IGNEOUS ROCKS

- The solidified lavas and intrusions

● Magma

- The molten material from which igneous rocks have solidified

o Natural magmas (Acid magmas)

- hot, viscous siliceous melts in which the chief elements present are
silicon and oxygen, and the metals potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminum, and iron (in the order of their chemical activity)

o Basic magmas

- less viscous than acid magmas with temperatures are incompletely

known

● SiO2

- The content of silica (as SiO2) in igneous rocks varies from over 80% to about 40%

- non-metal oxide and the basic component of silicate minerals

o Acid

- rocks containing much silica

o Basic

- rocks with less silica and correspondingly more of the metallic oxides

VOLCANOES AND EXTRUSIVE ROCKS

Volcano

- essentially a conduit between the Earth's surface and a body of magma within the crust
beneath it

- during an eruption lava is extruded from the volcanic vent and gases contained in the
lava is separated from it; they may be discharged quietly if the lava is very fluid and the
gas content small, but commonly they are discharged with explosive violence

-in a submarine eruption the lavas flow out over the sea floor; a volcanic pile may be built
up which can eventually rise above sea-level to form an island
● ·Different styles of Volcanic action

o Fissure Eruptions

- Lava issues quietly from long cracks in the Earth's surface, with little gas
emission. It is basic and mobile, with a low viscosity, and spreads rapidly
over large areas.

o Central Eruptions

- builds a volcano that has a cone with a summit crater connected to the
volcanic 'pipe', through which are ejected lava, gases, and fragments of
exploded lava (ash) and broken rock.

· *Central Volcanoes

- steep-sided cones and erupt stiff

lavas derived from acid magmas
whose large gas content gives rise
to violent explosions when
suddenly released (described as
paroxysmal eruptions)

● ·Waning Phases

- emission of steam and hot gases

- eruptive springs of boiling water and hot steam

● · Pyroclastic Rocks

- deposits formed by the consolidation of fragments ejected during an eruption

o Agglomerate

- largest ejected masses of lava (bombs fall in and around the vent and
become embedded in dust and ash

o Tuffs

- smaller particles of ash and dust may be blown by wind and spread over
large areas in layers and hardened into rocks

o Ignimbrites

- welded tuffs
 o Pozzolana

- poorly consolidated tuffs from the Naples area were used by the
Romans for making 'hydraulic cement'

o Trass

- tuff, when mixed with an equal amount of limestone form a cement

EXTRUSIVE ROCK ASSOCIATIONS

The oldest rock shown is a lava flow (1) whose top was once the land surface on which
developed a soil profile (stippled). This and the vegetation it supported (crossed) were
buried by ash (2) from a later eruption that also generated mudflows of liquefied ash (3)
before culminating in lava flows (4a and b). The upper surface of lava (4b) rapidly
solidified to form a crust beneath which liquid lava continued to flow, forming lava tunnels
(5) which are now found partially filled. Deep river valleys (6) eroded the land surface
and became the routes followed by minor lava flows at a later date. The initial flows
buried the river deposits in the base of the valleys, the later flows being restricted to lava
channels, like rivers (6a). Ash falls (7 and 8) blanket the area. The land surface is
typically free from running water and often dry as rain soaks readily into the loose
deposits except during periods of intense rainfall when gulleys (9) are eroded.

INTRUSIVE ROCKS AND ROCK FORMS

● · Intrusive

- when a body of magma in the Earth's crust may rise to higher levels and penetrate the
rocks above it without reaching the surface
● · Major Intrusion

- a large mass of magma (cubic km in volume) and cools slowly because of its size

o Plutons

- a moderately large body of magma which is intruded essentially at one

time and contained within a single boundary with nearly circular in
cross-section

o Stocks

- a vertical nearly cylindrical body of igneous rock, cutting across the

rocks into which it is intruded, with a cross-sectional area up to 100km2

o Batholiths

- the word means 'depth-rock', a large bottomless igneous mass rising as

an irregular projection into sedimentary and other rocks of the crust with
cluster of plutons,

o Stoping (Magmatic Stoping)

