REPRODUCTION Reproduction allows for

✓ It’s the process by which the mixing of genetic

mature individuals materials which leads to
produce viable offspring. variations among
o Types of individuals in a species.
reproduction o Cell division
✓ Sexual reproduction ✓ The cell division starts
✓ It involves the fusion of with division of the
the male and female nucleus i.e.
gametes to form a chromosomes then the
zygote-fertilisation e.g. cytoplasm.
o Chromosomes
✓ They are long thread-
like structures in the
nucleus of plant and
animal cells.
Asexual reproduction ✓ Each cell normally has a
✓ This is where some parts fixed number of
of a mature organism chromosomes.
develop into new ✓ Each chromosome is
individuals e.g. made of two parallel
strands called
chromatids.
o Importance of ✓ Each pair of chromatid is
reproduction connected at one point
✓ Procreation – by a structure called
reproduction sustains the centromere. e.g.
species so that it does
not become extinct.
Quality improvement –
it improves the quality of
the species.
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✓ Chromosomes are
present in the nucleus all
the time but they only
appear or become visible
under a microscope
during cell division.
✓ In body cells,
chromosomes occur in
pairs. Each pair of
chromosomes has a
characteristic length.
✓ The member of each pair
is called a homologous
chromosome i.e. the
chromosomes are alike
in appearance although
their genetic
composition may be
different.
✓ During sexual
reproduction each parent
contributes one of the
chromosomes from a
homologous pair.
✓ Along the length of the
chromosome is a series
of structures called
genes. They determine
the characteristics of the
cell and its progeny.
✓ Genes are made of a
protein chemical
substance called DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid)
which contains coded
Page 2 of 63
information of
instructions that dictate
the characteristics of the
offspring e.g. whether
male or female.
✓ The ability of cells to
divide is located in
specific areas e.g.
meristematic cambium
cells, meristematic
apical cells in woody
plants and in malphigian
layer in the mammalian
skin.
o Types of cell
division
(a)Mitosis
✓ This is a type of cell
division in which a cell
divides into two
daughter cells each
having the same number
of chromosomes as the
parent cell.
✓ Mitosis takes place in
somatic (body) cells.
o Stages of mitosis
Interphase
✓ The cell undergoes
intense internal activities
in preparation for the
division. These activities
include;
✓ Multiplication of genetic
material so that daughter
 cells will have the same can take up stains easily
number of chromosomes hence become visible.
as the parent cell. ✓ Each chromosome now
✓ Synthesis of new cell consists of a pair of
organelles e.g. golgi chromatids joined at the
apparatus, centrioles, centromere.
mitochondria and
ribosomes.
✓ Build-up of enough
energy stores in the form
of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) to drive
the cell through the Metaphase
entire process of cell ✓ The nuclear membrane
division. disappears.
✓ Spindle fibres lengthen.
In animal cells they
attach to the centrioles at
both poles.
✓ The chromosomes align
Prophase themselves at the
✓ Duplicated centrioles (in equator of the spindle.
animal cells) separate
and move to the opposite
poles of the cell and
spindle fibres begin to
form.
✓ Nuclear membrane
begins to break down
while nucleolus
disappears. Anaphase
✓ *The chromosomes ✓ The chromatids separate
thicken and shorten and at the centromere and
migrate to the opposite

Page 3 of 63
 poles. This is brought
about by the shortening
of spindle fibres.
✓ The spindle apparatus
begin to disappear
✓ In animal cells, the cell
membrane begins to
constrict towards the end
of anaphase.
Telophase
✓ The chromatids collect
together at the two
opposite ends of the
spindle.
✓ A nuclear membrane
forms around each set of
chromatids and are now
referred to as
chromosomes.
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✓ #The cytoplasm divides
into two leading to the
formation of two
daughter cells.
✓ Chromosomes become
less distinct
✓ NB In animal cells, the
division of cytoplasm is
by constriction of cell
membrane. But in plant
cells, a cell plate forms
within the cytoplasm and
grows to separate the
cell into two e.g.
o Significance of
mitosis
✓ Occurs in asexual
reproduction where
gametes are not
involved.
✓ Mitosis ensures that
chromosomal
constitution and hence
the genetic constitution
of the offspring is the
same as the parents. E.g.
o -Man - 23 pairs
 o -Drosophila
melanogaster -4
pairs
✓ Growth due to an
increase in the number
of cells within an
organism.
✓ Regeneration of body
parts which have been
cut off e.g. tail of a
lizard.
✓ Meoisis
✓ It involves two divisions
(Meoisis 1 and 11) of the
parental cells resulting
into 4 daughter cells.
Each daughter cell has
half the number of
chromosomes (haploid,
n) as the parent cell.
✓ Meoisis takes place in
the reproductive organs
(testes and ovaries) of
animals and ovaries and
anthers in plants.
Principle underlying
Meiosis
✓ Meoisis consists of two
successive divisions i.e.
-First meiotic division
where the homologous
get separated from each
other and go into
different cells.
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-2nd meiotic division
where the chromosome
separates giving a total
of 4 daughter cells.
First meiotic division
(Meoisis1)
Interphase 1
✓ It involves;
✓ Replication of
chromosomes
✓ Synthesis of organelles
✓ Build-up of energy to be
used during the meiotic
division e.g.
✓x
✓ Prophase 1
✓ Nucleolus disappears
✓ Centrioles become
arranged at opposite
sides of nucleus.
✓ Chromosomes condense
by shortening and
thickening hence
become more visible.
✓ Homologous
chromosomes lie side by
side in the process of
synapsis forming pairs
called bivalents .
✓ #Chromatids of
homologous
chromosomes may then
wrap around each other
and become joined at
certain points called
 chiasmata (singular homologous
chiasma). Important chromosomes has been
genetic exchanges achieved.
usually take place at o Second meiotic
these points.eg division
X ✓ Purpose of this phase is
o Metaphase1 to separate the
✓ Cell membrane chromatids from one
disappears. another.
✓ Spindle fibres are fully o Interphase 11
formed. ✓ The resultant cells of
✓ The bivalents move and meiosis 1 usually go into
lie along the equator of a short interphase e.g.
the spindle.eg ✓ X
X o Prophase 11
o Anaphase1 ✓ New spindle fibres are
✓ Homologous formed e.g.
chromosomes of the ✓ X
bivalent separate and o Metaphase11
move to the opposite ✓ Chromosomes move to
poles of the cell, due to the equator of the
the shortening of the spindle and attach to the
spindle fibres hence spindle fibres at the
pulling the chromosomes cetromere.
e.g. ✓ The chromosomes
X orientate themselves
o Telophase 1 towards the opposite
✓ Spindle fibres disappear poles.
✓ In animal cell, the cell ✓ X
constricts across the o Anaphase11
middle and cytoplasm ✓ The sister chromatids
finally divides resulting separate from each other
in two cells e.g. and move to the opposite
✓ NB At the end of poles pulled by the
meiosis 1, separation of
Page 6 of 63
 shortening of the spindle diploid number of
fibres e.g. chromosomes is retained
✓ X when the male and
o Telophase 11
female gametes fuse.
✓ The spindle apparatus
disappears. ✓ A source of variation in
✓ Nucleolus reappears and individuals of the same
a nuclear membrane is species. Genetic
formed around each set variation is brought
of chromatids. about by the
✓ The cytoplasm constricts combination of genes.
resulting in the
✓ Similarities between
formation of 4 daughter
cells. Each daughter cell mitosis and meiosis
has the haploid number ✓ Both take place in plant
of chromosomes e.g. and animal ells
✓ NB the 1st meiotic ✓ Both involve the
division is responsible division (multiplication)
for separating the of cells
homologous
✓ Differences between
chromosomes and
halving the chromosome meiosis and mitosis
number, hence described Meiosis Mitosis
as reduction division.
Homologous Homologous
✓ The function of the 2nd
chromosomes chromosomes’
meiotic division is to
associate with one do not
separate the chromatids
another associate with
from each other.
one another
o Significance of
Takes place in Takes place in
meiosis
two nuclear one nuclear
✓ Gamete formation-
divisions (2 division
gametes have he haploid phases) each having 4
number of having 4 stages stages
chromosomes. The Produces 4 Produces 2

Page 7 of 63
daughter cells, daughter cells the organism attains a
each haploid each diploid maximum size.
Occurs in Occurs in ✓ Binary fission involves
reproductive somatic cells division of nucleus
organs leading to
(karyogamy) and
growth
Chiasmaformation No chiasma cytoplasmic division
takes place and formation (cytogamy) e.g.
may lead to therefore no Amoeba, Plasmodium
crossing over crossing over and bacteria
hence variation hence no ✓ Binary fission in
variation Amoeba
o Asexual
✓ The amoeba reproduces
reproduction
✓ It is the production of mainly through binary
offspring from a single fission. The nucleus
organism without the divides into two through
fusion of gametes. The mitosis and is soon
offspring are identical to followed by division of
parents. the cytoplasm.
✓ Types of asexual ✓ A cell membrane is
reproduction finally formed around
Binary fission each of the cells. The
✓ The word binary means two cells are identical
two and fission mean and have the same
splitting number of chromosomes
✓ It is the simplest form of as the parent amoeba.
asexual reproduction. It ✓ X
involves the splitting of ✓ Amoeba is capable of
the original cell into two dividing once every 30
similar daughter cells. minutes.
The fission occurs when

