Murmur

CONTENT CHECKLIST 1 FROM TEXTBOOK )

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM SYSTEMS

Jun
o rate of chemical reactions

0 equilibrium
o equilibrium systems in the environment

'

chemicals swap protons

'
ACIDS $ BASES how do

÷¥¥÷:
"

's
a volumetric analysis

OXIDATION $ REDUCTION
• redox reactions
o
galvanic cells
•
electrolysis

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

)
o
key products from the chemical industry
o resources $ the environment

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
• structure of organic molecules
o reactions of organic molecules
""" "

%¥ImIIm:%ImnI¥¥%" %:p"s and biodiesel

BIOCHEMISTRY
• from amino acids to proteins
• uses of proteins
 equilibrium
Is
"
I EQ4Y'¥%%Ye a →
chemical or physical

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MMBEESEEEFE.EE#T?Et BE?EEaaAskmTTBa9
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the the

ants
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given temp
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this is a
Constanta
.

i¥
"
¥ :÷÷÷
" "
vaumme I Ied pros You
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for gases .
to concentration

be described

left
equilibrium can as or right

more
nts
↳ off s

If
MggµYooeTEgSe zgEoTNMqMq
seacoasts
"

€E←EEeTEIngoEoGIg'e
ibrium constant

a passion

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"" "

③ what is the equilibrium

concentration I! If ! IHB =
o.tn and His =
own

it , , = us ,
* as

a:÷÷÷÷÷÷ :* ..
a.
RATE OF REACTION :
how quickly the reaction occurs

YIELD :
the amount of product produced

the position of equilibrium affects the yield ,

reaction rate affects how fast the

yield is produced

when changes are made to a system @ equilibrium

the forward , reverse or both reactions may be affected

if the rate of either or both reaction is altered then the system will no longer
be @ equilibrium $ the
system will adjust to reestablish equilibrium

anything that changes the of reaction may affect

'

. .
rate a

equilibrium
so
LeChatelier's Principle rETtsTEgFEeI

eFGTSEEFES.EE#o9eTIT@i
.io#eEioiETFTEEaEEEn:IFI⑧F€eeI
e-IETFFF.EE?aasopaETeTaTtIF
i.
That

changes to concentration changes to temperature

II In In failed "IIe In YI% 7ha gettin "
" "" "
-

altered
equilibrium
constant
,

temp TFRR = TRRR +

! I.
↳ endothermic increases more

ttYY¥
will
using
IF
reaction the substance -

faster
% #Yet In
be
-

producing the substance -

it forward favoured
is =

will be favoured products @ new equilibrium

Y4E
'%e%e
¥19991911 :# fat It This
""

tame
-

it is favoured =

Hants @ equilibrium
1%1
new
affect the position of
equi unmot

changes to volume or pressure adding a catalyst

when volume or pressure of a
gas system
-

doesn't affect the position of

¥ff%%aIah¥$¥o1h¥Yn"a"a¥fnt -
Fan In Her $ RRR lowered is

no 's of mois they will affected i.

II. he
be to
fifth reached
.

- I I mas of gas as reactants more quickly

wi "
?! IdeaIn win in + in rate
Increasing the surface area
or

than the opposite one wants to

¥1 It
Ni TV UP
9
In If
e-
.
+ =

i. ←
-

TSA =
TRR 's but not the
⇐ position of equilibrium

! me + or
pressure T , system favours

%:%%e¥II¥m¥to% .

a%H¥m
has the same effect on the lag ) substances
equilibrium constant changes negative AH
exothermic
example :
i ✓ i.

K I
'

ZHBHG )
'

Hzlg ) AH -103.7k J >

+
Btzcg )
= . .