- A contributory process which magma rises into country-rocks during a

process of intrusion

o Basic Sheets

- certain large intrusions have the form of sheets which are much thicker
in proportion to their extent than sills, and are often basic in composition
(gabbro or dolerite)

● · Minor intrusion
- when the magma rises and fills fractures or other openings in the country-rocks

o Dyke

- wall-like masses, steep or vertical, with approximately parallel sides

- A dyke swarm is a group of parallel or radiating dykes

o Sills

- been intruded under a flat cover or 'roof against a vertical pressure due
to the weight of the cover

-often developed in such an igneous sheet by the formation of sets of

joints which lie at right angles to its roof and floor
 (Sills and dykes may be composite, due to successive injections of different
material. If there are successive injections of similar material the term multiple sill
or dyke is used.)

o Ring Structures

- Ring dykes are intrusive masses filling curved fractures, sometimes

appearing as a complete circle or loop in plan.

-formed when a detached plug of country-rock, which occupies a

cylindrical fracture in rocks above a body of magma, sinks, and the
magma then rises and fills the annular space around the plug

o Laccolith and Phacolith

-A laccolith is a small intrusion having a flat floor and domed roof having
been arched by the pressure of incoming magma

- A phacolith is a somewhat similar body but has both a curved floor and
roof

TEXTURE AND COMPOSITIONS

● Texture

- relative size and arrangement of the component

minerals, of an igneous rock corresponds broadly to
the rock's mode of occurrence
 - Aphanitic, or microcrystalline-when the texture is so fine that individual crystals cannot
be distinguished without the aid of a microscope

- Cryptocrystalline- used for extremely fine-grained rocks

● Composition

- The mineral composition and colour of rocks are related to their chemical composition

ULTRABASIC ROCKS
- consist mainly of mafic minerals and contain little or no feldspar
-coarse-grained, mostly dark in colour, and have a high specific gravity (3.0 to 3.3)
-content of SiO2 is lower than average gabbro

● Picrite

- contains a little feldspar, up to about 10-12%

-the bulk of the rock is made of olivine and augite or hornblende, and olivine crystals
may be enclosed in the other mafic mineral

-the increase in the feldspar content correspond to the decrease in other constituents:
picrite grades into olivine-gabbro and gabbro.

● Serpentinite (serpentine-rock)
 -results from the alteration of peridotite by the action of steam and other magmatic fluids
while the rock is still hot

BASIC ROCKS
-some basic rocks are economically important as construction stone, road-stone and
aggregate

● Gabbro

o Minerals

- plagioclase (generally labradorite),

monoclinic pyroxene (augite or diallage),
hypersthene, olivine, hornblende, biotite,
nepheline. Ilmenite, magnetite, apatite,
quartz in very small amount, mafic
minerals (over 50% of the rock)

o Texture

- Coarsely crystalline, rarely porphyritic,

sometimes with finer modifications

-Hand specimens appear mottled dark

grey to greenish-black

-Under the microscope the texture

appears as interlocking crystals

o Varieties

- Norite

- Troctolite

-Quartz-gabbro

● Dolerite

-chemistry of this intrusive rock corresponds to gabbro but its texture is fine

-forms dykes, sills, and other intrusions

 -important as a road-stone for surfacing because of its toughness, and its capacity for
holding a coating of bitumen and giving a good 'bind'

-when un weathered, it is one of the strongest of the building stones and used for vaults
and strong-rooms

o Minerals

-same with gabbro, but the

plagioclase is usually
lath-shaped

o Texture

-Medium to fine-grained; some

have a coarser texture,

o Varieties

-Normal dolerite

-olivine-dolerite

● Basalt

- dark, dense-looking rock, often with small porphyritic crystals, and weathering to a
brown colour on exposed surfaces

