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Rezaur Rahman
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Recycled Plastic Biocomposites
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites
Science and Engineering
Recycled Plastic
Biocomposites
Edited by
Md Rezaur Rahman
Department of Chemical Engineering and
Energy Sustainability, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota
Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri

Department of Chemical Engineering and
Energy Sustainability, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS),
Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
An imprint of Elsevier
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Typeset by STRAIVE, India
This work is dedicated to my amazing wife and daughters; Shirin Akther, Fahriah
Rahman, and Faizah Rahman, who are very special to me and made it possible for
me to complete this work.
Ts. Dr. Md Rezaur Rahman
Firstly, I would like to thank the Almighty God for the guidance, strength, power
of mind, protection, and for giving us a healthy life. All of these we offer to you.
Every difficult task needs self-effort as well as the guidance of elders, particularly
those who were near to our hearts. I offer my humble dedications to my beautiful
and loving Father, Mother, and Brothers, whose devotion, love, support, and nightly
prayers have enabled me to work toward this significant achievement, along with all
the dedicated, well-liked, and well-respected teachers and supervisors.
Ts. Dr. Hj. Muhammad Khusairy Bin Capt. Hj. Bakri
Contents
Contributors xiii
About the editors xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
1 Introduction to recycled plastic biocomposites 1

Anthonette Anak James, Md Rezaur Rahman, Muhammad Khusairy
Bin Bakri, and Md Mahbubul Matin
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Principal processes of plastics and polymers 5
1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of recycled plastic biocomposites 16
1.4 Potential and application of recycled plastic biocomposites 21
1.5 Summary 24
Acknowledgment 24
References 24
2 Food residue to reinforce recycled plastic biocomposites 29

Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri, Md Rezaur Rahman, Yuriy Yurkin,
Andrey Burkov, Md Mahbubul Matin, Kuok King Kuok, Chin Mei Yun,
Armstrong Ighodalo Omoregie, and Perry Law Nyuk Khui
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Biofillers and biofibers 31
2.3 Biodegradable, renewable, and biobased polymers 35
2.4 Organic additives 37
2.5 Food waste biocomposites and biofilms 38
2.6 Environmental impact 41
2.7 Life cycle assessment 41
2.8 Summary 42
Acknowledgment 42
References 43
viiiContents
3 Development of pulp and paper waste-recycled plastic biocomposites 51

Samiya Fariha, Faisal I. Chowdhury, Md Rezaur Rahman,
and Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Types of pulp and paper 52
3.3 Extraction and preparation methods 54
3.4 Preparation methods 60
3.5 Potential and commercialization 66
3.6 Applications 74
3.7 Summary 76
References 77
4 Recycled polymer and plastic waste and its biocomposites 81

Elammaran Jayamani, Cindy Ong Siaw Ki, Md Rezaur Rahman,
and Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri
4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Selection of an appropriate thermosetting resin 82
4.3 Material properties 86
4.4 Advantages of particulate sizing in polymer composite 87
4.5 Results and discussion 91
4.6 Conclusion 94
Acknowledgment 94
References 94
5 Recycled plastic and textile waste biocomposites 97

Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri, Md Rezaur Rahman,
Yuriy Yurkin, Andrey Burkov, Kuok King Kuok, Chin Mei Yun,
Armstrong Ighodalo Omoregie, and Perry Law Nyuk Khui
5.1 Introduction 97
5.2 Textiles 98
5.3 Recycled textiles 99
5.4 Recent recycled textile applications 102
5.5 Discussion and analysis 108
5.6 Summary 111
Acknowledgment 111
References 112
6 Recycled wood plastic biocomposites and development

of new materials 119
Faisal I. Chowdhury, Jahidul Islam, Sr Subroto
Haldar, and Hossain M. Zabed
6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 Types of wood and polymer 120
6.3 Cross-laminated timber 123
6.4 Wood scrimber 124
Contentsix
6.5 Size and dimension effects on the properties of recycled

composites 125
6.6 Advantages and disadvantages 129
6.7 Potential and commercialization 135
6.8 Applications 137
6.9 Conclusion 140
References 140
7 Recycled rubber waste plastic and its composites 147

Perry Law Nyuk Khui, Md Rezaur Rahman, Md Mahbubul Matin, and
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri
7.2 Recycled rubber waste and its composites 148
7.3 Recycled plastic waste and its composites 153
7.4 Conclusion 158
Acknowledgment 158
References 158
8 Role of agricultural waste in recycled plastic biocomposites 165

Ahsan Ali, Ali Bahadar, Afrasyab Khan, and Khairuddin Sanaullah
8.2 Plastic materials 167
8.3 Environmental impact of plastic materials 167
8.4 Agricultural waste as a green biomass source 169
8.5 Classification of agricultural biomass and waste 170
8.6 Fiber structure, morphology, and chemical composition
of agricultural waste 172
8.7 Natural and biodegradable matrix materials 173
8.8 Agricultural waste fiber-reinforced biocomposites 178
8.9 Processing techniques for biocomposites 183
8.10 Summary, applications, and future trends 185
References 186
9 Micro and nano effects of recycled plastic waste

to reinforce and enhance in biocomposites 195
Md Rezaur Rahman, Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri,
Md Mahbubul Matin, and Perry Law Nyuk Khui
9.2 Micro and nano recycled biocomposites 197
9.3 Applications 199
9.4 Advantages and disadvantages of micro, nano, and
biocomposites 202
9.5 Summary 203
Acknowledgment 204
References 204
xContents
10 Recycled industrial plastics’ fine waste incorporated into

biocomposites 213
Nur-Azzah Afifah Binti Taib, Md Rezaur Rahman, Muhammad
Khusairy Bin Bakri, Md Mahbubul Matin, and Khairuddin Sanaullah
10.2 The impact of plastic waste on the environment and health 215
10.3 Recycled industrial plastic waste 217
10.4 A brief history of the composite industry 222
10.5 Incorporation of plastic waste in composites and biocomposites 222
10.6 Conclusion 225
Acknowledgment 226
References 226
11 Marine-based reinforcing materials for biocomposites 229

Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri, Md Rezaur Rahman, Md Mahbubul
Matin, Yuriy Yurkin, Andrey Burkov, Elammaran Jayamani, Kuok King
Kuok, Chin Mei Yun, and Armstrong Ighodalo Omoregie
11.2 Types of marine-reinforced polymer composites 230
11.3 Potential and application of marine-based materials for biocomposites 239
11.4 Summary 241
Acknowledgment 241
References 242
12 Impact of recycled plastic biocomposites on the economy and

socioenvironment 247
Md Rezaur Rahman, Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri,
Elammaran Jayamani, and Faisal I. Chowdhury
12.2 Recycling plastic biocomposites: Management, potential
mitigation, and challenges 248
12.3 Analysis of recycled plastic biocomposites 252
12.4 Benefits of fossil-based plastic and effects of their ban on
socioeconomics and the environment 253
12.5 Key lessons of recycled plastic biocomposites and the bioplastics
manufacturing project 254
12.6 Summary 255
Acknowledgment 255
References 255
13 Resources and energy recovery with recycled plastic biocomposites 261

Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri, Md Rezaur Rahman,
Yuriy Yurkin, Andrey Burkov, Kuok King Kuok, Elammaran Jayamani,
Chin Mei Yun, and Armstrong Ighodalo Omoregie
13.2 Types of plastic 263
Contentsxi
13.3 Biocomposites and composites resources and regeneration 264

13.4 Recovery paths 265
13.5 Recent developments in plastic regeneration and recovery 267
13.6 Sustainability and its economic value 274
13.7 Summary 274
Acknowledgment 275
References 275
14 Education and awareness of waste and recycled plastic biocomposites 281

Elammaran Jayamani, Sim Rui Li, Wong Yeng Chiang,
Md Rezaur Rahman, and Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri
14.2 Education regarding biocomposites 283
14.3 Ways to improve awareness of waste and recycled biocomposites 291
14.4 Recommendations 292
14.5 Conclusion 293
Acknowledgment 294
References 294
Index 299
Contributors
Ahsan Ali School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME), National

University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
Ali Bahadar Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, King Abdul Aziz
University, Rabigh, Saudi Arabia
Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy

Sustainability, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota
Nur-Azzah Afifah Binti Taib Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,

Andrey Burkov Building Structures and Machines Department, Vyatka State

University, Kirov, Russia
Wong Yeng Chiang Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne

University of Technology Sarawak Campus, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
Faisal I. Chowdhury Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong,

Bangladesh
Samiya Fariha Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong,

Bangladesh
Sr Subroto Haldar Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong,

Bangladesh
Jahidul Islam Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong,

Bangladesh
Anthonette Anak James Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota

xivContributors
Elammaran Jayamani Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne

Afrasyab Khan Department of Hydraulics and Hydraulic Systems, Institute of

Engineering and Technology, South Ural State University, Chelyabinks, Russian
Federation
Perry Law Nyuk Khui Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota
Cindy Ong Siaw Ki Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne

Kuok King Kuok Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of

Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh;
Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology
Sarawak Campus, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
Sim Rui Li Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of

Technology Sarawak Campus, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
Md Mahbubul Matin Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department

of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh;
Armstrong Ighodalo Omoregie Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
Md Rezaur Rahman Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability,

Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota Samarahan,
Sarawak, Malaysia
Khairuddin Sanaullah Department of Chemical and Energy Sustainability, University

Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS); Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,
Chin Mei Yun Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of

Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh;
Contributorsxv
Yuriy Yurkin Building Structures and Machines Department, Vyatka State University,
Kirov, Russia
Hossain M. Zabed School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University,

Zhenjiang, People’s Republic of China
About the editors
Dr. Md Rezaur Rahman is currently working as a Senior Lecturer (Assistant