Page 8 of 63
✓ The rapid cell division
leads to a rapid increase
in the population of
amoeba
Spore formation
(sporulation)
✓ Spores are small single
celled reproductive cells
capable of giving rise to
an individual. They are
produced by fungi,
bacteria and protozoa.
✓ Spore formation in
Rhizopus
✓ Rhizopus is a
saprophytic fungus
which grows on
substrate like bread,
rotting fruits and other
decaying organic matter.
✓ The vegetative body is
called mycelium which
consists of many
branched threads called
hyphae.
Page 9 of 63
✓ Horizontal hyphae are
called stolons
✓ Hyphae which grow
vertically are called the
sporangiophores. The
tips of these upright
hyphae swell up to form
the sporangia (spore
bearing structures)
✓ The hyphae are anchored
in a substratum by
delicate outgrowths
known as rhizoids
✓ Inside the sporangium
the nuclei divide
meiotically producing
daughter nuclei that
contain a haploid
number of chromosomes
(n)
✓ The daughter nuclei
develop into spores by
the incorporation of
cytoplasm around each
 nucleus and a wall
around the cytoplasm
✓ The sporangium contains
very many spores as it
matures and ripens, it
turns black in colour
✓ When fully mature the
sporangium wall burst
and release the spores
which are dispersed to
restart a fresh generation
of growth and
development.
✓ Spore dispersal may be
by wind, insect or
mechanically by being
scattered by animals
o Budding in yeast
✓ It’s a form of asexual
reproduction in which a
new individual is
produced as an
outgrowth (bud) of the
parent and is later
released as a self
supporting identical
copy of the parent.
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✓ Yeast is a single celled
organism in the kingdom
fungi. The cell is made
up of a thin cell wall
which encloses the
cytoplasm containing a
vacuole
✓ The yeast cell under
favorable conditions i.e.
plenty of sugar,
moisture, and oxygen
etc, reproduces asexually
by budding.
✓ In budding a small area
of the cell wall of a
parent cell softens and
forms a projection of
bud which bulges
outwardly. This is
followed by the division
of the nucleus into two.
One of the nuclei moves
into the new bud.
✓ The bud then grows in
size and forms new cell
 organelles. At this stage
the bud separates off but
since the budding
process is so fast the first
bud starts to form
another before it
separates off from the
parent thus forming a
short chain of cells.
✓ Pedicel (flower)
✓ Receptacle (apex of
flower stalk) to which
are attached the 4 groups
of floral structures i.e.
✓ Calyx
✓ Corolla
✓ Androecium (male parts)
✓ Gynoecium/ pistil/
female parts

Sexual reproduction in
plants
✓ In flowering plants the
flower is the ✓ pedicel
reproductive organ ✓ Also called flower stalk.
which is a specialized Some flowers have no
shoot consisting of a stalk and are directly
modified stem and attached to the stem of
modified leaves. the plant. Such a flower
✓ The stem portion is said to be sessile.
consists of a pedicel ✓ Sepals
(flower stalk) and a ✓ They are the outermost
receptacle to which are floral parts. They are
attached the modified mostly green and in most
leaves. flowers, sepals resemble
leaves.
✓ Structures and
✓ Sepals are collectively
function of a flower
✓ The flower parts are referred to as the calyx.

Page 11 of 63
 Sepals may be hairy e.g.
roses
✓ The sepals protect the
young flower while in
the bud stage.
✓ where the sepals are
free they form a
polysepalous calyx and
when fused they form a
gamosepalous calyx
✓ In some flowers there
may be another ring of
sepal- like structures just
beneath the calyx called
epicalyx e.g. hibiscus
✓ Petals
✓ The petals are
collectively referred to
as the corolla. The petals
are brightly coloured,
large and conspicuous
especially in insect
pollinated flowers where
they attract insects for
pollination
✓ If the petals are fused the
corolla is said to be
gamopetalous and if they
are free they are termed
as polypetalous
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✓ Fused petals form a
corolla that can be
tubular or funnel shaped
as in the flowers of
sweet potato and
pumpkins plants
✓ Some of the petals of
leguminous plants are
keel like and they
enclose stamens and
carpels
✓ Sepals and petals are
collectively referred to
as the perianth
✓ Stamen
✓ The male reproductive
structures are
collectively referred to
as the Androecium.
Stamens are made up of:
✓ Filaments
✓ It is a slender stalk that
supports the anther. The
anther is attached to the
apex of the filament. The
filaments of Sodom
apple and potatoes arise
from the petals e.g.
✓x
✓ The filament of some
flowers are fused to form
a tube like structure
called staminal tube
e.g. in hibiscus flowers.
✓ In garden pea flower,
nine filaments are fused
while the tenth is free
✓X
✓ Anther
✓ It’s a two lobed upper
part of the stamen. Each
lobed 2 pollen sacs
within which pollen
grains develop
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✓ Carpel/ Gynoecium/
pistil
✓ It’s the female
reproductive structure.
Each carpel comprises
the ovary, style and
stigma
✓ Ovary
✓ The ovary contains
ovules. Ovules are
unfertilized filament
gametes. After
fertilization the ovules
develop into seeds while
the ovary becomes a
fruit.
✓ Position of ovaries in
different flowers
Superior ovary/
hypognous
✓ This is where the ovary
is above the other floral
parts i.e stamens, petals
and sepals e.g. ovary of
a bean flower, hibiscus
flower, crotalaria