- commonest of all lavas and forms small intrusions

o Minerals

- plagioclase (labradorite), augite, calcic plagioclase, olivine, magnetite,

ilmenite,calcite, chlorite, chalcedony nepheline, leucite, and analcite with
a low content of silica

o Texture

- Fine-grained or partly glassy, hand specimens appear even-textured on

broken surfaces, and under the microscope the texture is microcrystalline
to cryptocrystalline or partly glassy

o Varieties

- olivine-basalt

- nepheline-basalt and leucite-basalt

 - Soda-rich basalts

INTERMEDIATE ROCKS

● Diorite

- related to granite

o Minerals

- Plagioclase (andesine), hornblende, biotite or pyroxene, little quartz,

occasional orthoclase, Fe-oxides, apatite and sphene

o Texture

- Coarse to medium-grained, rarely porphyritic,

- Under the microscope minerals show interlocking outlines, the mafic

minerals tending to be idiomorphic

o Varieties

- Quartz-diorite

-Microdiorite

● Andesite

- fine-grained volcanic rocks, compact, sometimes vesicular, often brown in colour, and
in total extent are second only to basalts

o Minerals & Texture

- plagioclase (mainly adesine), mafic mineral (hornblende, biotite, augite,

enstatite), porphyritic crystals,

-glassy, cryptocrystalline, or microlithic,

o Varieties

- Hornblende-andesite

-augite-andesite,

-enstatite-andesite,
 -biotite-andesite, and

-quartz-andesite

ACID ROCKS

● Granite

- important structural stone because of its good

appearance, hardness and resistance to weathering

o Minerals

- Quartz, alkali feldspar, smaller amount

of plagioclase, mica, microcline,
hornblende, tourmaline, Na-rich minerals,
apatite, magnetite, sphene, zircon, and
occasionally garnet

o Texture

- Coarse-grained,

o Varieties

- biotite-granite,

-muscovite-granite,

-muscovite-biotite-granite,

-hornblende-granite, or tourmaline-granite.

● Granodiorite

- Granitic rocks in which the plagioclase content is greater than that of the
potash-feldspar

- transitional between granite and diorite, normally coarse-grained texture

● · Migmatites

- mixed rocks resulted from granitic material is seen to have become intimately mingled
with the country-rocks
 - developed on a regional scale in fold-belts,

QUARTZ-PORPHYRY AND ACID VEIN ROCKS

● Pegmatites

- very coarse-grained vein rocks that represent the last part of a granitic magma to
solidify

- minerals includes quartz, alkali feldspar, micas, large crystals of beryl, topaz, and
tourmaline

- found in the outer parts of intrusive granites and also penetrating the country-rocks

● Aplites

- contrast to pegmatites, fine-grained rocks

of even texture, found as small dykes and
veins in and around granites

- more viscous fluids than for pegmatites

● Acid lavas

o Rhyolite

- shows flow-structure, glassy or cryptocrystalline,

o Obsidian

- black glassy rock which breaks with a conchoidal fracture and is almost
entirely devoid of crystals

o Pitchstone

- another glassy lava, pitch-like lustre and greenish colour, contains a few
percent of water in its composition

o Pumice

- sponge-like texture due to escaping gases, making the rock so light as

to float on water

- used as a light-weight aggregate for concrete

ALKALINE ROCKS

● Syenite

- like granite but contains little of no quartz

- alkaline rock because it contains alkali-feldspars, rich in Na and K

o Minerals

- Orthoclase or other alkali feldspar, smaller amount of plagioclase (oligo

clase), biotite, hornblende, or pyroxene, apatite, sphene, zircon, opaque
iron oxides, little quartz,

o Texture

-coarse-grained, sometimes porphyritic. Hand specimens are usually pale

coloured.

o Varieties

- biotite-syenite,

-hornblende-syenite,

-augite-syenite,

-aegitite-syenite

- soda-rich syenite

● Trachyte

- pale coloured rough-looking lava,

o Minerals

- porphyritic crystals of orthoclase, feldspar microliths, a small amount of

biotite or hornblende,

o Texture

-trachytic texture,

o Varieties
 - Phonolite

- nosean-phonolite

ORIGIN OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

The igneous rocks can be held to be derived from two kinds of magma, one
granitic (acid) and the other basaltic (basic), which originate at different levels below the
Earth's surface. The primary basic magma comes from the mantle. Two different groups
of rocks are thus generated: granite and its relatives from the granitic magmas; and
basalt lavas, dolerite, gabbro, and ultra basics from the basaltic magma. This grouping
corresponds to the way in which igneous rocks are distributed. Former belief in the
presence of a thickness of liquid basic magma beneath the lithosphere has been
disproved by geophysics as shear waves penetrate the upper mantle. The rise of
successive pulses of magma from depth form a composite batholith. The magmas were
intruded as hundreds of separate plutons, with associated ring-dykes, in an area where
vertical movements were dominant. Rapid uplift and deep denudation have enabled a
three-dimensional view of the batholith to be obtained.