Professor) at the Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability,
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Malaysia. He re-
ceived his PhD from the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia. He has more than
12 years of experience in teaching, research, and working in industry. Dr. Rahman’s
research includes the areas of conducting polymers, silica/clay-dispersed elastomeric
polymer nanocomposites, hybrid filler-loaded polymer composites, advanced ma-
terials: graphene/nanoclay/fire retardant, nanocellulose (cellulose nanocrystals and
nanofibrillar), cellulose-reinforced/cellulose-filled polymer composites, chemical
modification and treatment of lignocellulosic fibers, nanocomposites and nanocellu-
lose fibers, and polymer blends. He has published 5 books, 45 book chapters, and
more than 100 international journal papers, while overseeing numerous PhD and post-
graduate students, as well as acting as a reviewer for several high-impact ISI journals.
Dr. Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri is a specialist in materials and mechanical

engineering. He obtained his PhD (2018), Master of Engineering (by Research)/
MEng (2016), and Bachelor of Engineering (Mechanical Engineer)/BEng (2014)
from Swinburne University of Technology. Currently, he is working at UNIMAS
as a Research Fellow under the supervision of Dr. Md Rezaur Rahman. His prior-
ity areas of research are materials science, polymer composites, and biomaterials.
Previously, he joined as a Higher Degree Researcher/Teaching Assistant from 2014
to 2018. During that time, he taught subjects such as computer aided design (CAD),
materials and processing, manufacturing, and thermodynamics. He also assists his
supervisors, in monitoring undergraduates’ final projects. He has authored more
than 60 publications (journal papers, book chapters, conference papers, etc.). He is
also one of the main contributors of the books Silica and Clay Dispersed Polymer
Nanocomposites published by Elsevier and Acacia Wood Bio-composites—Towards
Bio-Sustainable of Environment published by Springer. He is a certified Graduate
Engineer (GradEng) with the Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM), as well as a
Professional (PTech) and Graduate Technologist (GradTech) with the Malaysian
Board of Technologists (MBOT).
Preface
Recycled Plastic Biocomposites covers the most recent research on recycled polymers,
biopolymers, and their biocomposites. The book discusses the fundamentals, process-
ing, properties, performance, applications, and state-of-the-art aspects of recycled
plastic biocomposites, starting with a basic understanding of the polymer itself, such
as sources, extraction, types, classification, structure, model compounds, and fabrica-
tion techniques. It also includes the use of cellulose fillers to improve the qualities or
features of biocomposites, which are classified by composite type and include food
waste, pulp and paper, recycled polymer and plastics, textiles, wood, rubber, agricul-
tural, and marine waste. The latest developments and application possibilities, such
as the micro and nano aspects, industrial values, economic and socioenvironmental
impact, and resources and energy recovery, are highlighted. Finally, the applications
of recycled plastic biocomposites are examined in greater depth.
Ts. Dr. Md Rezaur Rahman
Ts. Dr. Hj. Muhammad Khusairy Bin Capt. Hj. Bakri
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
Acknowledgments
The editors would like to thank and acknowledge Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
(UNIMAS) for their support and allowing use of their facilities. The editors also ex-
tend their gratitude to the Elsevier team for helping to make this project a successful
reality.
Introduction to recycled plastic
biocomposites 1
Anthonette Anak Jamesa, Md Rezaur Rahmanb, Muhammad Khusairy
Bin Bakrib, and Md Mahbubul Matinc
a
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak,
Malaysia, bDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability, Faculty of
Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia,
c
Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of
Science, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh
1.1 Introduction
Sustainable biocomposites is an emerging class of materials that are a promising al-
ternative to traditional plastic. The use of recycled polymers in composites is also
feasible, producing value-added waste plastic rather than negatively impacting the
environment. According to Schnurr et al. (2018), about 300 million tons of plastic is
produced per year, half of which is single-use plastic that often ends up in landfill,
an incinerator, or the ocean. Because plastic recycling is one of the biggest initia-
tives in achieving a greener environment and socioeconomic development, interest
from various industries has started to show. However, recycling alone is not enough as
most plastic products are derived from petroleum-based synthetic polymers, generally
known to be nonbiodegradable, leading to waste problems (Roy, Shit, Gupta, & Shukla,
2014). Thus, another focus additional to plastic recycling is e nvironmentally-friendly
products. A product that is considered environmentally friendly is a type of product
that will not pose any harmful impacts on the environment during its entire lifecycle,
including its disposal. With the increasing social awareness of environmental issues
and continuous pressure from the media, consumers, and government, modern indus-
tries face the challenge of developing more sustainable products that comply with the
new stringent environmental protection laws (Roy et al., 2014). Innovative sustainable
packaging made from bioplastic materials has been launched. As a result, the commer-
cialization of biodegradable materials has started to grow.
1.1.1 Plastics and polymer

Although the terms ‘polymer’ and ‘plastic’ are frequently used interchangeably, they
are not the same thing. Polymers are materials composed of long-chain monomers
that exist naturally or are synthesized synthetically. In contrast, plastics are a type of
polymer consisting of chains of polymers that can be either fully synthetic or partially
organic. In other words, every plastic is a polymer, but not every polymer is a plastic.
Polymer is made up of two terms: ‘poly’ which means many, and ‘mer’ means unit.
Recycled Plastic Biocomposites. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-88653-6.00005-5

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Recycled Plastic Biocomposites
A polymer consists of large molecules known as macromolecules, which are made up

of the repetition of the same monomer unit to form a long chain via a polymerization
process. There is a vast lexicon of polymers such as dimers, trimers, and tetramers; these
are monomers with two, three, and four bonds, respectively. They can be grouped into
oligomers and sometimes prepolymers, depending on the circumstances. However, when
monomers or prepolymers combine at a certain degree to be sufficient enough to be called
polymer, such a term is completely arbitrary (Gad, 2014; Islam et al., 2011). A polymer
composed of a single monomer is referred to as a homopolymer, whereas a polymer com-
posed of two or more monomers is known as a copolymer, as shown in Fig. 1.1.
Copolymer is a chemical compound that is bonded together by a covalent bond.
Covalent bonds dictate how a polymeric material behaves mechanically, thermally, and
chemically (Tanzi, Farè, & Candiani, 2019). The adjacent polymer chains are linked
together by van der Waals intermolecular electrostatic forces and dipole–dipole forces.
The degree of difference between homopolymers and copolymers either by structural
or composition will determine their chemical and physical properties. Polymeric ma-
terials can be brittle and have a low resistance to heat. To date, numerous research has
been published on polymers, with the majority focusing on their synthesis, physical
and chemical characterization, degradation, processing, and toxicology. Polymeric
materials are made either from renewable resources such as animals, plants, micro-
organisms, or nonrenewable materials. They are classified as inorganic or organic
depending on the presence of carbon atom along the polymer backbone (Gad, 2014).
Fig. 1.2 shows the variety of polymeric material structural arrangements.
–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–
Homopolymer
–A–A–B–B–B–A–B–A–A–B–B–A–A–A–B–
Random copolymer
–A–B–A–B–A–B–A–B–A–B–A–B–A–B–A–
Alternating copolymer
–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–B–B–B–B–B–B–B–B–
Black copolymer
–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–A–
B B B
B B B
B B B
Graft copolymer
Fig. 1.1 Consider subscripts A and B as monomers to illustrate homopolymer and possible
configurations of a copolymer.
From Tanzi, M. C., Farè, S., & Candiani, G. (2019). (pp. 3–103). Elsevier BV. https://doi.
org/10.1016/b978-0-08-101034-1.00001-3.
Introduction to recycled plastic biocomposites3
(A)
(D)
(B)
(E)
(C) (F)
Fig. 1.2 The polymeric structures in (A) linear, (B) branched (C) cross-linked (D) comb
polymer, (E) star polymer, (F) ladder polymer.
From Tanzi, M. C., Farè, S., & Candiani, G. (2019). (pp. 3–103). Elsevier BV. https://doi.
org/10.1016/b978-0-08-101034-1.00001-3.
1.1.1.1 Inorganic polymers
As the name implies, an inorganic polymer can contain constituents such as oxy-
gen, silicon, nitrogen, and phosphorus atoms. Even though polymers that consist of
purely inorganic side groups with no organic elements do exist, any polymer with
organic side groups is considered an inorganic polymer. Examples of significant inor-
ganic polymers are polyphosphazene, polysilanes, and polysiloxanes (Tang & Huang,
2011). One of the applications of these types of polymers is processable precursors to
ceramics.
1.1.1.2 Organic polymers
Organic polymers are macromolecules whose primary backbone is made up of car-
bon atoms combined with other atoms such as nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen.
According to Donga, Mabape, Mishra, and Mishra (2019), organic polymers are di-
vided into three types based on the occurrence of anthropomorphic activity: natural
biodegradable polymers, synthetic polymers, and semisynthetic polymers. Natural
biopolymers are divided into three different classes of polypeptides, polynucleotides,
and polysaccharides. A polymer formed by a chemical synthesized in the biological
system is known as a biopolymer. A biopolymer can degrade in the environment as
it is made up of renewable resources (Mohiuddin, Kumar, & Haque, 2017). Each
type of natural biopolymer varies in monomeric units and structural configuration.
For instance, a polypeptide is classified as a short amino acid p olymer, while a
p olynucleotide, which usually carries DNA and RNA, has an extended arrangement
of several nucleotide monomers. On the other hand, polysaccharides have a different
structure from polypeptides and polynucleotides, composed of a linear configura-
tion of polymeric carbohydrate (Shankar, Tanomrod, Rawdkuen, & Rhim, 2016).
Biopolymers can also be found in lignin, melanin, suberin, and rubber. Apart from
different classes, biopolymers are also classified based on groups based upon their
origin, particularly natural biopolymers, synthetic biopolymers, and conventional
synthetic polymers.
A natural polymer is derived from natural resources such as biomass, while a syn-
thetic biopolymer is produced from microbial compounds or through fermentation, and
the conventional synthetic polymer is synthesized from petroleum oil. Biopolymers are
biodegradable and can be used to enhance the biocompatibility of materials that are not
recyclable. This has indirectly increased the popularity in biopolymers due to environ-
mental issues. It has a promising future as an alternative for sustainable development
in terms of economics and ecology. The biodegradability characteristics of biopoly-
mers have led to minimizing environmental impacts, especially in waste disposal. On
the other hand, biopolymers have been a subject of study for several years, especially
for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. The unique properties of biopolymers
have received attention in research involving the development of biomedical materials
such as dentistry, orthopedics, tissue replacement, and cardiovascular equipment (Heath
& Cooper, 2013). However, due to the high cost of biopolymer production, it holds
only a small fraction of the total global plastic market. Many forms of biopolymers
have been identified, including carboxymethyl cellulose (Oun & Rhim, 2015), cellu-
lose acetate (Bruna, Galotto, Guarda, & Rodríguez, 2014), gelatin (Shankar, Teng, Li,
& Rhim, 2015), agar (Orsuwan, Shankar, Wang, Sothornvit, & Rhim, 2016), alginate
(Shankar, Kasapis, & Rhim, 2018), pectin (Shankar et al., 2016), and gluten (Rafieian,
Shahedi, Keramat, & Simonsen, 2014), which are categorized as natural biopolymers.
On the contrary, synthetic biopolymers include polyhydroxyalkanoate (Fabra, Pardo,
Martinez-Sanz, Lopez-Rubio, & Lagaron, 2016), polylactic acid (PLA) (Arfat, Ahmed,
Ejaz, & Mullah, 2018), poly (butyleneadipate-co-terephthalate), poly (ɛ-caprolactone)
(Yahiaoui et al., 2015), and poly (butylene succinate/adipate). Among all of the syn-
thetic biopolymers, PLA is the most commonly studied biopolymer.
As previously stated, a conventional synthetic polymer is a human-made polymer
that is derived from petroleum oil through the polymerization process. Plastic bags are
one of the most frequently used synthetic polymers. Gad (2014) classifies synthetic
polymers into the three categories of thermoplastic, thermoset, and elastomer. Each of
the categories is discussed in more detail below.
Thermoplastics
A thermoplastic is a type of polymer that melts when heat is applied via various pro-
cesses such as thermoforming, extrusion, and injection molding (Mallick, 2010).
Akca and Gursel (2016) and Zaferani (2018) claimed that thermoplastic could be stiff-
ened under certain temperatures during the cooling process and returned to a solid
state (Akca & Gursel, 2016; Zaferani, 2018). In 2014, approximate 76% of the world
consumption of plastics was dominated by thermoplastics (Biron, 2016). Polymers
classified as thermoplastics retain their plasticity indefinitely. The structure of the