Inferior ovary/
epignous
✓ This is where the ovary
is positioned below the
other floral parts e.g.
apple flowers,
sunflower, canna lily,
guava
✓ Perignous ovary
✓ This is where the
receptacle surrounds the
carpel with other floral
parts arising around the
ovary i.e. the stamens,
petals, sepals arise from
the margin of the
receptacle e.g. roses.
Page 14 of 63
✓ Style
✓ It connects the stigma to
the ovary. In maize plant
the style and stigma
hang out of the flower
✓ Stigma
✓ It’s a sticky structure at
the tip of the carpel. The
stigma is the tissue onto
which the pollen grain
are deposited
✓ NB- the Gynoecium can
be of different types
depends on the number
of carpels e.g
✓ Monocarpous
gynoecium
✓ It has one carpel e.g.
beans
✓X
✓ Polycarpous g
ynoecium
✓ It is the one with 2 or
more carpels. The
Polycarpous Gynoecium
with free carpels is
 termed as apocarpous
e.g. in rose and
Bryophyllum
✓ X
✓ When the carpels are
fused together the
Gynoecium is termed as
synocarpous hibiscus
✓ X
✓ Other terms used to
described a flower
✓ Complete flower- one
with all the 4 floral parts
present i.e. calyx,
corolla, Androecium and
Gynoecium. When one
part or more of these are
absent, the flower is said
to be incomplete.
✓ Unisexual flower – one
with only one of the
reproductive parts. It
may be either a male or
female flowers.
✓ Staminate flower – it’s
a male flower
✓ Pistilate flower-It’s a
female flower.
✓ Monoecious plant—
when both male and
Page 15 of 63
female flowers are born
on the same plant e.g.
maize. However there
are cases when plants
bear either male or
female flowers. These
plants are also known as
male or female plants
and are described as
dioecious plants e.g.
paws paws
✓ Hermaphrodite
(bisexual) flower – has
both the male and female
reproductive organs e.g.
hibiscus.
✓ Calyx & corolla – they
are known as the non-
essential parts of a
flower while
Androecium and
Gynoecium are essential
parts
✓ Regular
(actinomorphic) flower
– those that can divide
into two similar halves
by any vertical section
passing through the
centre e.g. morning
 glory. These types of
flowers are radically
symmetrical
✓ Irregular (zygomorphic)
flower – can be divided
into two halves in one
particular plane only e.g.
crotalaria. Such flowers
are bilaterally
symmetrical.
✓ Pedicillate flower –
flowers with a flower
stalk
✓ Solitary flowers – those
that occur singly. Those
that grow in clusters
make an inflorescence
Pollination
✓ This is the transfer of
pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma
✓ When the transfer is
from the anther of the
flower to the stigma of
another flower but of the
same species it is called
cross pollination
✓ If the transfer of the
pollen grains is from
anther to the stigma of
Page 16 of 63
the same flower, it is
referred to as self
pollination
Agents of pollination
✓ These are agents which
aid in pollination
Insect pollinated
flowers
✓ They are also known as
entomophilous flowers
e.g. hibiscus
Adaptive features
✓ Flowers are large,
conspicuous with
brightly coloured
petals/bracts/
inflorescence to attract
insects
✓ Flowers are scented and
produce nectar to attract
insects which come to
obtain nectar for their
food.
✓ Anthers are small and
firmly attached to a firm
filament. This feature
ensures that the insect
rubs against the anthers
as they crawl into the
flower hence collecting
 pollen grains on their
bodies.
✓ Pollen grains are
relatively large, heavy
and are rough/ sticky so
as to stick on the body of
the insect.
✓ Stigmas are small sticky
and occur inside the
flower so that pollen
grains from the body of
an insect stick onto it.
✓ The flower structure is
specially designed with
tubular or funnel shaped
corolla, landing
platforms, honey guides
and some even mimic
the body form of the
pollinating insect.
✓ These features ensure
that the insect comes
into contact with the
stamens and Carpels
when getting into the
nectary.
Wind pollinated
flowers
Page 17 of 63
✓ They are also known as
anemophilous flowers
e.g. Zea Mays
Adaptive features
✓ Flowers are small with
inconspicuous petals,
bracts or inflorescence
✓ Flowers lack nectar and
are not scented.
✓ Anthers are large and
loosely attached to a
flexible filament. This
ensures that pollen
grains are released
readily when wind flows
on the anthers.
✓ Pollen grains are usually
small, smooth and light
to enable them float in
the air currents for
dispersal
✓ Stigmas are long,
feathery and hang
outside the flowers
acting as nets to trap
pollen grains.
✓ Flower structure is
simple and flowers have
no particular shape.
 Features and
mechanisms that
hinder self-pollination
and self fertilisation
✓ Monoecious and
hermaphrodites plants
✓ The hermaphrodites risk
a wide chance of being
self- pollinated but there
are natural provisions
developed in most plants
to prevent self-
pollination e.g. having
brightly coloured and
scented flowers which
have nectar hence
encouraging cross
pollination by insects
Protandry and
protogyny
Protandry- this is when
the stamens ripen
earliest and the anthers
shed their pollen grains
before the stigma is
mature enough to
receive them e.g.
sunflower (helianthus
annus)
Page 18 of 63
Protogyny- the stigma
matures earlier and is
ready to receive pollen
grains before the anthers
are ripe enough to shed
the pollen grains e.g.
most grass plants e.g.
maize.
Self- sterility and
incompatibility
✓ In maize flowers, the
pollen grains are sterile
to the stigma of the same
plant hence self-
pollination is not
possible.
Heterostyly
✓ It is a condition of
having different
arrangements of style
and stigma e.g. plants
like coconut have
flowers with shorter
stamens than pistils
which renders it
impossible for the pollen
grains from the stamen
to reach the stigma.
✓X
 Process of fertilization
in flowering plants
✓ Fertilization is the fusion
of the male and female
nuclei in the embryo sac.
After pollination the
pollen grains absorb
nutrients from the stigma
and develop an
outgrowth called the
pollen tube.
✓ The pollen tube grows
down the style to the
embryo sac taking along
the male gametes with it.
✓ The pollen grains
usually adhere to the
stigma as a result of the
stigma cells secreting a
sticky substance which
also stimulates the
pollen grain to germinate
sending down its pollen
grain.
✓ Mature pollen grain
✓ X
✓ The growth of the pollen
tube into the stigma
through the style to the
ovary is by pushing its
Page 19 of 63
way between the cells
where it get its
nourishment from the
surrounding tissues. This
process takes place in a
matter of minutes.
✓ As the pollen grain
germinates the tube
nucleus occupies a
position at the tip of the
growing pollen tube.
✓ The generative nucleus
divides by mitosis into
two male gamete nuclei
which follow behind the
tube nucleus as the
pollen tube grows down
the style.
✓ The pollen tube enters an
ovule through the
micropyle and when it
reaches the centre of the
ovule it penetrates the
wall of the embryo sac
and burst open:
meanwhile the tube
nucleus disintegrates
leaving a clear way for
the entry of the male
nuclei.
✓ One of the male nuclei
fuses with the egg cell to
form a diploid zygote
which develops into an
embryo while the other
male nucleus fuses with
polar nuclei to form a
triploid nucleus. This
gives the double
fertilization that is
unique flowering plants.
✓X
Seed and fruit
development
✓ After fertilization the
following happens.
-External protective
calyx dries and falls off
or persists
-Petals and stamens
wither and fall off.
Development of the
seed
✓ The zygote undergoes
mitotic division and
develops to become an
embryo. The embryo has
a plumule (young shoot),
the radicle (young root)
Page 20 of 63
and one or two
cotyledons.
✓ The primary endosperm
nucleus develops into
the endosperm. The
ovule forms the seed
while the ovary develops
into a fruit.
✓ The cotyledons are
surrounded by a seed
coat (testa) the testa has
got a scar (hilum) which
is the point of
attachment to the
placenta.
✓ Seed and Fruit
Development
✓ After fertilization he
following happens;
✓ External protective calyx
dries and falls off or
persists
✓ Petals and stamens
wither and fall off
✓ Development of the
seed
✓ The zygote undergoes
mitotic division and
develops to become an
embryo. The embryo has
 a plumule (young shoot),
the radicle (young root),
and one or two
cotyledons.
✓ The primary endosperm
nucleus develops into
the endosperm. The
ovule forms the seed
while the ovary develops
into a fruit.
✓ The cotyledons are
surrounded by a seed
coat (testa).The testa has
got a scar (hilum) which
is the point of
attachment to the
placenta.
✓ The embryo completely
separates from the
endosperm and
membrane, leaving an
opening (micropyle)
which allows in water
into the seed.
✓ As the seed matures the
endosperm or cotyledons
harden by losing water
then it dries and
becomes dormant.
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✓ Development of the
Fruit
✓ The fruit begins its
development
immediately after
fertilization and is
brought about by
gibberellins which cause
it to increase in size.
✓ During fruit formation
the wall of the ovary
becomes the pericarp or
fruit wall. The pericarp
is made up of 3 layers
i.e.
✓ -Outer layer (epicarp)
✓ -Middle layer
(Mesocarp)
✓ -Inner layer (endocarp)
✓ Fruit is a fully grown
fertilized ovary
containing fully
developed seeds.
However in certain
plants such as pineapples
and bananas, fruit
development takes place
without fertilization.
This is known as
parthenocarpy
✓ NB. (i) A seed has only
one scar-point at which
it was attached to the
receptacle.
✓ (ii) Fruit has two scars
i.e.
✓ -point at which it was
attached to the
receptacle.
✓ -Remains of style

o Types of Fruits Tomatoes, paw paws,

✓ They are classified into 2 bananas, Oranges, Water
major categories i.e. melons, Lemon.
✓ Dry fruits. ✓ NB In the orange, the
✓ Succulent fruits Endocarp bears hairs
✓ Succulent fruits which have developed
into Succulent
✓ They have a fleshy structures.
pericarp and may
contain juice. They are
sub-divided into;
-Berry
✓ It has a succulent
pericarp (Epicarp,
Mesocarp and
Endocarp).
✓ Berries usually have
many seeds embedded in
the Endocarp e.g.
Page 22 of 63
✓ Drupe
✓ Has a thin epicarp, the
Mesocarp is fleshy or
fibrous and the Endocarp
is hard and stony. The
Endocarp encloses the
seeds e.g. mango,
coconut, plum etc
✓ In the mango, the fleshy
edible part is the
Mesocarp, while in
coconut the Mesocarp is
the fibrous cover lying
over the hard endocarp.

✓
✓ Pome
✓ It’s a fruit whose
succulent part develops
Page 23 of 63
 from the receptacle of (marginal placentation)
the flower e.g. apple, e.g. Bean fruit.
pears etc
✓ In the pear and cashew,
the receptacle swells and
forms part of the fruit.
o (2) Dry fruits
✓ These are further sub-
divided into;
✓ Dehiscent fruits
✓ It’s a fruit whose ovary
wall splits to release the
seeds. The ovary wall
has lines of weakness
that exist as sutures
/dehiscent lines.
✓ Tension is created along
the sutures of the
pericarp and this causes
splitting and the release
of the seeds. They o Capsule
include; ✓ The pericarp dehisces
o Legume (pod) longitudinally at more
✓ The fruit wall (pericarp) than two places e.g.
is not differentiated. The cotton or by a ring of
fruit (pod) is usually pores at the top e.g.
long and flattened poppy
sideways. When the fruit
is ripe, the pericarp
dehisces longitudinally
along both sides to
liberate the seed.
✓ The seeds are usually
arranged along one of
the margins of the fruit
Page 24 of 63
✓ Others are; Aloe, Datura
o Schizocarp
✓ The ripe fruit breaks into
a number of small one-
seeded parts called
mericarps e.g. Castor (d) Follicle
seed ✓ It’s a dry fruit that splits
open only along one side
or line when mature e.g.
Nandi flame
✓ Indehiscent fruits
✓ These are fruits that do
not split open to release
their seeds e.g.
✓ (a) Caryopsis (Bidens pilosa),
✓ The pericarp and seed Sonchus.
coat are fused together to
form a thin covering
over the entire seed e.g.
maize

✓
✓ (c) Nut
✓ It’s a fruit where the
pericarp becomes hard
and woody and is
separate from the seed
coat e.g. macadamia,
✓ cashew nut.
✓ Cypsela
✓ This is a one-seeded fruit
where the seed is free
from pericarp. The calyx
persists for dispersal e.g.
Tridax, Black jack Other types of fruits
Page 25 of 63
✓ False fruits-It’s formed
when the ovary, petals,
sepals, receptacle and
pedicel form part of the
fruit e.g. apple, rose hip,
pineapple, strawberry.
✓ Placentation
✓ This is the arrangement
of the ovules in an
ovary. When gynoecium
is monocarpous, the
placentation can be
marginal or basal.
✓ When gynoecium is
syncarpous, the
placentation can be
axile, parietal or free
central.
Types of placentation
Marginal placentation
✓ The ovules are attached
along the margin of the
fruit wall. The fruit is
pod-shaped e.g. beans in
a pod.
✓ Basal placentation
✓ The placenta is formed
at the base of the ovary
with numerous ovules
attached to it e.g.
sunflower, mango.
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✓
✓ Parietal placentation
✓ In this type the edges of
the carpels fuse together
and the dividing walls
disappear, leaving a
loculus.
✓ The placentas from each
carpel appear as parietal
placentation ridges on
the ovary wall and have
numerous ovules on
them e.g. pawpaw,
passion fruit.
✓ Axile/ central
placentation
✓ In this type the edges of
the carpels fuse together
to form a central
placenta. Ovules are
arranged on the placenta.
✓ The ovary is divided into
a number of loculi by the
walls of the carpel e.g.
orange, tomato, and
lemon.
 ✓ (v)Free central
placentation