ORES OF IGNEOUS ORIGIN

● Magmatic Concentration

- During the solidification of magma early formed heavy minerals and certain native
metals sink and become concentrated in layers at or near the base of the mass

● Hydrothermal Processes

As crystallization progresses within an intrusion a residual magmatic liquid accumulates.

As crystallization proceeds, with the formation of minerals which form the bulk of the
resulting rock, the metals - which were originally disseminated throughout the magma
and were not incorporated in the feldspar and other crystals -become concentrated in
the residual fluids. If, then, tensile fractures are formed in the outer (first solidified) part of
the granitic mass and its surrounding rocks, as will occur in the stretched roof of an
ascending magma or with shrinkage of the intrusion on cooling, they become channels
into which the residual fluids migrate, there to permeate and alter rock in contact with the
granite.

The latter stages of crystallization involve the movement of abundant quantities of water.
Some comes from the magma but a greater volume comes from the surrounding
country-rock and is drawn towards the magma by extensive convection cells which
 surround the chamber. Minerals generally formed under high-temperature hydrothermal
conditions are mainly the sulphides of iron, copper, lead, and zinc.

METAMORPHIC ROCK
● Metamorphism is the term used to denote the transformation of rocks into new types by
the recrystallization of their constituents.
● The original rocks may be igneous, sedimentary or ones that have already been
metamorphosed and changes which occur in them result from the addition of HEATor
the operation of PRESSURE.
(Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot
mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these factors.)

● Three broad classes of metamorphism, depending on the controls exercised by

temperature and pressure;
○ Thermal or Contact Metamorphism- where rise of temperature is the dominant
factor.
○ Dynamic or Dislocation Metamorphism- where the dominant control is stress, as
in belts of shearing.
○ Regional Metamorphism- where both temperature and pressure have operated
over a large (regional)area.

Crystal shape and fabric

The crystalline shape of a metamorphic mineral partly determines the ease of its growth
during metamorphism; thus micas and chlorites, with a single cleavage, grow as thin plates
oriented perpendicular to the maximum stress, and amphiboles such as hornblende grow in
prismatic forms with length at right angles to the maximum stress.

Some minerals of high crystallization strength like garnet and andalusite, grow to a relatively
large size in metamorphic rocks and are then called porphyroblasts
Feldspars and quartz have low and nearly equal strengths of crystallization, and meta-
morphic rocks composed of quartz and feldspar show typically a granular texture (granulites).

Fabric
The term fabric is used to denote the arrangement of mineral constituents and textural
elements in a rock, in three dimensions.
Thus, rocks are either isotropic (having a physical property which has the same value when
measured in different directions), when there is no orderly arrangement of their components (as
in hornfels); or anisotropic (as in schists) (having a physical property that has a different value
when measured in different directions) when there is parallel orientation of minerals, often well
developed.

Classification
The visible character most useful for the classification of metamorphic rock is the presence or
absence of foliation. Foliation- The parallel arrangement of particular mineral grains that
results in a rock having a striped or layered appearance.
In Table 7.3 the common metamorphic rocks are classified under three headings that
describe the anisotropy created by foliation.
i

The names of most metamorphic rocks are prefixed by the names of the minerals they
contain, e.g. quartz-bio-tite-schist.
When the original rock type is known the prefix met a may be used, e.g.
metasandstone, or metagabro. Metamorphosed arenaceous sediments (sands)
may be described zspsammitic, e.g. psammitic gneiss, and metamorphosed
argillaceous sediments (silts and clays) as pelitic, e.g. pelitic gneiss.