thermoplastic polymer is usually linear or branched and can be dissolved and melted.
Thermoplastic polymers exhibit viscous fluid behavior when heat is applied as the
covalent bonds are not coupled to the adjacent chain (Tanzi et al., 2019). As a result,
it can be reshaped repeatedly with heat. Polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride, polyurethanes, polyamides, and polyesters are examples of ther-
moplastic polymers (Sastri, 2010).
Thermoset
On the other hand, thermoset polymers configurations are normally present in net-
worked and crosslinked structures (Tanzi et al., 2019). Polymers categorized as ther-
mosets retain their plasticity characteristics until a certain point in their manufacturing
process. In other words, it cannot be reshaped either by heat or pressure. Epoxy is an
example of a thermoset polymer. According to Mullins, Liu, and Sue (2012), one of
the challenges of reviewing thermosets is their varieties, different monomer, chain
extension, catalyst, additives, crosslinking, and cure schedule.
Elastomer
Elastomers are characterized by a high degree of deformability and shape recovery. To
exhibit such elasticity, a material must be composed of a polymeric chain with a high
degree of mobility and flexibility, with the segments crosslinked to form a network
structure. It is easily stretched but quickly reverts to its original shape once the force is
removed. This structure prevents stretched elastomer polymer molecules from sliding
irreversibly past one another (Tanzi et al., 2019). Examples of elastomer polymers are
natural rubbers, polybutadiene, styrene–butadiene block copolymer, ethylene propyl-
ene diene rubber, polyisoprene fluoroelastomers, ethylene–propylene rubber, nitrile
rubbers, and polyurethane elastomers (Sastri, 2010).
1.2 Principal processes of plastics and polymers

Among all the materials available for use for finishing products, plastics are the most
commonly used. This is due to their versatility and the existence of multiple polymers
of to choose from, depending on the preferred mechanical properties. Thus, in order to
cover a wide range of part geometries and applications, the manufacturing processes
of plastics have been developed. Designers and engineers must understand available
plastics manufacturing processes to utilize and make improvements. Improving plas-
tics manufacturing processes is crucial as there are still flaws such as a poor flow of
bulk materials from plastic resin, pastilles, resin, and granules. In conjunction with
poor flow, materials sticking, blocking, and segregation can also occur. Another prob-
lem can exist when the material is stagnant in storage bins and pellet damage (genera-
tion of fine particles) and cross-contamination of batches occur, decreasing the quality
of the product. The formation of angel hair, also known as streamers, snakeskin or
floss, that can plug downstream equipment, is also one reason that plastics processing
improvement is required.
The most basic definition of plastic processing is the conversion process of plastics
raw ingredients into semifinished products. Bulk plastic raw ingredients come in vari-
ous forms such as powders, resin, pellets, sheets, granules, and fluids. These bulk plas-
tics are then converted into finished products of specified shapes or parts. Depending
on the processability and required properties, additives can also be added into the mix.
After the shape has formed, several additional processes may be required to complete
the products, such as machining, adhesive bonding, welding, and surface decorating.
Various techniques can be used to convert plastic raw materials into semifinished
products, and each method has advantages and disadvantages. Some of the methods
are suited for specific applications. There are three stages of processing involved in
plastic production: primary plastic processes, secondary plastic processes, and tertiary
plastic processes. During the primary stage, processes such as injection molding, blow
molding, transfer molding, extrusion, and compression are normally involved. In the
second stage, processes such as rotational molding, coating, fabrication, thermoform-
ing, calendaring, and casting will be involved. Finally, welding, cutting, bending, and
drilling are involved in tertiary plastic processing.
1.2.1 Extrusion
During the extrusion process, molten material is forced through a shaping device. This
molten material is usually fed in the form of pellets or granules and due to the high vis-
cosity of most plastic, it will be fluidized and homogenized as the pressure is applied
to force it through the die. Melts can be extruded to specified profiles such as rods
that can also be cut into cylindrical pellets, tubing, sheet, film or resin tube (parison)
through blow molding and injection molding, depending on the requirements.
1.2.1.1 Single screw extruder

As illustrated in Fig. 1.3, the dry pellets or granules will feed through the F section
and move to E and J of the extruder. The pellets will melt as they travel along the
barrel from B to C due to the heat initiated by the extruder motor. Apart from the
melting process, homogenization and mixing of additives are also conducted along
the barrel. Undesired volatile particles will be removed via vacuum by side vent port
and deep channel section. Pressure will develop up to 50 MPa at the end of the barrel,
specifically at the L section, which is the final part of the extruder for the pumping
process of homogenized feed into the filtering screen and shaping die that is linked at
the end section of the extruder. A single screw extruder can process polymer pellets
up to 20 ton/h with 8 L/D running length for melt-fed extruder and 20 to 40 L/D for
solid-fed extruders depending on the accessibility of intermediate venting (Xanthos,
2000). Extruders use drag flow to initiate the conveying process depending on the
motion of the screw and barrel. As the friction between solids and barrel is higher
than with a screw, the conveying action is almost like a solid plug at the deep feed
channel section of the extruder. The plastic will melt as the frictional heat increases
concurrently with the conduction effect caused by barrel heaters as the channel depth
becomes shallower. The molten plastics will transfer to the metering section of the
screw where the pressure is developed for the extrusion via the final shaping die.
Fig. 1.3 Single screw extruder. (A) screw, (B) barrel, (C) heater, (D) thermocouple, (E) feed
throat, (F) hopper, (G) thrust bearing, (H) gear reducer, (I) motor, (J) section of deep channel
feed, (K) section of tapered channel transition, (L) section of shallow channel metering.
From Xanthos, M. (2000). (pp. 355–371). Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-008043417-
9/50021-0.
Additives such as fillers, pigments, and stabilizers are added into the processed resin
during these steps. If the extruder’s cross-channel mixing is insufficient, a variety of
mixing enhancers are available. Generally, the purpose is to increase the spread of
several reorientations and extensional flow sequences by pressing flow into a higher
shear limiting slot (Xanthos, 2000).
1.2.1.2 Twin-screw extuder
The twin-screw extruder is generally chosen when the respective mixing process is
difficult or during multiple staging processes such as that involving powder feeding or
a reactive extrusion process. According to Xanthos (2000), most of the recent polymer
work is related to combining two or more polymer types to create blends or using
alloys with distinct properties. These prospects have been established and maximized
using the single screw and barrel segments of the twin extruder at a considerably
higher investment. The interactions and contact between the two screws and barrel
are improved when a two-screw extruder is utilized. There are two types of twin-
screw extruders, categorized under tangential or intermeshing, that are referred to as
counter-rotating or corotating. It is commonly supplied with slip-on conveying, seg-
mented barrel, and kneading screw components. The component depicted in Fig. 1.4
helps to increase the mixing action and pumping processes by initiating comprehensive
melt reorientation, elongation flow pattern, and back mixing. Reactive extrusion refers
to the process of using an extruder as a continuous reactor during polymerization or
Fig. 1.4 Twin-screw extruder (intermeshing co-rotating type). (A) motor, (B) gear box,
(C) feed, (D) clam shell barrel, (E) vent port, (F) screw shafts, (G) conveying screws, (H)
kneading paddles (I) barrel valve, (J) blister rings.
From Xanthos, M., & Todd, B. D. (1996). Plastic processing.
during modification of polymers through a chemical reaction (Xanthos, 1992). Due

to their capacity to pump and blend extremely viscous liquids, extruders are uniquely
suited for such reactions. Multiple process phases such as melting, metering, mixing,
venting, and sidestream addition are easily accomplished with twin-screw extruders
(Hu, 2001).
1.2.1.3 Die forming
Extrusion operations include a range of dies and take-off equipment for shaping. The
combination of rod dies, pelletizers, and cooling troughs are used to process pellets for
injection molding. Products such as house siding, plastic lumber, channels, gaskets,
window sashes, and decorative trim are produced using special dies in profile extru-
sion. Die designs for profile extrusion must accommodate shape changes during the
quenching process. Profile extrusion is typically carried out with amorphous thermo-
plastics, as the rapid shrinkage associated with crystallization can lead to significant
profile distortion. In tubular dies, it is used in combination with vacuum calibrators
to control cooling and extrude diameter as well as its thickness (Rosato, Rosato, &
Rosato, 2004). Tubing extrusion is typically accomplished by drawing resin from the
die. Both the wall thickness and diameter of the tube are smaller than the die opening
with a ratio ranging from 2:1 to 8:1 (Xanthos, 2000).
1.2.2 Injection molding
Injection molding is a popular technique for processing thermoplastic, with low-cost
processes (Elshabini & Barlow, 2001) and is widely available for all mold forms. It is
a process that is widely used in the mass production of all types of thermoplastics with
no additional finishing needed (Ebnesajjad, 2015). Two halves are clamped together
to form the cavity of the mold as shown in Fig. 1.5. At the feed hopper, plastic pellets
are fed and enter the heating zone. By the time it reaches the end of the screw, the
plastic is completely melted, deaired, and dried. During the heating process, the pellets
are heated above their melting point to form a viscous melt state for the conversion
of solid to liquid polymer fluid with low viscosity characteristics. It is pressed into
a closed mold, also known as a die, which shapes the plastics based on the desired
design. At the end of the nozzle, a pressure of 3000 kg/cm3 is used to compress the
plastic in a viscous state where it will eventually fill the mold at a specified speed.
Due to the low viscosity of molten plastics, it is easier to fill the entire mold before
it is cooled with chilled water below the freezing point to solidify (Ardebili, Zhang,
& Pecht, 2019). Excessive melting is required during this process to compensate for
shrinkage. The final stage of injection molding is performed by opening the mold and
ejecting the finished polymer component from the equipment. The time taken for each
cycle of injection molding is depending on the size and type of polymer plastics which
can vary from seconds to minutes. The principle of injection molding is simple but the
properties of melted plastics and their processes are complex. The two most important
mechanisms involved in injection molding are pressure flow and heat transfer. Fig. 1.6
depicts the schematic design of an aluminum mold component. In the cavity half is a
4-in. mold insert silicon wafer with bulk micromachined. Injection molding has ad-
vanced to the point that micrometer-scale tolerances on small parts are possible (Gale
Feed hopper
Molding
halves
Molding
pellets
Screw
Nozzle
Ejector
pins
Mold
Barrel Sprue cavity
Heaters
Fig. 1.5 Injection molding equipment.