✓
✓ The edges of the carpels
fuse together and the
dividing walls disappear
leaving one loculus. A
placenta appears at the
centre of the ovary and
has numerous ovules on
it.
Fruit and Seed
dispersal
Reasons for dispersal
✓ Dispersal prevents
overcrowding and
competition amongst
seedlings for light, water
and mineral salts.
✓ Enables the colonization
of new habitats.
Adaptations of fruits
and seeds to their
agents of dispersal
Animal dispersal
✓ The features of seeds
and fruits dispersed by
animals include;
o Hooks and spines
✓ Hooks and spines on
fruit walls make it easy
for them to get attached
onto the skin or fur of
animals e.g. Black jack.
o Scented fruits
✓ Some fruits produce a
pleasant aroma or scent.
The scent attracts
animals to feed on the
fruits e.g. oranges and
mangoes.
o Succulent fruits
✓ Animals consume the
fleshy fruit and discard
the seeds away from the
mother plant. E.g.
lemons, avocado,
oranges, passion fruits.
✓ Brightly coloured
✓ The brightly coloured
fruits attract animals to
feed on them. The
animals disperse the
seeds away from the
parent plant e.g. oranges,
passion fruits.
✓ Sweet tasting
✓ Most of the succulent
fruits have a sweet taste

Page 27 of 63
 e.g. water melons,
oranges, passion fruits.
✓ The seeds of some edible
fruits are not digested in
the alimentary canal of
the animals because;
✓ Seed coat is hard and has
a slimy protective
covering hence the seeds
are not digested by the
enzymes of the animal
and are removed in
faeces e.g. oranges,
passion fruits, tomato
seeds, guava.
✓ Some seeds are sticky
e.g. mistletoe seeds. A
bird that feeds on the
fruit wipes its beak onto
tree trunks and branches
hence dispersing the
seeds.
o (2) Water
dispersal
✓ In fruits like coconut,
their mesocarps are
o (3) Wind
dispersal
Page 28 of 63
fibrous and spongy to
trap air. The trapped air
makes the fruit light and
buoyant to float on water
which then carries it
away from the parent
plant.
✓ Plants like water lily
produce seeds whose
seed coat trap air
bubbles. The air bubbles
make the seeds float on
water and be carried
away from the parent
plant when released
from the fruit.
✓ The fruit pericarp and
the seed testa are water
proof. This way the fruit
and seeds remain afloat
without soaking and
sinking immediately
they are released from
the parent plant.
✓ Wind dispersed fruits
and seeds are generally
small and light in order
to be carried by air
currents. Dispersal is
achieved by the
following methods;
o Censor
mechanism
✓ The fruit which is
capsule shaped is either
split as in simsim and
tobacco.
✓ These are seeds and
✓ In others, the capsule has
pores at the top e.g. in
Mexican poppy e.g.
When swayed by wind
the seeds are released
and scattered.
o Winged seeds
fruits that develop
extensions to form wing-
like structures which are
flat, broad and papery.
These structures create a
large surface area hence
can easily be blown by
wind e.g. jacaranda,
tecoma,and spathodea
seeds (Nandi flame) e.g.

✓ The capsule is usually

attached to a long stalk.

increase their surface

✓ (c) Parachute area so that they can be
mechanism blow away by wind and
✓ Some seeds and fruits dropped some distance
have developed hairy away from the parent
and feathery-like plant e.g. cotton,
projections which Sonchus spp.

Page 29 of 63
 o (4) Self-
explosive
mechanism
✓ This method of dispersal
occurs in fruits with dry
pods. After the pod
dries, the seeds break off
from the placenta and
are placed inside the
pod.
✓ Due to the loss of water
from the pod and
pressure from within, the
pod opens violently
along the lines of
weakness (sutures). In
the process the seeds are
thrown away from the
parent plant.eg beans,
peas, castor oil,
geranium
✓ There are two types of
fertilization;
External fertilization;
✓ It occurs in animals such
as amphibians and fish.
This is only possible in
Page 30 of 63
Sexual Reproduction in
Animals
✓ Sexual Reproduction
involves the fusion of
gametes. The males
produce gametes called
sperms and the females
produce gametes called
ova (ovum).
✓ These gametes are
produced by special
organs called gonads-the
testes which produce
sperms and ovaries
which produce ova.
water. During this time,
the female lays eggs in
water and the male sheds
sperms over the eggs to
fertilize them, resulting
 in fertilization outside other allowing for
the body. good aeration.
✓ In this kind of o -It attaches the
fertilization, many eggs eggs from each
are released to increase other allowing for
the chances of survival, good aeration.
since the fertilized eggs o -It attaches the
could be attacked by eggs to the water
bacteria or eaten by plants.
some animals. o Makes the eggs to
✓ During the mating be buoyant.
season which coincides o b) Internal
with the rainy season, Fertilization
the males croak mainly ✓ It occurs in reptiles,
at night to attract birds and mammals.
females. Fertilization occurs
✓ While mating, the male within the body of the
mounts the female and female.
sheds sperms as the ✓ The number of eggs
female lays eggs. These produced by the females
activities increase the is fewer than those
chances of fertilization. produced by animals
✓ The eggs are laid in long where external
strands of slippery jelly- fertilization occurs. This
like substance which has is because there are
several functions i.e. higher chances of
o -Provides fertilization since the
protection to the sperms are deposited
eggs i.e. prevents into the female’s body.
predators from ✓ In most mammals, some
feeding on the chameleons and some
eggs. snakes, the fertilized
o -It separates the eggs develop into young
eggs from each ones within the body of
the female. After the
Page 31 of 63
 gestation period the young ones.
females give birth to
✓ Differences between ✓ to the female’s body.
internal & external in water
fertilization ✓ - Fertilization takes
✓ Internal Fertilization place in the watery
External Fertilization - Fertilization takes
✓ - Fertilization takes place in the watery
place inside the body of ✓ environment inside the
the - Fertilization takes female’s reproductive
place outside the body of environment in the
the surrounding of the
✓ Female animals.
female ✓ tract
✓ - Found mostly in ✓ - Few eggs are
animals which live on produced
land - Found in - Very many eggs are
animals that breed in produced
water e.g. ✓ - Eggs are protected
✓ e.g. mammals from predators and
amphibians. - Eggs are easily
✓ - Have specialized set affected by adverse
organs to introduce weather and
sperm - Sex organs of ✓ adverse weather
the male shed sperms also eaten by predator.
over the eggs
✓ Reproduction in laying mammals
Mammals (monotremes) are said
✓ Fertilization occurs to be oviparous e.g.
internally. After platypus.
fertilization the fertilized ✓ In some mammals the
egg is laid or develops zygote does not develop
within the female’s body fully within the uterus
in a special structure but completes
called uterus. The egg development within a
Page 32 of 63
 special structure called ✓ Mammals whose zygotes
pouch as in the develop within the
marsupials e.g. uterus have mammary
kangaroo. glands. These glands
✓ The ability to give birth produce milk on which
to young ones as in the young ones feed until
placental mammals is they are able to feed on
referred to as viviparity. the same feed as adults.