Contact metamorphism
The effects of contact metamorphism on the main sedi-
mentary rock types (shale, sandstone, limestone)

Contact Metamorphism (often called thermal metamorphism) happens when rock is

heated up by an intrusion of hot magma.Contact metamorphism is a type of metamorphism
that occurs adjacent to intrusive igneous rocks due to temperature increases resulting from
hot magma intrusion into the rock. The metamorphosed zone is known as the metamorphic
aureole around an igneous rock.

Contact metamorphism of a shale or clay

Forms aluminium silicate, andalusite, or its variety chiastolite, Cordierite, Hornfels are
also formed.

Contact metamorphism of a sandstone

quartzite.
Contact metamorphism of a limestone
Forsterite-marble
Serpentine-marble.
Calc-silicate-hornfels.
white Carrara Marble (N.W. Italy)
Contact metamorphism of igneous rocks
hornblende and biotite,calcium-feldspar,amphibole,Basic
granulites

Pneumatolysis
-the volatile substances accumulated in the upper part of a body of magma as it
crystallized, pass into the country-rocks at a moderately high temperature
stage in the cooling process of the igneous mass. Their reaction with the rock is called
pneumatolysis. The emanating volatiles include compounds of boron, fluorine, carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide and others; characteristic minerals such as tourmaline, topaz,
axinite, fluorspar (q.v.), and kaolin are formed near a contact under these conditions.

Tourmaline
This is formed by the pneumatolytic action of boronand fluorine on mafic minerals
Axinite
This is a calcium-boron-silicate occurring in contact
metamorphic aureoles where buoron has been introduced
into limestone or altered rocks containing calcite. Axinite
crystals are typically flat and acute-edged,brown and transparent with a glassy lustre.
Topaz
This occurs in cavities in acid igneous rocks, often associated with beryl, tourmaline,
and fluorite, and com-monly found in greisen
Kaolinization
The term kaolin (or China Clay) is used for the decom-position products that result from
the alteration of the feldspars of granites, and is partly crystalline kaolinite and partly
amorphous matter. (soft white clay that is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of
china and porcelain and is widely used in the making of paper, rubber, paint, and many
other products.)
Greisen
Composed essentially of quartz, white mica, and accessory amounts of tourmaline,
fluorite, and topaz, this is formed from granite under certain pneumatolytic conditions,
white mica (secondary mus-covite) is formed from the feldspar of the granite and the
name greisen is given to the resulting rock.

China-stone (Gongshi)
This represents an arrested stage in the kaolinizationof granite; in addition to quartz and
decomposed feldspar it frequently contains topaz (Al2SiO4F2) and fluorspar, both of
which point to incoming fluorine.
(is a medium grained, feldspar-rich partially kaolinised granite characterised by the
absence of iron-bearing minerals)

Regional metamorphism
-Rocks which have undergone regional metamorphism have a much greater extent at
the surface than those formed by contact-metamorphism and may be found ex-posed
over many hundreds of square kilometres. Regional metamorphism develops under the
hydro-static pressure (or confining pressure).

Metamorphic grades
These can be defined in relation to the temperature and stress conditions that prevail
(Fig. 7.5); they are named

Zones of regional metamorphism

The existence of metamorphic zones is best revealed by the metamorphism of clayey
sediments of constant bulk composition. With a progressive increase in temperature,
zones of increasing metamorphism are defined by the appearance of index-minerals in
the rocks. Different index-minerals come into equilibrium at successively higher
temperatures, and provide a guide to the temperature reached by the rocks containing
them. Most of the metamorphism takes place in the temperature range from
about 200° to 7000C.
The sequence of index-minerals in order of rising tem-
perature is: chlorite, biotite, garnet (almandine), stauro-
lite, kyanite, and sillimanite, and the minerals define a series of metamorphic zones.
SlateUnder the influence of high stress combined with low to
moderate temperature, argillaceous sediments such as
shales are compressed and become slate.

Phyllite
With stresses continuing and if some rise of temperature ensues, the above mentioned
minerals continue to grow to give larger crystals of muscovite and chlorite, and a
lustrous, finely crystalline rock called phyllite results. With continued metamorphism the
minerals increase further in size, leading to the formation of mica-schists.
There is thus a gradation, shale -+ slate -> phyllite -• mica-schist.