From Ardebili, H., Zhang, J., & Pecht, M. G. (2019). (pp. 183–194). Elsevier BV. https://doi.
org/10.1016/b978-0-12-811978-5.00004-3.
Mold insert
(silicon wafer) Core housing
plate
Cavity
housing plate Base plate
Sprue
Heater
Stripper Mounting plate
plate
Mounting Insulation layer
plate
Fig. 1.6 Setting of injection molding.
From Su, Y. C., Shah, J., & Lin, L. (2004). Implementation and analysis of polymeric
microstructure replication by micro injection molding. Journal of Micromechanics and
Microengineering, 14(3), 415–422. https://doi.org/10.1088/0960-1317/14/3/015.
et al., 2008). High performance plastics such as polyarylsufones and polyetherimides,

a thermotropic liquid crystalline with low viscosity and high temperature materials,
have been successfully produced through injection molding.
1.2.3 Reaction injection molding

Reaction injection molding (RIM) is a new process that employs lightweight, cost-
effective thermosetting polymers. Based on Rosato et al. (2004), RIM is conducted
to fabricate structural plastic foams. RIM differs from other molding processes as the
starting feed has a low temperature and is present in a liquid state (Ardebili et al., 2019).
A polymer such as polyurethane is one of the examples of RIM products. However, if
the resins are switched with epoxies and polyester, the process will be referred to as
resin transfer molding (Ardebili et al., 2019). In RIM, the intermediate melts contain
polyisocynate and polyol are processed at 75°F to 120°F temperature and injected sep-
arately into the finestream fluid shape of the mixing head. It is then mixed thoroughly
with high pressure ranging from 1500 to 3000 psi and pumped towards heated mold at
130°F to 170°F for polymerization to occur (Rosato et al., 2004). Rosato et al. (2004)
added that the RIM could be operated in three different conditions: reactive intermedi-
ate, low temperature, or low pressure. Fig. 1.7 shows reaction injection molding.
1.2.4 Blow molding
Blow molding is conducted to produce thermoplastics with a hollow design, such as
a container. Xanthos (2000) states that polyethylene, a common high density blow
molding resin, is used to fabricate 30 cm to 200 L containers. The blow molding
process can produce sophisticated and complex thermoplastics of almost any weight
(Belcher, 2017). As with other molding processes, it utilizes heating and pressing liq-
uid material towards a mold cavity. Because the process inflation pressure is relatively
Fig. 1.7 Reaction injection molding of polyurethane.

From Rosato, D. V., Rosato, D. V., & Rosato, M. V. (2004). (pp. 406–427). Elsevier BV.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-185617431-2/50015-3.
low, a low-cost aluminum mold is used. However, there are some drawbacks of using
blow molding such as irregular wall thickness, significantly higher trim levels, resid-
ual stresses in parts, and required resins with specific characteristics. According to
Xanthos (2000), there are three main types of blow molding: injection blow, intermit-
tent or continuous extrusion, and injection stretch molding.
Injection blow molding, as illustrated in Fig. 1.8, is used to create complex,
small-volume bottles. The process begins with the injection of parison onto a core pin.
The parison will progress towards blow mold via a core pin where it is distended by
being filled with air and pressed against a split mold wall to form an article (Xanthos,
2000). Extrusion blow molding, on the other hand, entails extruding molten resin tube
from the die into an open-air blown mold. The mold as in Fig. 1.9 is secured around
the parison and the bottom of the parison together with the mold are pinched. Air is
injected into parison and pressed into it, causing the parison to expand and fill the mold.
It is then cooled in the presence of internal air pressure. During the extrusion process,
the viscous melt can sag and swell without losing its properties. For the fabrication of
a large container, the blow molding machine will be installed with a piston and cylin-
der. The extruding melt is poured into the piston and rapidly emptied at a high rate to
produce large parison and reduce molten tube sag. A large diameter bottle will result
Blowing stick
Preform Air
Blown
container
Injection Blow mould Blow mould Blow

mould open closed cycle
Fig. 1.8 Injection blow molding process.

From Riley, A. (2012). Plastics manufacturing processes for packaging materials. In
Packaging Technology: Fundamentals, Materials and Processes (pp. 310–360). Woodhead
Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857095701.
1. Parison ready 2. Mould moves over 3. Mould moves down Parison 4. Mould opens, bottle is
Mould ready. parison. Mould closes. inflated. Next parison extruding. released. Cycle repeated.
Fig. 1.9 Extrusion blow molding process.

Preform clamped Stretching Preform blown to

in blow mould preform container shape
Fig. 1.10 Injection stretch molding process.

in a thin wall, while a small diameter bottle will result in a thick wall. A major change
to the die is required to enhance the mechanical properties and wall thickness of the
product. In addition to injection and extrusion blow molding, injection stretch molding,
as shown in Fig. 1.10, is used to create a rigid barrier plastic that can compete with glass
bottles (Xanthos, 2000). It starts with reheating the feed just above its glass transition
temperature and stretching it before and during inflation. Stretching causes biaxial ori-
entation, which increases the transparency, resilience, and durability of the product.
1.2.5 Transfer molding
Similar to compression molding, transfer molding also involves pressurizing the ma-
terial, but in a separate chamber. As a result of the pressure, the material is forced
through an opening and goes into a closed mold as shown in Fig. 1.11. In the figure,
there are multiple cavities in transfer molding to improve the temperature distribution
during the preheating of the material (Crawford & Martin, 2020). In addition, the
crosslinking reaction is also accelerated due to the improved temperature distribution
across the material. The result of such configurations is reduced cycle times and fewer
molding distortions. Furthermore, a more intricate shape can be produced due to the
improved material flow in the mold.
Plunger
Thermoset
preform
Heated
mould
Cavity
Heated
mould
Ejector pins
Fig. 1.11 Transfer molding configuration.

From Crawford, R. J., & Martin, P. J. (2020). (pp. 279–409). Elsevier BV. https://doi.
org/10.1016/b978-0-08-100709-9.00004-2.
Heated sheet
Plug-assist
Vacuum hole
Stretching Vacuum
Fig. 1.12 Thermoforming process.

From Casalini, T., & Perale, G. (2012). Processing of bioresorbable and other polymers for
medical applications. In Durability and Reliability of Medical Polymers (pp. 49–76). Elsevier
Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84569-929-1.50003-9.
1.2.6 Thermoforming
Thermoforming is the process of heating a plastic sheet under a certain temperature to
produce a specific part shape in a mold and then trimming it to make a usable product
(Casalini & Perale, 2012). For an amorphous polymer, the plastic sheet is heated to a
temperature higher than the glass transition temperature. In contrast, for semicrystalline
polymers, the feed is heated at a slightly below the melting point. It is then molded into a
tool cavity with the aids of vacuum, mechanical force, and air pressure. The thermoform-
ing process is best suited for amorphous materials because there are various temperature
ranges for rubber (Casalini & Perale, 2012). This is because the plastic can indeed be
easier to shape, and it retains enough rigidity to prevent a sagging effect. However, when
using semicrystalline polymers for the thermoforming process, the crystalline structure
is easily ruptured, leading to decreases in strength. In order to obtain an optimal process,
the thermoforming equipment must be operated at a sufficiently high and uniform tem-
perature for effective shaping. The installation of a plug-assisted system, as shown in
Fig. 1.12, aids in forming a uniform wall thickness of the product. The plug forces the
sheet into the cavity, stretching the part of the sheet that is not connected to the plug. Due
to this occurrence, vacuum compaction is carried out for final treatment. The product is
cooled once the process is completed before being removed. Osswald and Hernandez-
Ortiz (2006) stated that prestretching at the early stage of thermoforming is optional.
1.2.7 Rotational molding
The process of rotational molding seems relatively simple. It involves high temperatures
for molding, thin-walled molds made of either metal or composite, two perpendicular axes
biaxial rotation, finely divided powder or liquid polymers, and a cooling process using
either or both air and water to produce hollow, seamless parts that have relatively low
molded-in stress level. There are four basic steps in rotational molding: loading, heating,
cooling, and unloading, as shown in Fig. 1.13. Once the part has finished cooling, the mold
(A) (B)
Mold
Powder Heating
Machine
Major
arm
Minor
(C) (D)
Cooling
Major
Minor
Fig. 1.13 The four basic steps of rotational molding.

From Nugent, P. (2017). Rotational Molding. In Applied Plastics Engineering Handbook:
Processing, Materials, and Applications: Second Edition (pp. 321–343). Elsevier Inc. https://
doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-39040-8.00015-8.
is taken to the unloading station and the part is removed. The empty mold is then ready
for the next batch to start. Usually, the design of the machine is a combination of all four
stages to make it a single operating station or mold servicing. Thus, the most basic machine
configurations will have three workstations for heating, cooling, and mold servicing.
Despite its simplicity, rotational molding involves great considerations such as the
complex interaction of heat transfer and the distribution of material inside the mold
(Nugent, 2017). Different from other plastic processing, the heating, forming, and cooling
process of rotational molding all occur inside the mold without the involvement of pres-
sure. Thus, what is happening inside the mold remains unknown other than the powder
has melted or the liquid has reacted, and then cooled into what is expected to be final form
of the produced item. Sophisticated control systems are equipped to help monitor the tem-
peratures inside the mold while the process cycle is still running. Furthermore, some also
use a video camera to see the formation of the part inside the mold (Nugent, 2017). To
ensure that the process is effective, several key factors must be considered. These factors
include using release agents to prevent the materials from sticking to the mold surface
during unloading, ensuring venting is present to have equilibrium pressure between mold
cavity and external environment, selecting proper rotation settings as the two perpendicu-
lar axes determine the way that the material is distributed, and making sure that the mold
is in contact with the external surface of the part only. For the last key factor, cooling rates
play an important role as it can reduce the distortion of the part at high-speed rotation.
1.2.8 Solid-state forming
Solid-state forming is beneficial to increase the strength and modulus of polymeric
materials (Mishra, Shaji, & Thomas, 2017). In order to increase the strength and
modulus of the polymeric materials, the polymer chain must be well-aligned, closely
packed, and extended. This can be achieved by synthesizing rigid rod-like polymers
that contain a para-substituted aromatic structure in the backbone of the chain or by
processing the conventional flexible chain polymers to give a similar result.
1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of recycled plastic

biocomposites
The components of a recycled plastic biocomposite means the compound has great ad-
vantages (Bin, Rahman, Khui, Jayamani, & Khan, 2021; Khui, Rahman, Jayamani, &
Bin Bakri, 2021). For example, if one uses natural fibers: they are biodegradable, mean-
ing waste disposal problems and environmental pollution can be reduced (Bin et al.,
2021; Khui et al., 2021). Natural fiber composites (NFCs), in particular, have proven to
be environmentally attractive materials and are emerging as an alternative to other re-
inforced composites such as carbon-reinforced or glass-reinforced polymer composites
(Bakri, Jayamani, Hamdan, Rahman, & Kakar, 2018). According to Al-Oqla and Omari
(2017), the properties of a NFCs’ individual components and their compatibility fea-
tures affects the properties and performance of the produced NFCs engineered product.
Various sizes of natural fibers ranging from micrometer to several centimeters are used
and Table 1.1 shows the characteristics of different types of natural fibers.
Table 1.1 Biofibers characteristics (Al-Oqla & Omari, 2017).
Fiber Thickness of Width