✓ Reproduction in ✓ Male reproductive

Human Beings system

✓ It consists the following ✓ The testes are positioned

structures: outside the abdomen in a
✓ Testes sac of skin called the
✓ There are two testes in scrotal bag or scrotum.
the male. They are the ✓ The function of scrotum
main gonads where the is to support and protect
male gametes (sperms) the testes. It ensures that
are made. the testes are located at a
✓ They produce the male lower temperature than
sex hormone that of the body. this is
testosterone. because the sperms
o Scrotal require temperatures
Sac/Scrotum slightly lower than that
of the body for their
Page 33 of 63
 production. High
temperatures reduce the
life of sperms.
o Seminiferous
tubules
✓ Each testis contains in its
tightly coiled
seminiferous tubules.
They are coiled to
increase surface area.
✓ The walls of these
tubules have specialized
cells that produce
sperms.
✓ Other specialized cells
located in between the
seminiferous tubules are
known as interstitial
cells which produce the
hormone testosterone.
✓ The sertoli cells found
on the walls of the
seminiferous tubules
nourish the sperms till
they become mature.
✓ Epididymis
✓ It’s a much coiled tube
(6 m long) when
stretched. Its long and
coiled to provide a large
surface area for
✓ Penis
Page 34 of 63
temporary storage
sperms.
✓ Vas deferens (Plural
Vas Deferentia) /
sperm duct
✓ This is a narrow
muscular tube
connecting the
epididymis to the urethra
which is the ejaculatory
duct. Upon the
contraction of its
muscles it pushes sperms
and allows ejaculation.
✓ Urethra
✓ This is a tube that directs
urine from the bladder as
well as sperms from the
Vas deferentia out of the
male’s body via the
penis at different times.
Therefore the urethra
plays a role in both
urinary $ reproductive
systems of the human
male, hence referred to
as urinogental organ.
✓
✓ Its role is to deposit
sperms into the vagina of
the female. This is
possible due to the
presence of specialized
tissue known as erectile
tissue. This tissue has
spaces that fill up with
blood during sexual
excitement causing the
penis to become rigid
and erect, a process
known as erection. This
way it can penetrate and
deposit sperms into the
vagina. Also highly
supplied with blood
capillaries that supply
enough blood to spongy
spaces for erection.
✓ Glans
✓ This is the tip of the
penis. It’s highly
sensitive due to the
nerve supply and during
copulation it is easily
stimulated to bring about
erection and ejaculation.
✓ Prepuce (Foreskin)
✓ It’s a retractable skin
which covers the glans.
This skin may be
Page 35 of 63
removed during
circumcision.
✓ Accessory glands
✓ These are:-
✓ Prostate gland
✓ This gland secretes
mucus and a slightly
alkaline fluid that is
released during
ejaculation. It makes
sperms more active and
neutralizes the acidity of
the vagina.
✓ Cowper’s gland
✓ Secretes a clear, sticky
slightly alkaline fluid
which cleans the urethra
prior to ejaculation by
neutralizing any urine
present.
✓ Seminal Vesicles
✓ Produce a mucus
secretion which aids in
sperm movement. The
combination of
secretions and sperm is
called semen.
✓ Semen - It’s made up
of:-
✓ Sperms
✓ Sugars that nourish the
sperms making them
more active.
✓ Mucus that forms a
semi-fluid liquid that the
sperms can swim in.
✓ Alkaline substances to
neutralize the conditions
in the urethra and
vagina.
✓ Hormones which help
sperms reach the ovum
by causing muscular
contractions of uterus
oviduct.
✓ Female reproductive
system
✓ Ovaries
✓ There are two ovaries
which are cream
coloured oval bodies
measuring 3-4 cm long.
They are found in the
lower part of the
abdomen below the
kidneys.
✓ They are held in position
by membranes and blood
is supplied to them by
the ovarian artery and
removed by the ovarian
vein.
✓ The ovary produces the
eggs and female
hormones i.e. oestrogen
and progesterone.
✓ Oviduct/Fallopian tube
✓ It connects the ovary to
the uterus. One end of
the oviduct opens into
the body cavity. This
end is funnel shaped; the
other end of the oviduct
opens into the uterus.
✓ An ovum enters into the
oviduct through the
funnel-shaped end.
Fertilization occurs in
the oviduct.
✓ The lining of the oviduct
is ciliated. The cilia
propel the ovum towards
the uterus.
✓ Sexually transmitted
infection of the oviducts
may result in their
becoming scarred and
blocked. This may cause
sterility.
✓ Uterus/Womb

Page 36 of 63
✓ It’s found in the lower
abdomen, and the
embryo develops in this
structure.
✓ The uterus is capable of
expanding as the embryo
grows and can return to
the original size of about
8cm in length after birth.
This is possible because
its walls are muscular.
These muscles are also
important at the time of
birth as they aid in the
expulsion of the fully
developed foetus.
✓ The uterine wall is lined
by an endometrium for
implantation and
nourishing of the
embryo at its initial
stages.
✓ The uterus is kept in
position by ligaments.
✓ d) Cervix
✓ It’s a ring of muscles
that separates the uterus
from the vagina. It
secretes a plug of mucus
which prevents entry of
pathogens into the uterus
during pregnancy.
✓ The ring of muscles
remains contracted to
keep the baby in the
Page 37 of 63
uterus. During birth, the
ring of muscles relaxes
to allow the baby to pass
through to the world.
✓ It is also referred to as
the mouth of the uterus.
✓ e) Vagina/Birth canal
✓ It’s a muscular tube
leading from the cervix.
Sperms are deposited
here during sexual
intercourse.
✓ The walls of the vagina
comprise the elastic
tissues that stretch
during sexual intercourse
and also at the time of
birth. It’s long to allow
for sufficient entry of
penis to avoid wastage
of sperms.
✓ The vagina together with
the urethra opens to the
outside at the vulva.
✓ f) Vulva
✓ Within the walls of the
vulva are the vestibular
glands which release
mucus when the female
is sexually aroused
which helps to lubricate
the vagina during
intercourse.
✓ Human sperm
o It consists of:-
✓ Head
✓ It contains a large
nucleus, which carries
genetic material which is
haploid in number(n)
✓ At the tip of the head is
an acrosome which lytic
enzymes. These
enzymes digest the
membrane of the egg for
sperm to penetrate.
Human spermatozoon
✓ Neck – Contains the
centrioles.
✓ Middle piece – Contains
numerous mitochondria.
The mitochondria
provide energy for the
movement of the sperm
cell.
✓ Tail piece – It propels
the sperm forward by its
side to side lashing
action.
✓ Formation of Ova
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✓ Unlike the production of
sperms in mammals in
males which only begins
at puberty, the process of
egg formation begins in
the ovary of the foetus
before birth.
✓ At birth, there are about
70,000 potential egg
cells in the ovaries of a
baby girl. They are
enclosed by a layer of
ovary cells known as
primary follicles which
provide nourishment of
these, about 500 of them
may develop into ova
during puberty. This
involves the process of
meiosis.
✓ During puberty the
primary follicles
undergo growth to
become the mature
graafian follicle.
✓ At ovulation the
Graafian follicle bursts
open to release a mature
ovum surrounded by
layers of follicle cells.
✓ Mature human ovum

✓
✓ A mature ovum is
spherical in shape with a
diameter of about
0.2mm. It contains a
large haploid nucleus
surrounded by a nuclear
membrane.
✓ The nucleus is within the
cytoplasm enclosed by a
plasma membrane.
Another membrane, the
vitelline membrane
surrounds the plasma
membrane.
✓ Process of fertilization
✓ Fertilization – This is
the process whereby the
nucleus of a male
gamete fuses with the
nucleus of a female
gamete to form a zygote.
This occurs in the upper
part of the oviduct after
copulation.
✓ The sperms are drawn up
by suction through the
cervix into the uterus
Page 39 of 63
from where they swim
up to the oviduct using
their tails.
✓ Although a single
ejaculation contains
millions of sperms (50
million – 300 million)
only one will fertilize the
ovum.
✓ As the ovum moves
down the oviduct it
releases chemical
substances which have
to be neutralized by
those produced by the
acrosome before the
sperm penetrates the
ovum.
✓ When the sperm comes
into contact with the
egg, the acrosome burst
open and releases the
lytic enzymes which
dissolve the egg
membrane.
✓
✓ The acrosome then turns
inside–out forming a
 fine filament that is used bursts to release the male
to penetrate the egg. nucleus. The male
nucleus then fuses with
the female nucleus to
form a diploid zygote.
✓ After ovulation the
ovum can remain viable
for 8-24 hours before it
dies. On the other hand
the sperms can remain
✓ viable for 2-3 days
✓.
✓X within the female
reproductive tract.
✓ Implantation
✓ It’s the attachment of
blastocyst to the wall of
the uterus.
✓ After fertilization, the
zygote undergoes several
mitotic division as its
moves down the oviduct.
Its movement is aided by
the cilia movement and
✓ contractions of the
smooth muscles along
the oviduct. By the time
it reaches the uterus it
has formed a hollow
structure of several cells
✓ The vitelline membrane called a blastocyst.
undergoes a change ✓ The movement of the
which stops any other zygote from the oviduct
sperm from entering the to the time it gets
ovum. Once in the implanted takes about 7
cytoplasm the head days.
Page 40 of 63
✓ In the uterus the
blastocyst develops
finger-like projections
called the villi which
grow into the wall of the
uterus (endometrium).
The villi together with
endometrium develop
into a special organ
called placenta.
✓ Upon implantation the
blastocyst becomes an
embryo.
✓ N/B Occasionally the
zygote fails to move
down the oviduct to the
✓
uterus but instead gets ✓ Amnion
implanted into the wall ✓ It surrounds the embryo
of the oviduct where it forming an amniotic
develops. This condition cavity within which the
is referred to as ectopic embryo lies. Amniotic
pregnancy which is cavity is then filled by a
fatal if carried to term in fluid secreted by amnion
most cases. called amniotic fluid.
✓ Formation of placenta ✓ Functions of amniotic
✓ During implantation the fluid.
blastocyst differentials ✓ Provide a fluid
into 3 layers i.e. environment which later
suspends the foetus
providing it with
support.
✓ Acts as a shock absorber
hence protecting the