IH23 1BK ] IHBT ) K value

add T get rid 'ot the added H
'
H, t t same wants to
[ so reaction using it favoured -
,

add HBT T T t same

'
wants to get rid 'ot the added HBR
[ so reaction
using it favoured -_

th T T t same wants H so reaction

f
remove to make more ,

that is producing is favoured

remove HBR t t T same wants to make more HBRSO reaction
[ favoured
that is producing is

temp T T T t decrease favours endothermic

'

the
[
. .

reverse is favoured
tempt t t T increase favours exothermic i. the

no
( forward is favoured
no no
Pttvt change change change same

ZHBTCG )

I
'

I 5 I
A0.
5
0 2
2

f
'

± I I 1
t o
5
'
= 1 I
'
S I f s

E NE t i

7 H2 (g) 5
0
I
-
to
I
1
1 1
time time
+ µ, PTVIV

+ volume trlonientration lot gas )

STAWA set 6 QI rexo

-424J
"

effd0
ran
Nzig ) +342cg )=2NHzcg ) AH= more particles
✓ =
more

impact
a) write equilibrium constant expression FRRIV
'
: reverse
INH ]
.

,
RRR t
favoured
'
[ Ns ) ( H , ]

b) predict the effect on [ NH33 explain

i -
TT ,
equilibrium shifts left ( reverse i -

FRRT RRRT more products than reactants

reaction favoured ) more particles more successful collisions
-
-

i. [ NH , ] t new equilibrium
"
own fast i. left

ii-TLN.gs ) forward favoured , LNH , )T

iii -

tell LCP :jv=fp

favours side w/ fewest particles
=
forward :[NHZJT .

iv. remove catalyst ,

doesn't change
 ~ dynamic equilibrium -

Weathers
roof

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t.ee#%EeEESEEasEzz TO STS⇐⇐Aae&
.BZ?EiEEEBgfEI
:Ei¥¥
wh

"am%f¥¥rpI ¥¥a¥¥ action rate IRRRI :

't
tehgisa Yesh
mean that the amount of products $ reactants are
,

AT DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM the FRR =

RRR and both are constant

reaching equilibrium
It In
start
?
-

products
there
are no

: :*:

.me me

'

""
:
-

÷:*

me

" "" ""

'

man.
*
concentration graphs
EXAMPLE : rexo
ZN0B tzcg ) n
'
ZN0 (g) +
Btzig ) AHIO

a) @ ti ,
NOBR, was added at a constant temperature

NOBRZ 1-
7 b) @ tz
2 : 2 rato
, tempt
i.
fall -_
rise
I :L I
'

NO 7✓ .
.

Brag ) → NOBR
-
Brz

t, t
,

reaction rate graphs

endo
EXAMPLE : ✓
[ OC12 (g) = Clzlg ) +
CO19 ) AH -
+108kt

F-IT t, temp increased

=

CO removed
E co
t, =

E
T TV
1-17
t, = i. XP
±
§ COLI

The
,

E
time
t, tz ts

reaction rate graph from J

FRR
FTL

II.
RRR
-

ti h t 's
 N0B :

all
soluble
1
NO slag
Adding Ag
-

E ? ?
? ill
+
-

NU3 +
cftfavoured
=
precipitation
=
Aglks )
= disappear
to make
i. shift
money
 properties of acids + bases
ACIDS BASES
sour bitter
- -

conduct electricity ¥1 -

react w/ acids ( form water + a salt )

↳ can be strong electrolytes
-

feel slippery
in lag ) solution can be strong or weak electrolytes in 199 )
-

( still
strong when diluted solution
reacts w/ metals ( forms H , gas )
-

reacts w/ bases ( metal hydroxides )

to form water and a salt
-

pH =
57
-
reacts w/ carbonates +
bicarbonates
to produce a salt , water + to , gas

covalent molecular
they start w/ Hydrogen usually
( e.g HC1 H, 504 HN03 etc. )
)
.