Agricultural Fiber length diameter single cell wall of lumen
biomass (mm) (mm) (micron) (micron)
Oil palm 0.6–1.4 8.0–25.0 – 6.9–9.8
Coconut coir 0.3–1.0 12.0–14.0 0.06–8.0 –
Banana 0.1–4.2 12.0–30.0 1.2–1.5 13.4–22.4
Pineapple leaves 3.0–9.0 5.9–80.0 1.8–83 2.4–3
Jute 0.8–6.0 5.0–30.0 5.2–11.3 3.4–7.6
Sisal 0.8–8.0 7.0–47.0 8.0–25.0 8.0–12.0
Flax 10.0–65.0 5.0–30.0 10.0–20.0 –
Cotton 15.0–56.0 10.0–45.0 3.6–3.8 15.7–16.4
Ramie 30.0–60.4 7.0–80.0 2.8–3 12.8–13.0
Kenaf (bast) 1.4–11.0 4.0–36.0 1.6–12.6 5.4–11.1
Kenaf (core) 0.4–1.1 0.27–37.0 0.5–11.5 14.8–22.7
Bagasse 0.7–2.8 10.0–40.0 1.4–9.4 1.0–19.1
Bamboo 2.0–3.0 14.0–17.8 3.0–9.0 3.8–8.6
Rice 0.4–1. 8.0–15.5 2.0–5.6 1.1–8.7
Corn 0.4–1.4 12.1–26.7 2.4–6.5 2.4–20.1
From Al-Oqla, F. M., & Omari, M. A. (2017). Sustainable biocomposites: Challenges, potential and barriers for devel-
opment. Green Energy and Technology, 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46610-1_2.
Another advantage of natural fiber component is its relatively low density of typi-
cally 1.25–1.50 g/cm3. In comparison, glass fibers have a density of 2.6 g/cm3, which
means that natural fibers can provide more specific strength and stiffness when used
as a component in plastic materials (Nurul Fazita et al., 2016). Furthermore, natural
fibers are also less expensive than glass fibers with a price of US$200–1000/ton and
US$1200–1800/ton respectively. Additionally, natural fibers are biodegradable, recy-
clable, abundant, have good mechanical properties, and are less abrasive to equip-
ment than synthetic fibers, leading to significant cost reductions and providing more
desirable working conditions (Rahman, Hamdan, Jayamani, Bakri, & Islam, 2017).
These advantageous characteristics make natural fibers desirable materials to be used
as polymer matric composites component by manufacturers. Table 1.2 shows the dif-
ferences between natural fibers and glass fibers.
However, natural fibers also have their disadvantages, such as poor wettability, high
moisture absorption, and incompatibility with several polymeric matrices (Nurul Fazita
et al., 2016). When it comes to producing natural fibers composites, the main challenge
is to create a fiber-matrix adhesion. As natural fibers are hydrophilic and the polymer
matrix is hydrophobic, the adhesion between the two will become poor, resulting in low
mechanical properties of the produced natural fibers reinforced by polymer composites
(Jayamani, Loong, & Bakri, 2020). Consequently, it is essential to ensure that the bond
between the fibers and matrix is suitable to allow the applied load to be transferred through
the shear stresses at the interface to the stiff fibers (Nyuk Khui et al., 2019). When that is
achieved, the full capabilities of the fibers in the composite will be able to be exploited,
apart from rendering the composite resistant to environmental attack to increase its life
span. As for the high moisture absorption, this drawback comes from the h ydrophilic
Table 1.2 Characteristic comparison between natural and glass fibers (Nurul Fazita et al., 2016).
Natural fibers Glass fibers

Low density The density is twice of natural fibers
Low cost It is low cost but higher than natural fibers
Renewable and can be recycled Not renewable or recyclable
Low energy consumption High energy consumption
Wide distribution Wide distribution
No abrasion to machines Abrasion to the machines
No health risk when inhaled Health risk when inhaled
Biodegradable Nonbiodegradable
From Nurul Fazita, M. R., Jayaraman, K., Bhattacharyya, D., Mohamad Haafiz, M. K., Saurabh, C., Hussin, M., &
H.P.S., A. (2016). Green composites made of bamboo fabric and poly (lactic) acid for packaging applications—A re-
view. Materials, 9(6), 435. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9060435.
nature of the cellulosic fibers, which negatively impacts the physical properties of the
composites, apart from causing dimensional variations. According to Nurul Fazita et al.
(2016), the moisture content of the cellulosic fibers can vary from 5% to 10%. Other
disadvantages include sensitivity to moisture, heterogeneous quality, and low thermal sta-
bility. For thermal stability, the degradation of natural fibers due to thermal occurs in a
three-stage process. The first stage occurs within the temperature of 200°C to 300°C due
to the low molecular weight of the components such as hemicellulose. At a temperature
of 300–400°C, the second decomposition process will occur due to cellulose degradation.
Finally, the third process will be observed at a temperature of around 450°C where the
lignin starts to break down. The natural fibers’ degradation properties is an essential as-
pect to review for developing natural fibers polymer composites as it can hinder the use
of some thermoplastics. When the processing temperature is at 200°C and above, the ther-
mal degradation of the fibers may lead to the production of volatile compounds, which
can make the polymer products porous. As a result, the density and mechanical properties
of the polymer products will be lower (Nurul Fazita et al., 2016). Table 1.3 summarizes
the advantages and disadvantages of natural fibers as a fiber matrix in a composite.
Table 1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of natural fibers (Nurul Fazita et al., 2016).
Advantages Disadvantages
Lower specific weight results in a higher Lower mechanical properties especially
specific strength and stiffness than glass impact resistance
Renewable resource Heterogeneous quality
Production with low investment at low cost Moisture sensitivity
Low abrasion, therefore reduced tool wear Low thermal stability
Non toxic Low durability
Abundantly available Poor fire resistance
Biodegradable Poor fiber-matrix adhesion
Thermal recycling is possible Price fluctuation by harvest results or
agricultural politics
From Nurul Fazita, M. R., Jayaraman, K., Bhattacharyya, D., Mohamad Haafiz, M. K., Saurabh, C., Hussin, M., &
H.P.S., A. (2016). Green composites made of bamboo fabric and poly (lactic) acid for packaging applications—A re-
view. Materials, 9(6), 435. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9060435.
Apart from natural fibers, polymers also play an important role in determining the
advantages and disadvantages of natural fibers biocomposites. Although it is generally
perceived that the advantage of recycling plastic is reducing the amount of waste in
the environment, that is not necessarily the case over the long term. The definition of
recycling is an action of recovering material only from the waste or end-of-life product
(Fakirov, 2021). Thus, recycling plastic waste means recovering plastic materials and
converting it into secondary recycled plastic. This implies that plastic recycling only
delays its final disposal, which eventually ends up as plastic waste. Therefore, the best
solution to reduce the amount of waste is by burring the recycled plastic onto concrete,
road constructions, buildings material or any other similar applications, instead of
recycling it to ensure that the recycled plastic no longer appears as disposed waste in
the near future (Fakirov, 2021).
Given that the plastic is being recycled to make a product that will be used for
a long period of time and not as a single-use plastic, the advantage of reducing the
amount of waste still apply. This leads to the next step in plastic recovery from waste
product, which is the chosen recovery method. The focus here is on recycling ther-
moplastic polymers as it is a type of plastic that can be remolded without causing
any chemical changes. According to Grigore (2017), the recycling of thermoplastics
gives the advantage of saving materials and energy, apart from reducing environmental
problems. Mechanical, chemical, and thermal processing are the three types of com-
mercially available recycling techniques.
In the mechanical recycling of thermoplastic, no polymer alteration is involved
as a physical method is used. The physical method involves cutting, shredding,
or washing into granulates, pellets, or flakes of suitable quality, followed by melt
extrusion (Grigore, 2017). Pure material can also be blended with the reprocessed
material to achieve superior quality. Once the waste plastic is sorted, cleaned, dried
and processed into the end product, the number of waste plastic is reduced dra-
matically (Grigore, 2017). However, this method has its disadvantages: the het-
erogeneous appearance of the solid waste and product properties that deteriorates
after each cycle of recovery. Fig. 1.14 shows the steps involved in the mechanical
recycling of waste plastic.
Another technique that can be used to recycle plastic is chemical recycling.
Chemical recycling can be performed together with mechanical recycling as a comple-
ment. In this process, the polymers are converted to either monomer or depolymerized
oligomers through a chemical reaction. Contrary to physical recycling, this process
involves changing the chemical structure of the polymer. At the end of the process, the
produced monomers are now ready to be used as feedstock materials for new polymer
product manufacturing. Many chemical reactions can be used to convert polymers into
monomers, such as:
●
hydrogenation
●
glycolysis
●
gasification
●
hydrolysis
●
pyrolysis
●
methanolysis
●
chemical depolymerization
Collection
Cleaning and drying
Chipping / sizing
Coloring / agglomeration
Extrusion / pelletization
Manufacturing
Fig. 1.14 Mechanical recycling of waste plastic (Grigore, 2017).