Page 41 of 63
 foetus against
mechanical injury.
✓ (ii)Chorion
✓ It’s the outermost layer
and develops finger-like
projections called
chorionic villi. These
villi grow into the
endometrium. During
the early stages of
embryo development,
the villi form the sites
for material exchange
between the embryo and
maternal blood vessels
in the uterine wall.
✓ Allantois
✓ It develops as a sac –
like outgrowth. It fuses
with the chorion and
endometrium to form the
placenta.
✓ The embryo is attached
to the placenta by a tube
called the umbilical cord
which increases in
length as the embryo
develops.
✓ When placenta is fully
formed the embryo
becomes a foetus (about
3 months) of pregnancy.
✓ Role of placenta
✓ Placenta is a temporary
organ found in placental
Page 42 of 63
mammals and is the only
organ in mammals
composed of cells
derived from two
different organisms i.e.
foetus and mother.
✓ It’s a point of close
association between the
maternal foetal
circulations and
facilitates the transfer of
nutrients and metabolic
waste products between
the foetus and the
mother.
✓ It’s a disc shaped
structure localized in one
region of the uterus wall.
The placenta selectively
allows some substances
to pass through and not
others.
✓ The foetal blood does
not mix with the
maternal blood in the
placenta. The exchange
of materials occurs
across the sinus in the
uterine wall and
capillary systems of
foetus across
intercellular space by
diffusion.
✓ This is because there is
no direct connection
 between the foetal blood
system and that of the
mother. If the two
systems were directly
connected, the delicate
blood vessels of the
foetus would burst due
to the higher blood
pressure in the maternal
circulation system.
✓ Summary of role of
placenta
o Physical barrier
✓ Prevents the mixing of
the mother’s blood and
foetus blood. This
prevents agglutination in
case the two bloods are
of different blood
groups.
✓ Protects the foetus by
preventing certain
pathogens from crossing
from the mother.
✓ Prevents chemicals and
hormones from the
Page 43 of 63
mother crossing to the
foetus. This protection is
not complete and drugs
can also enter and cause
damage to the foetus.
✓ NB pregnant mothers are
advised not to take
alcohol or smoke
excessively. If she has to
take drugs, it has to be
under the instructions of
a doctor.
o Channel of
communication
✓ It allows;
✓ Diffusion of oxygen and
nutrients from the
mother’s blood to the
foetal blood.
✓ Diffusion of co2 and
urea and other
nitrogenous waste
products from the foetal
blood to the maternal
blood for excretion.
✓ Passage of antibodies
from the mother to the
foetus giving it
immunity against
diseases. This lasts for
only a short time after
the baby is born.
o Gland
✓ Starts producing
hormones e.g.
 progesterone. This chorion) have already
prevents ovulation and formed.
menstruation during ✓ At the end of the 3rd
pregnancy. month;
✓ It also produces a ✓ Head and blood vessels
hormone whose presence forming and foetal
in the urine is a sign of circulatory system are
pregnancy i.e. huan fully formed.
horith gonadotropic ✓ Head (nose and eyes) are
hormone (hhgh). This is well developed.
the basis of most ✓ Spinal cord and tail are
pregnancy tests. developed.
✓ NB after about the 4th ✓ Limbs show early signs
month of pregnancy, of development.
placenta takes over
from corpus luteum as
the source of
progesterone hormone
which maintains the
pregnancy.
✓ Gestation period
✓ At the 6th month the
✓ This is the period
following are well
between conception
developed;
(implantation) and birth.
✓ -limbs
It varies in different
✓ -Alveoli
animals e.g.
✓ -Nostrils
✓ -Mice-22 days.
✓ -Foetal movements can
✓ -Rabbit-30 days.
be felt.
✓ -Man-9 months.
✓ -Elephant-18 months.
✓ At 2 weeks, the embryo
appears as a bump in the
uterine wall and the 3
embryonic membranes
(amnion, allantois and
Page 44 of 63