, ,
"

strong acids
'
no 't water though

acid + active metal =

salt + H, gas
HCl lag ) -1 Mgls ) → Mgclzcaq ) +
H2 Ig )

acid + carbonates I bicarbonates

HC1 + NAHCO , → NaCl + H, 0 + CO ,

acids neutralise bases

HC1 + NA0H → Nall +
H20
I
ALWAYS produces
a salt l ionic
compound ) t H20
 acids + bases examples
SULFURIC ACID HYDROCHLORIC ACID ACETIC ACID
1-12504 HC1 HI , H30 ,

9. K 9
-

PHOSPHORIC ACID ethanoicacid.CH, CO0H

NITRIC ACID HzPO4
HN03

SODIUM HYDROXIDE MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE

NA0H M9 1OH ) ,

POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE CALCIUM HYDROXIDE

K0H CAIOH ) ,
acids + bases example questions
EXAMPLE I
dilute ethanol's acid is added to sodium hydroxide solution

equation :
observation :

Htlaq , + OH lag , >

H20 a) no visible reaction 12 colourless > colourless )

EXAMPLE 2
Which of the following is true for all bases ?
correct lif basic solutions
' '
also
(a) they contain hydroxide ( OH ) ions -

then = wrong )
(b) they are able to accept hydrogen ions
4) they are soluble in water
(d) they react with metals to produce hydrogen gas

EXAMPLE 2
which of the following solutions will have a pH value closest to 7 ?
(a)
"
504 lag , strong =
lionising
-

I. 0 mall H, H , so , → Htt HS04

5042
-

(b)
'
2. OM01 L NA0H lag ) HS04 Htt
'

NA0H Nat + OH
-

(c)
'
to molt HN03 199 )
-

strong
(d)
'
weak base
2.0 Moll N Hzcaq , produce
-

a all bases accept H to

=
ionising
+
ions in water
-

OH
NH3 + H20 ? NH4 +
+ OH
-
least effect on pH
 hydrogen ions, acidity and pH
+
H IONS FROM WATER 10N PRODUCT CONSTANT
Ht
-

H, 0 = + OH Kw is constant in every law solution

' "
I0H I
"
-
"

if IH )
'
into ions self ionisation 10
-

turns then 10
'
- > ' ai
" "
occurs to a very small extent :
if [ HI clo then [OH -1710 b
'
[Ht ] [OH -1=1×10 M
-

@issaiizaTejfogekwt.tt
tsinneii.thney.in?oumwater=a
It ) x
§TIIaIzGEAGk
[OH -1=1×10
1 ion product constant " for water
"
-
"
M
'

ACID -
BASE INDICATORS
THE pH CONCEPT given @ 25°C ( may change at different temps )
.

from 0-714
pH =
log LHY
-

t in neutral , -10911×107=7
"
acidic . IHY >
10

109110 )
'
'

pH s -

↳
pH a 7

0 -7pA acid range =

7-
14pA base range -
pH/acidity examples
EXAMPLE I
calculate the hydroxide ion concentration in the following situations :

(a) used to analyse floor cleaning

"
a standard 0.104 mot l hydrochloric acid solutions
""
CIHCI ) =
0.104 10
9.62×10 -14M
[ OH I
-

= =

" "
LH ) [OH -1=10
"
when x 0.104

(b) A samples of malachite ( copper ore

"
0.125 moth sulfuric acid solution used to dissolve

containing mostly copper carbonate ) Assume the . first hydrogen is fully ionised + the
second is 101 ionised
[H ) [ OH -1=10-14
'
IH +1=0.125+0.0125 to
-14

=
01375M [OH -1--0.1375 =
7.27×10
-
'"
M

EXAMPLE 2
a
laboratory chemist wants a low concentration hydrochloric acid solution with a pH of 5.00 ,

for calibrating conductivity meter . What volume of water must be added to a 25mL sample
of HC1 solution
pH =3 60.

pH 5 = =
0.628L
' b '

"
LH ) [ H +3=10 -5M
'
- -

=
to :
2-51×10 M =
628mL
HIH +1=12-51×10 4) to -025 ) V 7C
-

-
b 6.28×10-6
=
6.28×10 MOI .
=

-5
10
any many many many many acid + base theories many many many many man
0
> >
V5 ) 1887

produce
'
ACIDS H ions in laq ) solution limited " t"
1
to °" "
+

BASES produce OH dissolved in water lag ) solutions hydroxides

-

ions when

HC1 → H
+
+ (I
-

NA0H → Nat + OH
-

)
NH } ( ammonia ) couldn't be an

POLY PR0-1IC ACIDS Arhennius base :

no OH
-

produced
some compounds have more than one ioni sable hydrogen
to release t
however ,
ORGANIC ACIDS IN carbon )
HN0 } -

mono profit doesn't mean all contain the carboxyl group

it's stronger (sometimes several of them )
1-12504 diprotic (21-1-1)
-

H} P04 -

trip to tic (31-1-1)