From Grigore, M. E. (2017). Methods of recycling, properties and applications of recycled
thermoplastic polymers. Recycling, 2(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling2040024.
●
thermal cracking
●
catalytic cracking and reforming
●
photodegradation
●
ultrasound degradation
●
degradation in microwave reactor.
However, only two of these chemical reactions—methanolysis and glycolysis—

have reached commercial maturity (Grigore, 2017). The rest of the chemical reactions
are still in development as these methods require expert personnel and a lot of invest-
ment which has made this a disadvantage of recycling plastic waste using chemical
method. Another concern is the advantages and disadvantages of composites itself.
According to Singh et al. (2017), polymer-based composites and plastics are currently
recognized by engineering practice as a superior structural material. Furthermore, due
to the lack of required properties, the interest in using virgin material is getting lower.
Despite that, the latter is easier to recycle and can help to reduce waste. In the long
term, using composite seems to be a better option as it can last longer due to its abil-
ity to achieve the required properties of a tailormade product. There are several fiber
reinforcements in thermoset and thermoplastic that are discussed in the literature: co-
conut fiber (coir), bamboo, wood, sisal, paper, palm, jute, CaCO3, mica, glass fibers,
asbestos, and other natural fibers (Bakri et al., 2018). This is an advantage for those
interested in venturing into natural fiber composites applications. However, there are
still considerations to be made regarding which compatibilizer should be used as it
is crucial to ensure that the bonding between fiber and polymer matrix is achieved
(Adamu, Rahman, Bakri, Md Yusof, & Khan, 2021; Rahman et al., 2021, 2020). Many
authors have studied different reinforcement materials and have concluded their ad-
vantages and disadvantages. According to Singh et al. (2017), used pinus wood fiber is
suitable for plastic material reinforcement. This agrees with many studies discussing
reinforcing plastic with wood fiber that shows improved results in the mechanical
properties and dimensional stability of the produced composite (Nyuk Khui et al.,
2019; Singh et al., 2017). Apart from improving materials performance, using natural
fiber composites that utilize waste-based materials is also good for the environment as
it helps with waste management. In developing communities where people commonly
scavenge waste for income, using waste materials for composite production may ben-
efit them.
1.4 Potential and application of recycled plastic

biocomposites
In the engineering fields, the use of natural fibers polymer composites is continuing
to grow. The use of natural fibers such as kenaf, bamboo, jute, oil palm, and hemp as
polymer composite reinforcements have become of great importance to automotive
applications, packing, construction, and structural components (Mohammed, Ansari,
Pua, Jawaid, & Islam, 2015). Mohammed et al. (2015) also stated that natural fibers
polymer composites are found in many industries such as electrical and electronic,
sports, aerospace, boats, recreation equipment, and machinery products. This is be-
cause the material has several advantages such as low specific weight, relatively low
cost for production, relatively high strength, corrosion and fatigue resistance, is com-
pletely biodegradable, improves molded part composites surface finishing, has rela-
tively good mechanical properties, is abundant and renewable.
In the automotive industry, many car manufacturers have used natural fiber poly-
mer composites for their car interiors, such as parcel shelves, front and rear door lin-
ens, seatback, truck linens, boot linens, and door trim panels. Figs. 1.15 and 1.16 show
car components made of natural fiber polymer composites. As well as car interiors,
natural fiber embedded in polymers is also used for high requirement applications
such as the automotive exterior. It is used above the middle section between the head-
lights of a passenger bus. Table 1.4 shows a list of car manufacturers that use natural
fiber composite as material for their car parts.
As natural fiber polymer composites are vulnerable to environmental attack, they
are used indoors for components that do not involve load-bearing in the civil engi-
neering applications. Biocomposite materials can assist in realizing green buildings
that are environmentally conscious, healthy, and suitable places to live and work.
Depending on its application in the building, natural fibers polymer composites can
be categorized into two principle products: structural biocomposites and nonstruc-
tural biocomposites. The former consists of building components such as a bridge or
roof structure, while the latter consists of components such as door frames, windows,
Fig. 1.15 Mercedes Benz S-Class and its components made of biobased components.
From Roy, S. B., Shit, Dr. S. C., Gupta, Dr. R. A. S., & Shukla, Dr. P. R. (2014). A review on
bio-composites: fabrication, properties and applications. International Journal of Innovative
Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 16814–16824.
Fig. 1.16 Frame to hold the foot-well panel.