✓ At end of 9th month;
✓ -Foetal head is directly
above the cervix.
✓ -All organs and systems
are fully developed.
✓ -Normally birth occurs
after the 9th month
✓ If birth occurs before
completion of 6
months, the baby will
not survive and this is
referred to as
miscarriage.
✓ In case where foetus
development is
interfered with either
chemically or physically,
it is referred to as
abortion.
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✓ If birth occurs after the
7th month but before full
term, such is referred to
as premature birth. A
premature baby can
survive if it has attained
a certain weight or it will
require specialized
medical care. In
hospitals premature
babies are cared for in
incubators.
✓ A pregnant mother must
have a balanced diet to
keep her healthy.
✓ The embryo requires;
✓ -Proteins-for growth and
development.
✓ -Calcium and
phosphorus- for bone
formation.
✓ -Iron-formation of
haemoglobin hence the
mother has to take plenty
of nutrients.
✓ An expectant mother is
advised to visit antenatal
clinic or her doctor
regularly for
examination. The
following is done during
the examination;
✓ -Urine test.
✓ -Changes in blood
pressure.
✓ -Heart beat.
✓ -Weight.
✓ -Sugar level.
✓ -Albumen level.
✓ Birth (parturition)
✓ The onset of birth is
signaled by the reduction
in the progesterone level
in the mother’s blood
which allows the
maternal posterior
pituitary gland to release
a hormone called
oxytocin.
✓ Oxytocin stimulates the
myometrium whose
muscles start contracting
the release of oxytocin
occurs in “waves”
during labour and
provides the force to
expel the foetus from the
uterus.
✓ The onset of
contractions of the
myometrium called the
“labour pains “are
accompanied by;
✓ -Dilation of the cervix.
✓ -Rapture of the amnion
and chorion releasing
amniotic fluid through
the cervix.
✓ -Stimulation of the
stretch receptors in the
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walls of uterus and
cervix.
✓ Uterine contraction then
follows, thus pushing the
foetus downwards head
first through the widened
cervix and birth canal
and the baby is born.
✓ After birth the umbilical
cord is ligatured and cut
in order to separate the
baby from the placenta.
The placenta is expelled
later as afterbirth.
✓ After birth and
expulsion of the
placenta, important
changes take place in the
baby’s circulation
associated with the fact
that the respiratory
function of the placenta
is taken over by lungs.
The newborn takes the
first breath and the lungs
expand and become
functional.
✓ Caesarean Delivery
✓ It’s the surgical incision
of the abdominal and
uterine walls for the
delivery of the offspring.
This is done when there
are complications such
that the foetus can not
 pass through the birth
canal.
o Multiple Births
✓ In humans, cattle and
many other mammals,
offspring are usually
born singly and other
mammals such as dogs,
rats, and pigs normally
produce a litter
containing several
offspring.
✓ Occasionally humans
and other animals that
normally produce only
one offspring give birth
to 2 or more offspring.
When 2 such offspring
are produced they are
referred to as twins.
o Kinds of twins
o Dizygotic/Fratern
al twins
✓ These are as a result of
simultaneous release of
2 ova both of which
become fertilized and
develop. Such twins
maybe be of the same or
different sex.They are
genetically different and
have the same degree of
resemblance as that of
other brothers and sisters
born at different times.
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✓ (b)Monozygotic/
Identical twins
✓ These result from the
same fertilized egg
which at some stage
during early
development divides into
2 independent parts.
Each of these parts
develops into an embryo.
Such twins are of the
same sex.
✓ They are genetically
identical and are also
alike i.e. it’s difficult to
tell them apart.
✓ NB Occasionally
identical twins develop
without separating
completely and are born
attached to one another,
these are called Siamese
twins. Such twins can be
separated surgically but
their survival depends on
the degree of fusion.
✓ Parental Care
✓ It’s the attention given to
the new born by
providing food and
protection.
✓ The degree of maturity
in mammalian newborn
varies from species to
species e.g. newborn
 donkey and guinea pig
can run around and eat
solid food. Newborn
humans, dogs, rats are
quite helpless and
require a lot of parental
care to survive
✓ The parents protect the
newborns from
unfavorable weather and
predators by;
✓ -Most mammals make a
nest just before
delivering the young.
✓ -Parents are often very
aggressive when they
have young ones and
will react very violently
to any intruders.
✓ In humans parental care
extends for a long time
upto and over 18 years.
✓ All the mammals suckle
their young ones and the
milk is produced by the
mammary glands under
the influence of
lactogenic hormones e.g.
Prolactin.
✓ From the 1st and to the
3rd day, the mammary
glands produce
colostrum, a yellow fluid
which contains proteins,
lactose and antibodies
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which provide natural
defense against some
diseases.
✓ Colostrum is then
replaced by milk which
contains proteins, fat,
lactose, vitamins and
mineral salts including
calcium.
✓ Releasing of milk by
mammary glands
✓ The releasing of milk or
milk letdown is an
example of a reflex
action. This is influenced
by the prevailing
environmental
conditions which could
be either positive or
negative. When the baby
begins to touch the
breast and suck,
messages go to the
brain. In the brain, the
hypothalamus sends
messages to the pituitary
 gland which in turn
signals the breast to let
down the milk.
✓ Milk production in
vavious environments
✓ Positive environment
✓
✓ The milk let down reflex
is triggered by the
sucking at the breast or
in some cases the crying
of the baby or smell of
the baby.
✓ When this happens the
hypothamus relays
messages to the pituitary
gland which in turn
releases the hormone
oxytocin which reaches
the breast and causes the
alveoli to contract
forcing milk into the
ducts.
✓ The ducts conduct milk
into he reservoirs behind
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the areola. The baby
then sucks the milk from
the reservoir into its
mouth.
✓ Negative Environment
✓ The milk let down reflex
maybe inhibited or
blocked if the breast
feeding mother
experiences;
✓ -Distraction
✓ -Embarrassment
✓ -Anxiety
✓ -Fatigue
✓ Role of hormones in
human reproduction
✓ Secondary sexual
characteristics
✓ Primary sexual
characteristics are those
that distinguish males
and females at birth.
✓ Secondary sexual
characteristics are
physiological, structural
and mental changes
which are associated
with femininity and
masculinity. These are
controlled by oestrogen
in females and
androgens in males. The
period during which
these changes occur is
referred to as puberty.
✓ Secondary sexual ✓ Scrotum and penis
characteristics in males enlarge and mature.
✓ In males, the ✓ Secondary sexual
testosterone hormone characteristics in
produced by the testes females
initiates secondary ✓ In females the hormones
sexual characteristics at oestrogen and
about the age of 13-15 progesterone are
years. These are; secreted by the ovaries.
✓ Growth of hair on the The secondary sexual
chin called beard, pubic characteristics begin to
area and arm pits. show as early as the age
✓ Deepening of the voice- of 10 years in some girls.
the deep voice is as a These are;
result of the thickening ✓ Large pelvic girdle-
and enlarging of the pelvic girdle enlarges
chords in the voice box/ resulting in wide hips in
larynx. preparation for birth.
✓ Enlarged pectoral girdle ✓ Development of
i.e. collar bones and mammary glands in
shoulder blades hence anticipation of lactation.
broadening of the ✓ The body fat is
shoulders. redistributed and
✓ Enlarged testis-the increases in the hips,
development of the thigh and breasts and the
seminiferous tubules whole body becomes
within the testes lead to feminine.
the enlargement of the ✓ Internally the ovaries
testis. mature and start
✓ Muscular body-the releasing eggs and the
muscles enlarge and the girl begins to
body becomes more menstruate.
muscular especially the ✓ The development of
chest. secondary sexual
characteristics is
Page 50 of 63
 controlled by hormones.
There are 3 different
organs that release these
hormones. These are;
✓ -Hypothalamus
✓ -Pituitary gland
✓ -Gonads
✓ Puberty is the time
between childhood and
adulthood and it marks
the process of sexual
maturity. In boys, its
about 13-15 years and in
girls 10-13 years.
✓ In girls the Follicle
Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) stimulates the
ovaries to produce
oestrogen and
progesterone.
✓ The ovaries start
producing eggs and this
leads to the first
menstruation
(menarche). At first it is
irregular and
unpredictable but
stabilizes within a year.
✓ NB in some females pain
be experienced due to
progesterone hormone
which causes the uterine
muscles to contract
(muscle cramps).
✓ Menstrual Cycle
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✓ Menstruation is the
shedding of the uterine
lining and blood through
the vagina in females. It
only takes place when
fertilization does not
occur.
✓ The whole sequence
repeats itself once every
month in what is called
menstrual cycle.
✓ The events of menstrual
cycle involve the ovaries
(ovarian cycle) and the
uterus (uterine cycle)
and these are regulated
by hormones secreted by
ovary which in turn is
regulated by pituitary
gonadotrophins.
✓ The cycle begins with
the discharge of blood
and tissue debris from
the uterus. This flow is
called menses.
✓ Before menses the
woman experiences;
✓ -Nausea
✓ -Abdominal pain
✓ -Back pains
✓ Just before menstruation,
the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland start
secreting the Follicle
Stimulating Hormone
 (FSH) which has 2
effects;
✓ Causes Graafian follicle
to develop in the ovary.
✓ Stimulates the tissues of
the ovary to secrete
another hormone called
oestrogen
✓ Oestrogen
✓ It brings about repair and
healing of endometrium
which is destroyed
during menstruation.
✓ It accumulates to a level
which stimulates the
anterior pituitary gland
to produce luteinising
hormone (LH).
✓ Luteinising hormone
(LH).
✓ The hormone stimulates
the maturity of the
Graafian follicle. The
mature Graafian follicle
releases an ovum into
the funnel of the oviduct
(fallopian tube). This
process is called
ovulation.
✓ After releasing the ovum
the Graafian follicle
changes into a yellow
body (corpus luteum).
The LH stimulates the
corpus luteum to secrete
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the hormone called
progesterone.
✓ Progesterone.
✓ It stimulates the
thickening and increased
blood supply to
endometrium. This
prepares the uterus for
implantation of the
blastocyst.
✓ If fertilization takes
place the level of
progesterone increases
and inhibits the FSH
from stimulating the
maturation of the
Graafian follicle.
✓ If fertilization does not
occur, corpus luteum
disintegrates and no
more progesterone is
produced, hence the
endometrium sloughs off
and menstruation occurs.
This completes the
cycle. The whole cycle
lasts for about 28 days in
human beings.
✓
 o Sanitary health
✓ During menstruation it is
important to maintain
high standards of
cleanliness in both body
and wear e.g.
✓ -Wear sanitary towel to
absorb discharged blood/
tissue debris.
✓ -Changing of soiled
sanitary towel /material,
frequently to avoid
infection of reproductive
organs.
✓ -Observe proper disposal
of sanitary towels.
✓ -Bathing regularly to
avoid awful smell.
✓ Menopause
✓ Majority of women stop
to ovulate at the age of
45 years. This is
described as menopause.
✓ Men do not stop
producing spermatozoa
and they can produce
viable spermatozoa even
at the age of 75 years.
✓ Knowledge of hormones
of the menstrual cycle
has been used in the
manufacture of
contraceptive pills.
These include;
✓ Oral pills
Page 53 of 63
✓ Injections (Depo
provera) which are
injected once every 3
months.
✓ Others are inserted under
the skin (Norplant).
✓ The major cause of male
infertility is low sperm
count. This problem is
being solved by “in
vitro” fertilization i.e.
fertilization is done in a
test tube and he fertilized
ovum transferred to the
mother’s uterus.
✓ Today it is possible to
store ones sperms in a
sperm bank for many
years until the person is
ready to give children.
✓ Surrogate motherhood
✓ Surrogate mothers are
women who allow their
uterus to be used to carry
artifially fertilized ovum
to birth. After birth the
baby is given to the
sterile mother.
✓ The ova can be extracted
from the sterile woman
if her ovaries are
functional or ova can be
donated by another
woman. The sperm cells
 normally come from the
husband.
✓ Sexually Transmitted
Infections (S.T.I)
✓ They are diseases
transmitted through
sexual intercourse.
These diseases are;
✓ Gonorrhea
✓ Cause; Bacterium called
Neisseria gonorrhea.
✓ The bacteria invade the
urethra of males and the