CH , CO0H Of the 41-1 's only 1
-

ACIDS " "" " "b "

not all the hydrogen in an acid may be released as ions '

t ionisable c = 0
only those that have very polar bonds are

( when the hydrogen is joined to a very electronegative % HI ionisable

hydrogen
element )
the carboxyl group is a

3) 05 ) -

O ) 1923 poor proton donor

organic acids are
,
so

weak acids
ALL

broader definition than arhennius

ACID is hydrogen -
ion donor ( Ht or proton ) HC1 is an acid
BASE is hydrogen -

ion acceptor 1 when it dissolves in water ,

it

gives its protons to water

acids and in PAIRS
+
bases always H20 (1) I H30
-

come HC1 +
( aq ) + ( I ( aa )
(g)

WHY AMMONIA IS A BASE ( water is a base ,

+

I NH4 ( aq ) hydro hium ion

-

NH } ( aq ) +
H20 (1) + OH ( aq ) makes
I0H ]
-

causes the to be
ammonia hydrogen acceptor ( base ,
ion
y
= -

greater than in pure water

+
water =
hydrogen
-
ion donor ( acid )
$ the ammonia solution is basic

ACIDS + BASES COME IN PAIRS

conjugate base :
remainder original acid (after
of the it donates its hydrogen ion )
conjugate base
:
the particle formed when the original base gains a hydrogen ion

i. a
conjugate acid-base pair is related by a LOSS OR GAIN of a single hydrogen ion

acid base conjugate base conjugate acid

'
+ +
,

H30-1AQ )
-

HA ( aa ) +
H20 (1) ,
'
+ A ( aq )
+ +
-

NH } H30
-

examples : H20+
NH4 + OH HC1 + H20 I + (I
base acid c. a .
c. b. acid base c. a .
c. b.

water =
amphoteric
Ican act as both acid and base )
 5 C) 5+3 s s
lewis acid :
electron pair acceptor acids often don't even need hydrogen
lewis base :
electron pair donor
 strong or weak? - acids
STRENGTH
acids + bases are classified based on the degree to which they ionise in water

5 >
0 G : com
piety ionised in law solution lionise 100%1

=
slightly ionise in Iag ) solution

* *
strength is very different from concentration

strong
:
it forms many ions when dissolved

example :
M9 1OH ) , is a strong base $ falls completely apart when dissolved
but not much dissolves so it is not concentrated

STRONG ACID makes 1001 .

HA H30
" -
ions
A
= .

5
complete
} >

8 dissociation
I
'

÷
HA Iag ) Hz 0+1991
-

+ H, 011 ) → + A lag )
1
single
WEAK ACID
HA only partially
=
ionises
§
5 HA
is
5
very little

"
8 dissociation H30 A-
I
'

÷
" -

HA tah ) + HZOII ) I H30 can

+ A lag )
(
double

MEASURING STRENGTH ,
a metal
+
-

H20
+
HATH , OF M0H
-

H +
A + = M + OH
pR
-

acid dissociation constant =

Ka base dissociation constant =
Kb
IHYIA I IMIIIOH I
- -

Water isn't
ka =

← K, =

^ [ HA ] included as
^
LM0H )
/ i. e. In
its His constant
/
bigger stronger -
bigger stronger =

( more products lions)) ( more dissociated ions produced )

strong or weak? acids questions
write the Ka expression for HN0 ,
t
EH IN Oz I
-

assume it's weak

Ka ,

[ HN02 )

write the Kb expression for NH3 (as NH4 0HI

- when it dissociates
[ NH4Y-1OH ]
Kb =
NH4 + OH
+ -

[NH37 1NH , dissolves in water)

-
" '

equilibrium constant for pure water =

513×10 mot 't at 1004 ,
which is correct ?
a) [ Ht )
" ' '
7.16×10 acidic H2 0EH
-