From Roy, S. B., Shit, Dr. S. C., Gupta, Dr. R. A. S., & Shukla, Dr. P. R. (2014). A Review on
Bio-Composites: Fabrication, Properties and Applications. International Journal of Innovative
Research in Science, Engineering and Technology, 16814–16824.
composites panels, and exterior construction (Mohammed et al., 2015). The structural
applications of natural fiber polymer composites are lightweight and have a high stiff-
ness to weight ratio. For instance, sisal fiber-reinforced composite has shown good
properties such as high strength in compression and tension, increasing its applications
in the building industry. The applications are long span roofing elements, facades, pipe
strengthening, and permanent formwork (Mohammed et al., 2015).
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Green's. Further on they saw Luther Williams and stopped to speak
to him. "Isn't it the most wonderful evening?" said Gwen, her face
aglow. "We've had the loveliest of trips coming home on the boat."
"She's rather late to-night," said Mr. Williams.
"Is she?" returned Gwen innocently. "I thought the time unusually
short." Then she colored and laughed softly. "I shall see you to-
morrow, dear Daddy Lu," she whispered.
At the porch Kenneth lingered. "May I bring you the picture in the
morning?" he asked.
"Will you? I hope you will, for I shall not feel quite safe till you do."
"How safe?"
"In my belief that we are friends again."
He bent his head, softly kissed her fingers and said, "Hereby I set
my seal of eternal devotion."
"To our friendship," added Gwen tremulously. She must not let him
say more, and he understood, though he kissed her fingers again,
this time with a swift eagerness which denied mere friendship, and
then they parted.
"Tired, little girl?" said her aunt as she came in. "I have kept your
supper hot. It has been a long day for you, I'm afraid."
"Not so very long," returned Gwen, "and you know I love the coming
home part. It was glorious on the water this evening."
"I must say you don't look particularly dejected," said Miss Elliott,
pouring out a cup of chocolate for her.
Gwen laughed, a low happy laugh. "Who could feel dejected on such
an evening?" she said.
"I didn't remark that it was anything very unusual."
"It was on the boat," replied the girl. She was restless for the next
hour and made the excuse of her early start that morning to account
for her eagerness to go to her room. "For to-morrow, to-morrow," she
whispered to herself, as she went up stairs. "And after that other to-
morrows. How glad I am to be alive." Before she drew her curtains
she looked out, and against the starlit sky, she saw a well-known
figure standing a little distance off, upon the rocks. When she had
blown out her candle she looked once more, and saw the man walk
slowly away. "The darling!" she murmured, "he has been watching
my light. It will be a long time to wait, but we are young, and oh dear
God, I am so thankful he has come back to me."
CHAPTER XVI
"'TWIXT TIDE AND TIDE'S RETURNING"
But there was no happy talk with Luther Williams the next day, for
sad news came to the island, and at Cap'n Ben's house there was a
grief-stricken girl, widowed while scarcely more than a child. It was
an incoming vessel which brought the tidings of the loss of one of the
Mary Lizzie's crew. Happy, careless, pleasure-loving Manny Green
had been drowned during a heavy gale. Like most of the other
fishermen, he could not swim, and had sunk for the last time before
help could reach him. It was while trying to soothe Ora that Miss
Phosie learned for the first time that the girl and her lover were
married on the day when Ora had started for Bangor. Manny had
met her on the boat, they had gone to the nearest clergyman to have
the ceremony performed and Manny had taken his little bride on a
long trolley ride for a wedding trip. They had spent a couple of days
in a quiet inland town, and then Ora had gone on to Bangor,
returning, before her family expected, that she might spend with
Manny the last days he should be ashore. Not only poor little Ora,
but Almira Green, was stricken by the blow, and they mourned
together. "She is all alone," said Ora, "and she loved him. I think I
ought to stay with her now, Aunt Phosie, for she has no one else."
Therefore to Almira went the girl with the intention of passing her life
under the roof which had sheltered the boyhood of her young
husband.
The sorrowful news affected everyone, and it was a depressed and
subdued girl who greeted Kenneth when he appeared at Wits' End
that morning. The tears were very near Gwen's eyes, and she could
scarce speak at first, for the thought constantly recurred: suppose it
had been you. Kenneth, too, looked grave, and the joyousness of
their past evening seemed to have gone from them.
"I feel so sorry for Ora," said Gwen. "We grew to be friends after a
fashion, for we were companions in misery, that day of the storm, the
very storm, I am afraid, in which Manny lost his life. We went down
to the shore together. I was anxious about Ethel, and—" she
hesitated, then made bravely frank in the remembrance of a grief
which might have come to her—"I was anxious about you, for I had
seen you go out."
Kenneth caught her hand and held it tightly for a moment, then laid it
gently back on her lap. It was hard to have self-command at such a
moment, and he would fain have taken her in his arms then and
there. "If I had known you were anxious about me it would have
made a difference," he said in a low voice.
She laid her hand lightly on his sleeve for just a second, and they sat
looking at one another, their eyes full of the love their lips might not
speak. Gwen was the first to break the silence. "You have brought
the picture. It was so good of you to come early. May I see it?"
He set the picture on a chair and she knelt in front of it. "How lovely it
is," she said presently with a sigh. "I think I like it better than the
other. I can't believe that it is really mine. What shall I say to thank
you?"
"You have already given me more thanks than are due me, and such
as I value most, for you truly like it."
"I love it, and to think it is going to stay with me always! I don't agree
with you in thinking no more thanks are due you."
"There is only one thing you could give," he answered unsteadily.
"Perhaps I ought not to ask it, but if anything were to happen to
either of us—we are soon to be separated—it would mean much to
me if I could carry away the remembrance of one kiss."
Gwen stood in front of him with drooping head. Suppose anything
were to happen to either of them! She lifted her face and he kissed
her gently, holding her close to him for one moment, and then letting
her go. "It shall not be a long time," he said passionately. "I must
have the right soon. I shall work as never man worked before."
"Don't work too hard," said Gwen, with the solicitude of the woman
who loves. "I can wait—I will wait, Kenneth, no matter how long, and
what does it matter how long when—we love each other?"
The last words were spoken so low that he must bend his head to
hear them, and for the moment his self-control was flung to the
winds. "My darling!" he said, "we love each other. Bless you for
saying what I dared not say." He drew her close again, and kissed
her lips, her eyes, her hair, then put her from him. "It will not do," he
sighed. "I cannot be a selfish beast. I will not demand anything from
you. I want you to be as free as ever, but I shall never forget this
blessed hour. No matter what happens, I shall have had this."
"'Now who can take from us what has been ours?'" quoted Gwen
softly. "Yes, Kenneth, dear, it is best for us to be only friends, though
in our hearts we feel that we are otherwise. I won't, won't, won't
stand in the way of your career."
"And I won't, won't, won't stand in the way of your future if it chances
that you should become tired of waiting."
"I'll not tire, but all the same we are to be friends, just good friends
and comrades."
Just then a step interrupted them, and Gwen turned to greet Cap'n
Ben, who had come to say that Ora wanted to see Miss Whitridge.
"I will go, of course I will," Gwen responded. She turned to Kenneth.
"You will come back later?"
"This afternoon, if I may, and I will bring some of my sketches for you
to see."
Gwen gave him her hand. "Please," she said. She could not bear the
thought of being parted from him for long, when there was Ora whom
death had parted from her lover.
"She's at Almiry's," said Cap'n Ben, as he strode by the girl's side. "I
cal'late we'll have to give her up to Almiry now, and I guess it's right
she should go. Almiry's had a pretty hard time of it, working for the
boy, and now her and Ora can help each other. Almiry'd pine away
left to herself. It's a good thing her boarders have most all gone. She
won't have much sperrit to look after 'em. Last one'll leave to-
morrow. I guess she won't bother with 'em next year."
There was a feeling of fall in the air. The White Mountains stood out
blue and distinct, the sea was almost indigo-hued, save where a
golden path of sunlight spread across it, and where white-rimmed
breakers chased each other shoreward. Everything was clean-cut
and intense in color. The houses showed sharply against their
background of sea, the tops of the sombre firs were outlined against
the unclouded sky, the rocks showed purply-gray. The apples on
Cap'n Ben's stunted little trees were slowly reddening. Only a few
flowers flaunted themselves still in the gardens, dahlias, asters and
sweet peas held their own, while against the gray shingles of some
deserted cottages a tangle of nasturtiums displayed glowing blooms
of flame-color and orange.
But bright though the day, there was a subdued air about the island.
Those Gwen and Cap'n Ben met nodded gravely. There was a
troubled look upon the women's faces, as though they feared a
remorseless answer to the often recurring question, Who next?
In the sitting-room of Almira Green's low white cottage they found
Ora at Almira's feet, her head resting in the lap of the elder woman.
She did not rise as Gwen came in, and the girl, throbbing with her
own new joy, knelt down by the other, put her arms around her and
laid her cheek against Ora's, wet with her womanhood's first tears.
There were no words to say. Comfort was too distant a thing to be
looked for now; the phantom of a lost happiness hovered mockingly
near, a happiness that found the sorrowing girl but a little maid, and
left her a weeping wife. Almira sat, dry-eyed, her toil-worn hand
fingering Ora's fair hair. "She's most worn out with crying," she said
to Gwen. "It's come sooner to her than to most."
The tears sprang to Gwen's eyes. She hated the sea for the
moment, that sea in which she had gloried every day during these
holiday weeks. She did not wonder that fisher people did not love it,
that it seemed to them a cruel thing upon which they were glad to
turn their backs. "I wish there were something I could do or say," she
murmured as she rose to her feet and stood looking down at Almira.
Presently Ora lifted her heavy head. "If we only had a picture of him,
but we haven't. He meant to have some taken, but we spent the
money that time in Portland, and he promised as soon as he came
back he'd go right to the photographer's. We were going together."
She dropped her head again and burst into a fresh paroxysm of
weeping.
Some one knocked at the door, and Gwen turned. "Shall I go, Mrs.
Green?" she asked.
Almira nodded, and Gwen went through the silent house and opened
the front door. Kenneth stood there. "Oh," said Gwen, "did you come
for me?"
He stepped inside. "I have brought a little study of Manny that I
made one day down at the cove. It is only a quick sketch, but I think
it looks rather like him, and maybe they would like to have it."
"Oh, Kenneth!" Gwen held out her hand eagerly for the small
canvas. "Ora was just grieving because they have no photograph of
him. You dear boy to think of coming with it."
"I worked it up a little," said Kenneth, "so it is still wet, but I thought
I'd try to make it less of a sketch. Do you think it is like him?" He held
off the picture at arm's length.
Gwen looked at it earnestly. "It is very like," she told him. "You have
caught his happy, careless expression. He was a good-looking lad,
poor boy. May I take it in? Will you go, too?"
"I'll wait outside for you."
She carried the picture carefully to the sitting-room, and set it on a
chair where the light could strike it. Then she touched the forlorn
figure whose face was still hidden in Almira's lap. "Ora," she said,
"look here, dear. You see there does sometimes come some small
comfort in our darkest hours. Mr. Hilary has brought you a little
picture he made of Manny. Will you look at it? Mrs. Green, you, too,
please. It is still wet and must not be touched for a day or two."
Ora sprang to her feet, and gazed with sobbing breath at the picture
of Manny leaning against the railing of the boat-landing, his hat
pushed back from his smiling face, his hands in his pockets, the
whole attitude one of careless ease. So had his friends seen him
often. "It is Manny," whispered Ora, "Manny. Aunt Almira, do see."
"Aunt Almira," murmured Mrs. Green. "Some one still calls me that."
She raised her eyes, leaned forward and looked long and earnestly
at the picture, then the blessed relief of tears came to her. She
dropped her head on Ora's shoulder and shook with sobs. The act of
dependence aroused Ora to a sense of responsibility. "There, there,"
she whispered, "don't take on, Aunt Almira. We've got each other,
and we loved him."
Mrs. Green wiped her eyes. "Please thank the gentleman," she said.
"It was very kind of him."
"There ain't a thing we'd sooner have, please tell him," said Ora. "It's
wonderful." It was hard for these people to say even so much.
Thanks were not easily expressed, obligations were rarely admitted.
Gracious acceptance did not come naturally, but Gwen felt that they
were sincerely gratified.
"I'll tell Mr. Hilary," she said, "and I know he will be glad you like the
picture. He would not come in."
"Perhaps you'll bring him another time," said Almira. "I'd like to tell
him we appreciate his present."
Ora followed Gwen to the door. "I know now why you understood,"
she said in a low voice. "I hope you'll be very, very happy."
"Oh, Ora, we must wait a long while, and no one knows yet, not even
my aunt, so please—"
"I won't mention it, but I know, and I'm glad he did that picture. I'm
glad he's the one, for he must be good and kind to think of bringing
it. I can't tell you what it means to have it."
This was saying a great deal, and Gwen knew it meant more than
extravagant thanks from some others. She kissed the girl's pale
cheek and went out into the bright sunlight.
"Shall we go home by the rocks?" asked Kenneth, coming forward.
"No, I don't want to look at the sea to-day," Gwen told him. Then she
gave him the messages from the two women she had just left, and
they talked softly of the picture as they walked along.
Further on they met Ethel Fuller. "We're going to-morrow," she said.
"Aunt Harriet wanted to go long ago, and she's sorry now we didn't
leave yesterday. It is dreadful to be in a house where there is such
trouble, and we can't do a thing. I'm quite ready myself to go now.
We shall stop in Boston for a few days."
Gwen smiled. "And Mr. Mitchell?"
"He is going to-morrow, too. He gave up his trip to Bar Harbor, after
all." Ethel looked exultant.
"Then you'll have his escort to Boston. That's good. I hope he'll make
it pleasant for you while you're there."
"He's sure to do that. I am coming over to see you this afternoon,
Gwen, to say good-by. I left Aunt Harriet making her rounds, but I
have my packing to do. Auntie is so forehanded; her trunks are all
ready. I'm really dying to be off. It will be good to get into the stir and
bustle of a city again, and I love the Boston shops. I suppose you'll
be going soon, Mr. Hilary."
"My sister is beginning her preparations, I believe, though I shall stay
while the weather is pleasant."
Ethel gave Gwen a laughing glance as she walked on. "See you this
afternoon," she said.
"Then we shall not have our walk to the woods," remarked Kenneth
when Ethel was out of hearing.
Gwen shook her head. "Afraid not, but to-morrow we shall have the
island to ourselves or nearly so. The Gray sisters go next week.
Most of the boarders have gone, and I noticed more than one
cottage closed for the winter as I came along. I shall love it when the
transients stop traipsing over the pasture, and cease to crowd the
rocks like a flock of pelicans. Already the place seems more our
own."
"There will be a moon, though rather late to-night. May I come to
Wits' End and watch it rise?"
"Most certainly, and what about the sketches?"
"I left a load of them with Miss Elliott. You can look at them at your
leisure."
"Without the showman?"
"Do you want him?"
"I want him to tell me the merits of each, so you'd better come along
now. You can stay to dinner. There will be quantities of excellent
chowder, warmed over baked beans, with whatever vegetables we
can scrape together. I think there is pie for dessert. Can you stand
the combination?"