vagina of females.
✓ Mode of transmission
✓ Mostly through sexual
intercourse with an
infected person.
✓ In infants the infection
occurs during birth if the
mother is suffering from
the disease. The infected
infant can become blind.
✓ Sharing of common
items such as bathing
towels with an infected
person.
o Symptoms
✓ The incubation period
i.e. period between the
entry of the pathogens
and the appearance of
the symptoms, is 2-14
days.
✓ The Symptoms are;
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✓ -Itching of urethra
✓ -A yellow foul discharge
containing pus from the
penis.
✓ -Pain when urinating
because it affects the
penis making it sore at
the tip.
✓ In females the
Symptoms are;
✓ -Vaginal discharge with
a foul smell
✓ NB (i) in females the
Symptoms is not clear.
✓ On healing the infection
can leave a scar tissue
where the infection was
and this leads to
blockage of sperm ducts
or oviducts which makes
a person infertile.
✓ Control and Treatment
✓ Avoiding sexual
intercourse with an
infected person.
✓ Not sharing personal
items such as towels.
✓ Treating the affected
person using antibiotics.
✓ Use of condoms
✓ NB if left untreated, it
becomes a systemic
disease thus affects other
related organs such as
spinal cord and urinary
 bladder and can result in
sterility in both sexes.
✓ (2) Syphilis
✓ Cause; Bacterium called
Treponema pallidum.
This disease occurs in 3
stages.
✓ Mode of transmission
✓ Sexual intercourse with
an infected person.
✓ From infected mother
through the placenta to
the foetus.
✓ Blood transfusion from
an infected donor.
✓ Symptoms
✓ First stage
✓ Symptoms appear 2-4
weeks after infection.
✓ In males the Symptoms
include sores or ulcers
on the penis especially
on the glans. The sores
are not painful and can
go undetected.
✓ In females, the sores or
ulcers develop inside the
vagina. The sores are not
painful and can go
undetected.
✓ These Symptoms then
disappear in both sexes
with or without
treatment.
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✓ Second /Secondary
stage
✓ Occur after 6 moths. The
Symptoms are;
✓ -Skin rashes
✓ -Patches of hair may fall
out
✓ -Headaches
✓ -Low grade fever
✓ -Enlarged lymph nodes
✓ -Sores on lips, mouth
and genital areas.
✓ The Symptoms
disappear after 3 months.
✓ Tertiary stage
✓ Occur after 20 years. It’s
a fatal stage because the
infection reaches the
nervous system. The
Symptoms are;
✓ -Teeth develop a rugged
biting edge.
✓ -Membranes of spinal
cord and brain are
invaded by bacteria and
the patient shows signs
of mental instability
(insanity).
✓ -Blindness and death
soon follows.
✓ Control and Treatment
✓ Avoiding sexual
intercourse with an
infected person.
✓ It’s easier to treat
syphilis in the primary
stage by use of broad
spectrum antibiotics.
Secondary and tertiary
stages are difficult to
treat and need
specialized medical care.
✓ Treating infected
pregnant women to
reduce mother to child
infection.
✓ Transfusion with blood
that has been screened.
✓ (3) Trichomoniasis
✓ Cause; Protozoan called
Trichomonas vaginalis
(T.V)
✓ It infects the genital
organs in both sexes but
it thrives well in a
vaginal canal which is
less acidic.
✓ Symptoms
✓ Excess frothy yellow
discharge with a foul
smell from the vagina of
the female.
✓ Itching of the urethra in
males and vaginal itch in
females.
✓ Discharge in males
which are not easily
noticeable.
✓ Mode of transmission
Page 56 of 63
✓ Sexual intercourse with
an infected person.
✓ Sharing of common
items such as bathing
towels with an infected
person.
✓ Control and Treatment
✓ Avoiding sexual
intercourse with an
infected person.
✓ Not sharing of common
items such as bathing
towels with an infected
person.
✓ Observe high personal
hygiene.
✓ Trichomoniasis can be
treated and cured if the
infected couples are
properly diagnosed and
the correct antibiotics
administered.
✓ (4) Candidiasis
/Thrush
✓ Cause; Fungus called
Candida albicans.
✓ The fungus can infect
the mouth by growing on
the tongue. It also affects
the vulva in females and
penis in males.
✓ The fungus may be
present in the vaginal
canal of an individual
and cause no harm to the
 individual. The problem
arises when its
population increases due
to factors such as;
✓ Change of PH in the
vaginal canal.
✓ Use of antibiotics which
kill bacteria that keep
Candida population in
control.
✓ Symptoms
✓ Inflammation of the
glans of the penis. In
uncircumcised males
inflammation occurs just
beneath the foreskin.
✓ Females produce a thick
white discharge from the
vagina.
✓ Itchiness of the vulva
due to the irritation
caused by the fungus.
✓ In both sexes, the mouth
may be infected with a
white flurry fungal layer
especially on the tongue.
✓ Mode of transmission
✓ Sexual intercourse with
an infected person.
✓ Sharing of common
items such as bathing
towels with an infected
person.
✓ Control and Treatment
Page 57 of 63
✓ Treatment is
administered by use of
anti-fungal drugs.
✓ Control involves;
✓ -Avoiding sexual
intercourse with an
infected person.
✓ -Avoid use of strongly
scented medicated soaps
or disinfectants that
might alter the PH
medium of the birth
canal.
✓ -Wiping oneself from
the front to the back
after going to the toilet
to prevent thrush from
being transferred from
the bowel.
✓ -Keep proper aeration of
the genital region by use
of pure cotton and loose
pants.
✓ -Not sharing of common
items such as bathing
towels with an infected
person.
✓ (5) Hepatitis
✓ It’s a condition that
describes the
inflammation of the
liver.
✓ Cause; Virus which
attacks liver cells
 eventually causing ✓ Incubation period; 2-6
damage in the liver. months.
✓ There are 2 main types o Control and
of hepatitis depending Prevention
on the causative virus ✓ Vaccination
i.e. virus A (hepatitis A), ✓ Practice safe sex
and virus B (hepatitis B). ✓ Boil water and cook
✓ Hepatitis B food well before
✓ Symptoms consuming.
✓ Diarrhoea ✓ Screen donated blood
✓ Weight loss before transfusion.
✓ Abdominal pain ✓ Use of sterilized surgical
✓ Jaundice instruments.
✓ Bleeding in the o (6) Herpes
intestines ✓ Cause; virus called
✓ Fever Herpes simplex.
✓ Dark yellow urine o Symptoms
✓ Nausea ✓ Recurrent fever
✓ Vomiting ✓ Headache
✓ Mode of transmission ✓ General feeling of
✓ Sexual intercourse with illness.
an infected person. ✓ Ulcers /blisters in and
✓ Blood transfusion around the vagina.
✓ Sharing contaminated ✓ Ulcers /blisters in and
razors around the penis.
✓ Unsterilised syringes ✓ The main mode of
used mainly by drug transmission is sexual
addicts. intercourse with an
✓ Kissing infected person.
✓ Contaminated o Control and
instruments used by Treatment
dentists and barbers. ✓ Avoid contaminated
✓ Hepatitis B is present in needles and syringes.
the body fluids i.e. urine, ✓ There is no known
saliva, semen and milk. treatment for herpes but
Page 58 of 63
 exposure to he disease
can stimulate the body’s
immune system to
acquire partial resistance
to the disease.
✓ Avoiding sexual
intercourse with an
infected person.
✓ (7) HIV and AIDS
✓ AIDS stands for
Acquired
Immunodeficiency
Syndrome and is caused
by Human
Immunodeficiency Virus
(HIV).
✓ The virus belongs to a
group of viruses called
retroviruses. It infects
and destroys certain
white blood cells called
T-helper lymphocytes
which are involved in
the defense of the body
against diseases and
infections. This virus
attacks the immune
system so that the body
is defenseless against
infection.
✓ The disease was first
identified among
homosexuals and drug
users in the U.S.A
in1981.
Page 59 of 63
✓ The first case of AIDS in
Kenya was reported in
1984. by the year 2003,
about 2.2 million people
were infected with the
virus. About 15-20% of
the adults in Kenya are
HIV positive.
✓ It is a serious contagious
disease which has no
known cure or vaccine
for control at the
moment.
✓ After infection the
incubation period is 1-10
years. The symptoms
depend on the stage of
infection e.g.
o Stage 1 (Phase 1)
✓ Body produces HIV
antibodies.
✓ A short flu-like illness.
✓ Skin rash.
✓ Swollen lymph nodes.
o Stage 2 (Phase 2)
✓ No symptoms of
infection and can last
from 2 weeks to 13
years.
o Stage 3 (Phase 3)
✓ A person contracts a
variety of conditions
known as opportunistic
infections e.g.
 pneumonia, Bronchitis,
Tuberculosis.
✓ Loss of body weight.
o Stage 4(Phase 4)
✓ Body organs get
diseased and secondary
cancers can form.
✓ Cancer of the lymphatic
system, pneumonia,
severe Diarrhoea and
tuberculosis occur.
These diseases result
from the weakening of
the immune system.
o Mode of
transmission
✓ This disease is not
spread by casual contact
(shaking hands, staying
together, second hand
clothes), air borne
means, ingestion and
faecal matter. This is
because the virus always
occurs within the
lymphatic system and
only in small quantities
in the blood. This makes
it difficult to detect by
the normal serological
tests and therefore there
are special HIV/AIDS
kits which have been
installed in every
District and Provincial
Page 60 of 63
medical centers for the
detection of the
HIV/AIDS virus.
✓ Once the HIV virus
enters the lymphocytes,
it binds itself to the
chromosomes and
integrates into the
genetic material. The
virus now replicates very
fast using the contents of
the lymphocytes. The
daughter viruses invade
more lymphocytes
destroying them.
✓ The immune system of
the body produces
antibodies against the
virus but due to the high
rate of mutation of the
virus, the antibodies fail
to act against them.
o Methods of
transmission
✓ Sexual intercourse with
an infected person.
✓ Blood transfusion from
an infected donor.
✓ Organ transplants from
an infected donor.
✓ Use or sharing of
unsterilised surgical
instruments such as
scalpel blades and
hypodermic needles.
✓ Through the placenta
from an infected mother
to the unborn child.
✓ Through the breast milk
from an infected mother
to the baby.
✓ During the process of
birth when blood from
infected mother leaks
into the foetus.
✓ Occupational hazards
due to accidental
puncturing of the skin
when handling an HIV
positive patient or
infected blood.
o Control and
Prevention
✓ Avoid indiscriminate
sex.
✓ Abstinence from sex by
unmarried people.
✓ Married people. Should
remain faithful to their
partners.
✓ Use of physical barrier
methods e.g. condoms.
✓ Use of sterile tools e.g.
traditional birth
attendants and
circumcisers they should
protect themselves by
using sterile disposable
gloves.
Page 61 of 63
✓ Change of behaviour e.g.
abstinence for unmarried
people.
✓ In the case of AIDS,
opportunistic infections
can be minimized by
taking anti-retroviral
(ARV) medications.
These are only used to
prolong the life of the
infected individuals.
✓ One should know his/her
HIV status by visiting a
VCT (Voluntary
Counseling and Testing)
centre. In the VCT, one
is able to make decisions
that allow them to
change their behaviour
to reduce the risk of
contracting HIV/AIDS
and / or spreading it to
others.
o Social and
Economic effects
of HIV/AIDS
✓ Most of the people dying
are in the age earning
group and this affects the
country’s labour force.
✓ The death of parents has
led to an increase in the
number of orphans
hence placing the burden
on the state and families.
✓ High cost of medical
services i.e. medical
expenses for the
individual will be high.
✓ Decreased productivity
due to lack of
motivation.
✓ Disrupted family life.
✓ Psychological torture
and suicidal feelings.
o Advantages of
asexual
Reproduction
✓ Good qualities from the
parents are retained in
the offspring without
any variation.
✓ The plants mature faster
than those produced by
sexual means.
✓ It does not depend on
processes such as
pollination, fertilization
and dispersal of fruits
and seeds.
✓ The new plants are able
to obtain nourishment
from their parent plants
hence are able to survive
temporarily under
unsuitable conditions.
✓ It gives rise to dense
clumps of plants which
do not encourage
competitors.
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✓ Disadvantages of
asexual Reproduction
✓ The new offspring being
exactly similar to the
parent would carry even
undesired qualities from
the parents.
✓ No variations hence the
offspring may not be
able to withstand
changing environmental
conditions.
✓ Asexual reproduction
gradually reduces the
strength and vigour of
the succeeding
generation.
o Advantages of
sexual
Reproduction
✓ Fertilization brings about
mixing of different
genetic material. This
leads to the formation of
new combination of
characteristics. These
combinations often lead
to desired variations.
✓ The variants often show
hybrid vigour and high
adaptability to
environmental
conditions.
✓ Variations provide the
basis for evolutionary
changes.
✓ Disadvantages of
sexual Reproduction
✓ Many produce
individuals exhibiting
undesirable qualities
which may sooner or
later become eliminated.
✓ It involves the union of 2
different gametes and
this becomes difficult in
cases where certain
organisms are isolated
from one another.

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