=
mot t water is +
OH
,

④ IH +1=716×10
" "
moll
,
water is neutral T temp -
-
more likely to break apart on
" "
c) [ OH -1=7.16×10 moll ,
water is basic forward reaction
"
d) I0H -1=716×10
"
Moll ,
water is acidic
 titrations, salt hydrolysis + buffers
T1T RATIONS steps for neutralisation reaction
11 of

performing
base can be

a
determined by
NEUTRALISATION
✓ t measured volume of acid of
'

unknown E) is added to a flask

REACTION 2. indicator is added
3 base of known [ 3 is added slowly
↳
.

use anindicator to
show this occurred until the indicator changes colour ,

indicator volume is measured

phe.no/phthalien
.

for bases
'

standard solution : solution of known [I

↳ added by using a buret

1-

11

SALT HYDROLYSIS
salt :
ionic compound that comes from salt hydrolysis : a salt reacts w/ water to
↳ anion of an acid produce an acid or a base
↳ cation of a base
↳ a neutralisation reaction

HYDROLYSING SALTS usually come from :

I. a
strong acid + weak base
or
note :
strong acid +
strong base
2. a weak acid +
strong base =
neutral salt

examples :

HC1 + NA0H → Nail ( neutral salt)

5. A 5. B

H , 504 + NH4 OH →
(NH4 ) 504,
(acidic salt)
5. A W B '

CH31 0OH + K0H → CH31 0OK ( basic salt )

W A '
5. B

5. A +513 ?
WHY NO metallic OH 513
-

CHITTI H
, → =

HC1 HI , → call H3C 0OH )

+ NA0H → NaCl +
Hzo t (a ,
+
H20
"
Nat +
H20 → NA0H + Ht ca +
2h20 → Ca ( OH ) , T2H
+

cannot occur basic

④
- -

HC1 OH C, H5 1OO H20 CH36 0OH

-

CI +
H20 → + +
→ +

5- A

↳ H5F 8OH
W B W I3
- '

2HN 03 +
Nazi 03 → 2Nd N03 +
H20-1CO , +
NH3 → NH4 LH , 600

H④
.at?n%ffa/HzC0ztHzO
+
60 , +
H20 → Half, NH4 +
Had → NH3 +

H¥
- -

H20
-

→
HC03 + acidic ↳ H5C 00 + →
↳ H5C 0OH +
OH
W A
-

S B -

+
NA +
H20 → NA0H + Ht

WB cannot form 513

BUFFERS
solutions where the pH is constant even when small amounts of acid or base are added
↳ made from a w a
- .

and one of its salts or iv. b. and one of its salts

they RESIST CHANGES IN pH

one chemical neutralises any acid whilst one neutralises any base
↳ they produce each other in the process

BUFFER CAPACITY is how much acid or base can be added before it stops working
( changes pH )
tMBFSocEoEEYMMmi
oxidation-reduction reactions mkaREoaEoEE9MMM

i. e- redox
OXIDATION and REDUCTION always occur simultaneously

the substance gaining oxygen closing e- is ) is oxidised don't need to have oxygen
I ,

the substance losing oxygen ( gaining e- it is reduced just transfer of e-

electrons are transferred between reactants :

remember :

metal n m ion ion ionic

trends electronegativity
-

"
S
"
Ings ) for
Mg + 5 >
M9 +

( >
gain i. e-
oxtidised ↳ reduced
(gains )
increases

sina.ir "nindm%e%
closest
avg.iq ,

thigh
i.
er electro neg
holds onto e-
.

oxidation half equation reduction half equation

N' a incite '

Ii + e- ,

Lose Oxidation
Electrons Is REDUCING AGENT -
the thing being oxidised ( losing e- is )
Oxidation losing OXIDIZING AGENT -_
the thing being reduced ( gaining e- s )
'

says
Moyes , + Sis ) 7
MGSIS )
Gain Reduction
Is reducing oxidising 1
Electrons agent agent
Reduction Gaining
CORROSION
NOT All REACTIONS ARE REDOX damage to metals
'
no change in oxidation number -
not redox even faster w/ presence of
e. g. precipitation reaction salts + acids ( because they
make electrically conductive
AT iii. g) +
niaiiiaq , saiiiiisi-niiiiioii.ae , solutions BB91
not noble metals ( resistant to losing e-