Schist
This is a crystalline rock of mainly medium-grained tex- ture, whose mineral constituents
can be distinguished either by eye or with a hand lens. Different varieties of schist have
been formed from sedimentary or igneous rocks during regional metamorphism, under
moderately high temperature and pressure. Because of the parallel orientation of their
minerals, schists break into more or less flat fragments or foliae, which have lustrous
surfaces and similar mineral composition.

Mica-schist
Formed from argillaceous or pelitic sediments such as shale or clay, and composed of
muscovite and biotiteiation; together with quartz in variable amount..

Quartz-schist
Derived from sandy sediment, i.e. is psammitic, with a smaller clay content than
sediment which forms mica- schist. Certain coarsely foliated rocks of the same deriva-
tion, formed at a higher grade of regional metamorphism, are the mica-gneisses Schists
formed from original igneous rocks include the
following:

Chlorite-schist
The metamorphic equivalent of basalt of dolerite, con-sists predominantly of chlorite
crystals in parallel orienta-tion, often with a little quartz and porphyroblasts of magnetite
or garnet. It is formed under moderate stress and moderate temperature.

Hornblende-schist
This is also derived from basic rocks such as dolerite,
but at a rather higher grade of metamorphism and contains essentially hornblende and
quartz
Gneiss
Gneiss has a rough banding or foliation, in which pale coloured bands of quartz and
feldspar lie parallel with bands or streaks of mafic minerals; the mafic minerals are
mainly biotite, hornblende, or in some cases pyroxene.

Migmatite
The introduction of igneous (e.g. granitic) material into country-rocks of various kinds
produces mixed rocks or migmatites (p. 106). In some migmatites the mixing is
mechanical, by the injection of veins or stripes; in others the mixing is chemical, and
arises from the permeation or soaking of the country-rocks by the invading fluids

Granulite
A rock composed of quartz, feldspar, pyroxene and gar-net in nearly equidimensional
grains (granoblastic tex-ture) in which schistosity is less pronounced because the
platy minerals, especially mica, are scarce. Granulites are believed to form in conditions
of high temperature and pressure

Dislocation metamorphism
Dislocation metamorphism occurs on faults and thrusts where rock is altered by earth
movement. Much energy stored in the surrounding crust is released along these zones
and dislocation metamorphism is associated with earthquakes, Within 10 km of the
Earth's surface these movements involve brittle fracture of rock, the mechanical
breaking caused by shearing, grinding and crushing being termed brecciation or
cataclasis ( = breaking down). Major shear zones con-tinue to great depths and below
10 km pressure and tem-perature may be sufficient for dislocation to occur by plastic
deformation. Fine-grained rocks are produced, called mylonites (Greek, myion = mi\\).
Zones of dislocation metamorphism often contain much greater quantities of the
minerals mica and amphi-bole than occur in adjacent rocks.

Metamorphic rock associations

This pattern of metamorphic conditions can vary and an area once at high pressure and
low tempera-ture may gradually come under the influence of both high pressure and
high temperature. Many metamorphic rockshave a fabric and mineralogy that could only
have been produced by more than one phase of metamorphism.
Fig. 7.11 Metamorphic rock associations: HP, LP = high and low pressure: HT, LT = high
and low temperature. 1 = burial that results in severe distortion of strata. Ia = burial with
the minimum of distortion. Eclogite = rock composed of garnet and pyroxene and
quartz. Melange = a chaotic mixture of rocks associated with major fault zones.

Economic rocks and minerals

Important industries have developed to extract slate for roofing, marble for ornamental
stone, migmatite for facing buildings and lining floors, and good quality hornfels
for ballast. Of greater importance are special minerals produced by metamorphism.
Asbestos , graphite, and talc, are found associated with metamorphic rocks but are not
restricted in their formation to metamorphism. Sillimanite, kyanite, and andalusite, are
metamorphic minerals of great value to therefractory industry. Porcelain containing
these minerals is endowed with the ability to withstand very high temperatures and
exhibit little expansion.