the new Reactivity with water– alcohol..
shape. Reactivity with acids or bases
State of Matter Combustibility or Flammability
● Solid, Liquid Gas. Chemical Formula– What something is
● Plasma– The 4th state of matter. made of is always the chemical formula.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
2ND SEMESTER (MIDTERMS)
All of Chemical Properties are Intensive.
Why?
● Because Chemical Properties never
depend on how much of a substance
is present, but only on what kind of
particles make up the substance.
Characteristic Property
● A distinctive property that helps you
determine the identity of a material.
Types of Characteristic Property:
Hardness
● Measure of how easily a material is
scratched.
Streak
● The color left behind when a material
is rubbed against a porcelain plate.
Shape
● The shape of crystals is called “Habit.”
● Cubic, Rhombohedral, Octahedral,
Amorphous.
METHODS OF MIXTURE SEPARATION
Mechanical Separation
● By hand
● Takes advantage of the physical
properties such as color and shape.
Magnetic Separation
● Takes advantage of the physical
properties of magnetism.
Filtration
● Takes advantage of the physical
properties of the state of matter.
● Filter– can be used to separate solid
particles of different sizes.
Decanting
● Take advantage of the differences in
density.
Distillation
● The separation of mixture based on the
physical property of boiling point.
Evaporation
● Vaporizing a liquid and leaving the
dissolved solid/s behind.
Density Separation
● More dense components sink to
bottom and less dense components
float. The components cannot be
soluble to each other.
Centrifuge
● Circular motion helps denser
components sink to bottom faster.
Paper chromatography
● It uses the property of “molecular
attraction” to separate a mixture.
● Different varying molecules have
varying molecular attractions for the
paper.
Fractional Crystallization
● Dissolved substances crystallize out
of a solution once their solubility limit
is reached as the solution cools.
LESSON 2: ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Isotopes
● Atoms of a given element that differ in
the number of neutrons and
consequently in the mass.
Mass Number
● Is the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an isotope.
● Mass # = # of p + # of n
Atomic Number (Z)
● Is the number of protons in the
nucleus of each atom that element.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
2ND SEMESTER (MIDTERMS)

Proton 4 Model of Nucleus:

● Has an electric charge of positive one 1. Marble Model (1803)
(+), and it is said to be stable by itself. ● By John Dalton
Neutron 2. Plum Pudding Model (1904)
● Has no net electric charge. Both ● By J.J. Thomson
protons and neutrons make up the ● Thomson believed that the
nucleus of an atom. electrons were like plums
Electron embedded in a positively
● Has an electric charge of negative charged “pudding,” thus it was
one. Electrons are much smaller than called the “Plum Pudding
neutrons and protons. Model.”
S-Orbital (Sharp) Discovery of the Electron
● A spherical cloud that becomes less ● In 1897, J.J. Thomson used a cathode
dense as the distance from the ray tube to deduce the presence of a
nucleus increases. negatively charged particle.
● 2 ● Cathode ray tubes pass electricity
P-Orbital (Principal) through a gas that is contained at a
● A dumbbell-shaped cloud, having two very low pressure.
lobes on opposite sides of the
nucleus. Conclusion from the Study of Electrons:
● 6 1. Cathode rays have identical
D-Orbital (Diffused) properties regardless of the element
● A four-leaf clover, an hour and a ring. used to produce them. All elements
● 10 must contain identically charged
F-Orbital (Fundamental) electrons.
● Are difficult to represent, and are too 2. Atoms are neutral. So, there must be
complex to visualize. positive particles in the atom to
● 14 balance the negative charge of the
Electron Configuration electrons.
● The shorthand representation of how 3. Electrons have so little mass that
each electron is arranged among the atoms must contain other particles
orbitals, levels, and sublevels based that account for most of the mass.
on the stated principles.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
2ND SEMESTER (MIDTERMS)
3. Nuclear Model (1911)
● By Ernest Rutherford
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
● Alpha particles are helium nuclei.
● Particles were fired at a thin sheet of
gold foil.
● Particles hits on the detecting screen
(film) are recorded
Rutherford’s Findings:
1. Most of the particles passed through
2. A few particles were deflected
3. VERY FEW were greatly deflected.
Conclusions:
1. The nucleus is small.
2. Nucleus is dense
3. The nucleus is positively charged.
4. Planetary Model (1913)
● By Niels Bohr
Modern Atomic Theory
● All matter is composed of atoms
● Atoms cannot be subdivided,
created, or destroyed in ordinary
chemical reactions. However, these
changes can occur in nuclear reactions.
● Atoms of an element have a
characteristic average mass which is
unique to that element.
● Atoms of any one element differ in
properties from atoms of another
element.
LESSON 3: THE HISTORY OF MODERN
PERIODIC TABLE
During the nineteenth century (19th),
chemists began to categorize the elements
according to similarities in their physical
and chemical properties. The end result of
this studies was our modern periodic table
Johann Dobereiner (1780-1849)
● In 1829, he classified some elements
into groups of three, which he called
triads. The elements in the triads had
similar chemical properties and orderly
physical properties.
● Model of Triads
● Ex: Cl, Br, I, Ca, Sr, Ba
John Newlands (1838-1898)
● In 1863, he suggested that elements
be arranged in “octaves” because he
noticed that certain properties
repeated every 8th element.
● Law of Octaves
● His claim to see a repeating pattern
met ridicule on its announcement by
the chemical society.
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) and Lothar
Meyer (1830-1895)
● In 1869, Mendeleev published a table
of the elements organized by
increasing atomic mass.
● At the same time, Meyer published a
table of the elements organized by
increasing atomic mass.
● Both Mendeleev and Meyer arranged
the elements in order of increasing
atomic mass.
● Both left vacant spaces where
unknown elements should fit.
● Mendeleev: “Father of the Modern
Periodic table”
● Mendeelev stated that if the atomic
weight of an element caused it to be
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
2ND SEMESTER (MIDTERMS)
placed in the wrong group. Then, the
weight must be wrong. (He corrected
the atomic masses of Be, In, and U)
● Mendeleev was so confident in his
table that he used it to predict the
physical properties of three elements
that were yet unknown;
● After the discovery of these
“unknown” elements between 1874
and 1885, and the fact that
Mendeleev’s predictions for Sc, Ga,
and Ge were amazingly close to the
actual values, his table was generally
accepted.
● However despite Mendeleev's
achievements, problems still arose
when more elements were
discovered and more accurate atomic
weights were determined. Ex: Ar, K,
Co, Ni, Te, I, Th, Pa
Henry Moseley (1897-1915)
● In 1913, through his work with X-ray, he
determined the actual nuclear
charge of the elements.
● He rearranged the elements in order
of the increasing atomic number.
● His research was halted when the
British government sent him to serve
as a foot soldier in WW1.
● He was killed in fighting in Gallipoli by
a sniper's shot., at the age of 28.
Because of this loss, the British
government later restricted its
scientists to non combat duties during
WW2.
Glenn T. Seaborg (1912-1999)
● After co-discovering 10 new elements,
in 1944, he moved 14 elements out of
the main body of the periodic table
to their current location below the
Lanthanide Series. These became
known as Actinide Series.
● He is the first person to have an
element named after him while still
alive.
PERIODIC TABLE GEOGRAPHY
Periods
● The horizontal rows in the periodic
table.
Groups/Families
● The vertical columns in the periodic
table.
Periodic Law
● When elements are arranged in order
of increasing atomic number, there is
a periodic pattern in their physical and
chemical properties.
S and P block elements
● Are called representative elements.
Periodic Table
● The most important tool in the
chemist’s box
GENERAL CHEMISTRY
2ND SEMESTER (MIDTERMS)

ARRANGEMENT OF ELEMENTS
Alkali Metals
● Sodium, Hydrogen, Potassium, Cesium,
Lithium
Alkaline Earth Metals
● Magnesium, Calcium, Barium,
Strontium, Radium, Beryllium
Transition Metals
● Copper, Gold, Silver, Cobalt, Iron
Inner Transition Metals (aka rare-earth
elements)
● L
Halogens
● Fluorine, Chlorine, Iodine, Bromine
Noble Gases
● Helium, Argon, Neon, Xenon