/ 1 by corrosion )

platinum gold

aluminium is protected by an oxide

coating
' '

prevention :
sacrificing a metal to
save the second
redox examples questions/equations
+I -2 0 0

ZH20 7ZH , +02 NOTE

His reduced ,ois oxidised ifitisdiprotic.gov 's concentration
4Fe -130 , szfezo ,
gain 0
' oxidised
Feis oxidised ,o is reduced

CU54-1ZN >
CUt2nSO4
Luis reduced ,2n is oxidised
 oxidation numbers
-

indicates an atom 's degree of oxidation or reduction ( all based on electronegativity )

RULES FOR ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBERS

① oxidation number of an uncombined element is zero

② )
"
mon atomic ion =
its charge ( Mg =
-12

③ oxygen in compounds is -2
in peroxides = -

I
\ sodium IN a
, Oz ) , hydrogen IH20 , )

④ hydrogen in compounds +1

in metal hydrides = -

I
1 metals from group 1

⑤ sum of oxidation no .
's of atoms in compounds must =o
iii. it idiotic

⑥ sum of+6-2oxidation no 's of atoms in poly atomic ions must =

ionic charge
1- 5 -2

5042
-

NO ,
,

INCREASE IN OXIDATION NUMBER =

oxidation
DECREASE IN OXIDATION NUMBER = reduction

win > N"a +

e- I + e- sii
sodium is oxidised chlorine is reduced
it is the reducing agent it is the oxidising agent

EXAMPLES
vii. I +
ztiiisuiaii-iiiii-iii.ci not redox land carbonate )

iiii + niiiii sniiii + ii. it not reaoxlneutralisation acid-base )

iii. I iiii Itici

'
+
,
> Iii + not redox ( precipitation probably )
 redox equations
ACTIVE METALS ACTIVE NONMETALS
lose e- easily gain e- easily
- -

easily oxidized easily reduced

- -

strong reducing agents strong oxidizing agents

- -

group 16+17 group 1+2

- -

all chemical reactions can be assigned to one class :

① oxidation -

reduction (e
-

are transferred )
single replacement combination decomposition combustion
-
-

, , ,

② no electron transfer
-

double -

replacement ,
acid-base reactions

always balance equations 2 methods ,

:

① use oxidation number changes -

② use 42 reactions

USING OXIDATION NUMBER -

USING '12 REACTIONS
CHANGES ① write unbalanced equation in ionic form
start w/ skeleton equation ② write separate 42 reactions
① assign oxidation numbers to all atoms ③ balance k reactions '

(write above their symbols ) ④ add e- to one side of each 42 to balance

② identify which are oxidised Ireduced charges

③ use bracket lines to connect them ⑤ multiply each 42 reaction by the e- in

④ use coefficients to equalize other 42 reaction

⑤ make sure they are balanced for ⑥ combine the 42 reactions → overall reaction
both atoms and charge ⑦ add spectator ions to balance ( only if asked
to include them )
CHOOSING A BALANCING METHOD
① oxidation no change method .

works well if the oxidized + reduced species appear only once on each side of the
equation ( and there are no acids or bases )

② the Y2 reaction method

works well for reactions taking place in acidic or alkaline solution

-

EXAMPLES
bought ① balance
5,0 ,
' -

t5HzO 72504
"
+10¥ +8 e- ② balance H 's IW1H 2OI
4 balance balance)^
balance of ③ balance charges IW1 e- )
sulfur electrons

'
(u + e- >
CU MUST BE ACIDIC needs H ions

)
-

02
"
-

+ "
+
LH s
H20 cuz OT2H >
Cut CU +
Hzo
+
(y Cut
-

7 + e
 galvanic cells
ELECTRON TRANSFER REACTION
+
oxidation -

reduction ( redox ) electrons thru wire

results in electricity
-