"It sounds appetizing, especially the chowder. I see Ira's wagon
going our way; I'll send word to my sister not to expect me." He ran
after the wagon, which was turning into the cove road, and gave his
message.
"Do you like cranberries?" asked Gwen. "I think we shall have some
of them, too. I adore them. If you gather them when they are just
turning pink, not red, they make much better sauce than when they
are fully ripe. If you will not tell anyone I'll show you where they
grow." She led the way across the pasture to a marshy spot a short
distance from the beaten path. Lifting the graceful tendrils of the
pretty vines, she showed, buried in soft gray-green moss, the tiny
globes of waxy pink. "This is my own special find," she said. "I have
already gathered two quarts, and to-morrow I can get more. I am
glad there is a to-morrow," she added. "Now come and show me the
sketches. I hope there are some moonlit waves. Isn't it wonderful to
see the golden gates open and that glittering pathway unroll upon
the sea? One feels as if it led up—up to some enchanted palace. I
can almost persuade myself into starting across the shiny road to
fairy land. Then those little dancing flecks, 'patines of bright gold,' are
like water-fairies luring one on to where the glittering path leads. I
can scarce resist them."
"Don't follow them, please."
"I won't, I promise you. Are there any moonlights among your
sketches?"
"Several. I have tried to express the effect very often, but I am afraid
I have made many failures."
"Perhaps I can tell whether you have or not."
The sketches occupied the time till the dinner hour, after which meal
Kenneth took his leave, but not before Miss Fuller arrived. The door
had hardly closed after the young man when Ethel grasped Gwen's
hand. "Congratulate me," she cried, "I'm engaged."
"Really?" Gwen looked pleased. "Of course it is Mr. Mitchell, and that
accounts for his giving up Bar Harbor."
"Yes, and I have to thank you for making us known to each other. It
might not have happened if we had not gone to Jagged Island that
day, for I am candid enough to admit that you occupied first place up
to then. However our being in common danger, as it were, put us on
a different footing. Ever since then I have noticed a difference in his
manner toward me. It was Jagged Island that settled it, I am sure. Do
give me the satisfaction of hearing that you really do not mind,
Gwen. Now that I have actually won the race I feel a little guilty."
"My dear, you needn't in the very least. I am perfectly delighted. It
isn't every day that one's friends marry millionaires. I congratulate
you with all my heart, and have not the smallest pang."
"It only happened yesterday," Ethel went on, "but I had to tell you
before I left. It will be announced when we get home. Aunt Harriet is
so pleased."
Gwen's smile might be called a veritable grin. "Of course she is. Very
few aunts would not be."
"Would yours?"
"I am not sure. She is so darlingly unworldly that she might ask all
sorts of probing questions that one couldn't answer to her
satisfaction. Shall you be married soon, Ethel?"
"In the spring, I think. Who could ever dream that in this little
unfashionable isolated place I should meet a man like Cephas? As
Aunt Harriet says, I might have gone up and down the coast for
years and never have found his like. I was so disgusted, too, when
we first arrived at what seemed to me a perfectly impossible place. It
has been the loveliest summer I ever spent, and it is all due to you,
Gwen." In her great content Ethel was at her best.
"I am so very, very glad," murmured Gwen.
"I do wish the Hardy girls were still here, and Flossy Fay." Ethel
would have enjoyed the triumph of announcing her engagement to
them.
"All the other butterflies have flown," said Gwen. "We are the only
ones left."
"I have my doubts about your being a butterfly at all," returned Ethel.
"I think you tried to be and failed."
"Why do you think that?"
Ethel smiled. "You'll not like it if I tell you why."
"I promise not to turn and rend you."
"Then I think you would rather help a poor man build up his fortunes
by—we will say—stirring up pancakes in a studio—than to be
mistress of an establishment on Commonwealth Avenue."
"Do give me credit for more common sense than to consent to spoil
a man's career would indicate," replied Gwen lightly. "No, it just
happens that I shouldn't care to live in Boston, having been brought
up south of Mason and Dixon's line."
Ethel laughed. "Tell that to the marines! I'll yet see in some exhibition
a 'portrait of the artist's wife' in which I shall recognize my friend
Gwendolin Hilary, née Whitridge."
"All right. Have it your own way," said Gwen, trying not to look
conscious. "At all events I am honestly glad for you, Ethel, as I want
you to believe."
"Oh, I believe; I'm only too ready to. Good-by, dear. I count on you to
be one of my bridesmaids."
"No rash promises," declared Gwen. "I shall then be teaching finger-
plays and kindergarten songs to such an extent that there'll be no
time to devote to wedding fixings."
"I shall count on you, nevertheless. Good-by and thank you for being
the dear generous girl that you are."
Gwen watched the red jersey disappear over the brow of the hill.
"'Tis an ill wind that blows nobody good," she said to herself. "I
suppose the Lord sent a millionaire my way just to see what I'd do,
and to teach me not to make vain boasts. I feel very meek when I
think of Commonwealth Avenue."
CHAPTER XVII
THE END OF THE SEASON
Within a week most of the summer cottages were boarded up and
closed for the winter. Only a few lights still twinkled out at night along
shore. The crickets sang in the dry grass or under some still warm
hearthstone. The waxy cranberries had turned a rosier pink and
down in the marsh hardhack and roseberries disputed the sway of
golden rod and asters. Outside Ira Baldwin's barn was a row of
newly hewn decoy ducks, freshly painted and ready for use. The
report of the hunters' rifles was already heard in the early morning as
the "honk! honk!" of wild geese betokened a flight southward.
Strange weirdly-moving fingers of light played across the northern
skies at night, rosy pulsings and quivering gleams travelled from left
to right and back again, growing and fading and growing again
mysteriously.
Still Miss Elliott and Gwen stayed on, and though from the cottage by
the cove the tenants had all gone, Kenneth remained, having
persuaded Cap'n Ben to take him in for the little time he should be
on the island. He had seen his sister, with her children and the maid,
safely on the steamer which should bear them to New York, and then
he had returned with a feeling of possessing the beauty of Fielding's
Island in a new sense, since now, in all its length and breadth were
no summer visitors remaining except himself and the dwellers at
Wits' End. Sheldon woods seemed a vast silence, the barrier of
rocks along the ocean front a fortress with but a solitary sentinel left
to watch. Jagged Island, afar off, appeared unapproachable. The
Domhegan's single trip a day served to give one the feeling of not
being cut off entirely from the outside world, though there was an
ever present sense of indifference to what might be going on in other
places. The wizard's most triumphant hour was near when his fetters
would bind so tightly that no one could set foot outside his realm.
Miss Phosie coddled her new boarder unremittingly, and, because of
their nearer association, Luther Williams and the young man became
closer friends than ever, and spent much time together. Frequently
Gwen made a third in long walks in the crisp air, and sometimes
Kenneth would go on a cruise to a near island with Luther Williams
as skipper, and it was seldom that they returned without a cargo of
sketches.
To Daddy Lu Gwen had opened her heart and he had received her
confidences, as she knew he would, sympathetically and with grave
interest. "Of course we are not engaged," Gwen told him. "That
wouldn't do, but I suppose it is what people call an understanding,
and we are very happy. It will be years before we can think of
marrying, perhaps we shall never be able to, but it doesn't matter so
long as we love each other. So, dear Daddy Lu, you will probably
see us mooning about the island for many summers to come. So
long as we shall not be living in the same city we shall have to be
separated in winter, but we hope our summers can be spent here. I
shall go on teaching while he is working, and it will not seem hard to
either of us."
"Do you like teaching?" asked Mr. Williams.
"I don't mind it. I love the dear babies, and I get interested when I am
fairly started. Now, with the beautiful summers up here to look
forward to, I shall mind less than ever. I should hate to think I must
do it always till I became a worn-out decrepit old hack. I often
wonder how I should feel to be going on without Aunt Cam, and the
three or four rooms we call home. Sometimes I think that day may
come, for now I don't believe I could ever go to China if occasion
offered."
Mr. Williams looked startled. "Do you think it will ever come? Does
she speak of going back?"
"She hints at it sometimes. Perhaps I ought not to tell even you,
though I know you are not a gossip." She smiled, for anything further
from a gossip than Luther Williams could not be imagined. "There is
some one in China," she went on, "some one Aunt Cam met when
she went over there, a man who has been, and still is, devoting his
life to the people in a far-off district. He has been the one man to
Aunt Cam, a hero above all others. She would willingly have joined
him in his work, but he felt that it would be insupportable for a
woman in the place where he believed himself to be the most
needed, and so they parted, although each cared more for the other
than for anyone else in the world. If he should need her at any time,
if his health should fail, and he should go to a more comfortable
place, leaving his work to a younger man, I think she would not
hesitate to devote the rest of her life to him. She put the case before
me once, and asked me if I would be willing to go with her. She feels
very responsible for me, dear Aunt Cam, and I know it is mainly on
my account that she stays here and does not go back."
"There are few women who love like that," said Mr. Williams, after a
pause.
"There are a good many, I think," returned Gwen. "I used to believe I
could be easily persuaded to go with her, but now I know I could not
go, for there is some one as dear to me here as there is dear to me
there. It would tear out Aunt Cam's heart to leave me behind unless
it were in a home of my own, but so would it distress her to stay if
she were needed there."
"Perhaps the question will never arise," said Mr. Williams, "but it
ought to be provided for if it does." He spoke half to himself.
"Perhaps I could find some nice quiet people to board with," Gwen
went on. "At all events I can take care of myself. I don't know why all
this has come up to-day, unless it is because there was a letter from
China in yesterday's mail and Aunt Cam has had a far-off look ever
since. She is splendid, that dear aunt of mine, and I should feel
pretty forlorn and desolate without her. I should pity myself for being
an orphan if it were not for her. As it is, I suppose my lack of relatives
has been a bond of sympathy between Ethel Fuller and myself, for
she has no parents, either, though I don't think her aunt is half so
dear as mine."
"If you could marry, you and the boy," said Mr. Williams after a
silence, "it would settle it all, wouldn't it? You could have the home
and the protection without the necessary parents. It would have to
come some day. You would leave your parents, if you had them, for
the boy." He always spoke thus of Kenneth.
"Oh yes, no doubt, for it is what girls do every day."
"That is what I mean. Well, my dear, when the time comes it is
probable there will be a way provided."
"If it hadn't been for you," said Gwen softly, "I might never have come
to my own. I think you scared me, dear Daddy Lu, into giving up any
thought of marrying for money."
"I'm glad of that, very glad," he answered smiling. "I've done
something then to be thankful for."
"I'm the one to be thankful. To think of my losing the 'boy' through
any such hallucination as the idea that I could be happy with anyone
else. I realize that more and more every day in proportion as I know
him better and he grows dearer to me. You've saved me, Daddy Lu.
You've saved my life."
He laid his hand gently on hers. "That's a big thing to say, but I think
maybe you're right. What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole
world and lose—"
"His own soul," Gwen finished the text. "It amounts to that when one
forfeits his best self to a craving for luxury and ease. Aunt Cam says
our best development always comes through sacrifice of some kind."
"She's right."
"So you have helped me to my best development, by showing me
how the life can be more than meat and the body than raiment. I was
thinking more of the meat and the raiment, I am afraid. Dear me,
what a serious talk we are having, full of texts and such things. I feel
as if I were actually preparing for the missionary field. However I am
glad to have had the talk, and shall think of it many times when I am
far away."
"That's a time I don't like to think about."
"Then you'd better come, too."
He shook his head. "I'm like a barnacle, glued to the rock by my own
inner forces. I couldn't leave now."
He went to Portland the next day. Kenneth met him as he was
coming home from the boat. "We missed you, old man," said
Kenneth. "Gwen and I thought maybe you'd like a trip to Birch Island
or somewhere. It's pretty sharp, but we shouldn't mind that. We were
both saying that it would be harder to leave you than anybody or
anything else." He put his hand affectionately on the older man's
shoulder. "I am thinking of spending part of my winters in
Washington where Gwen will be. Life is too short for us to waste it
apart, if it can be avoided. Say, old man, why don't you come too? It
would do you good to get into the world again. Why not come down
and see the White House?"
Mr. Williams shook his head. "I've been here too long in my shell. I
shouldn't know how to stand a city, now. You would be ashamed of
your old fisherman."
"Not a bit of it. You'd soon fall into the old ways, for I know well
enough you've been a city man."
"Yes," answered Mr. Williams slowly, "I've been a city man." Then,
after a pause, "Do you expect to settle in Washington eventually?
Perhaps, if you do, you'd be willing some time to take in an old fellow
who'd be ready to bear up his end of the householder's burden. It
might make that studio apartment come a little sooner."
"New York is the only place where I could make my bread and butter,
I'm afraid," returned Kenneth. "My mother will be living there, and I
shall put my pride in my pocket—who wouldn't for such a girl as
Gwen?—and shall hope for a mad rush for my pictures from the
moneyed friends of my new papa. Wouldn't New York suit you as
well?"
"Never New York, never—" said Mr. Williams with intensity.
"Too bustling and noisy after this beautiful silence, isn't it? Still it is
about the best place for an artist. What city would you suggest, if we
didn't take New York into consideration?"
"Paris maybe, or somewhere abroad would suit me."
"Paris sounds seductive. We'll have to talk this scheme over, we
three. It's good of you to think of it, dear old man. I know what you
have in mind, and that is only the happiness of us two. You're the
best friend I ever had. By the way, you told me once you had been
married, that your wife died years ago. Were there any children?"
"There was a boy—a little fellow. He lived only a week. I think of him
sometimes when I am talking to you. He would have been about
your age. I can't tell you what I felt at losing him. The parental feeling
is pretty strong in me, and I grieved terribly for that little week old
baby. I grieve yet. Things might have been different if he had lived.
He would have been an anchor I could not have cut loose from. As it
was—well, it's a long time ago. One cannot alter the past."
"He can make his future, though," said Kenneth with the hope of
youth strong within him.
"He can in a great measure, if there's much future left him, though it
does appear sometimes as if there must be such a thing as
inexorable fate."
"It was a happy fate that sent us your way," said Kenneth
affectionately. "I think I must adopt you, too, as Gwen has done. You
stand for a good deal more than the pork-packer who has recently
become my step-father."
They went into the house together. Miss Phosie was watching for
them, and had a table spread. The odor of fish and coffee, fresh
gingerbread and baked apples filled the air. The room was piping
hot. Under the stove lay Tinker snoring comfortably. Cap'n Ben was
poring over his paper—now-a-days the mail was soon distributed.
Miss Phenie in the most comfortable chair was knitting a pink
"sweaterette" while she exchanged gossip with Zerviah Hackett.
Ground was soon to be broken for two new cottages which would be
ready for the next year, this was one item of news. Miss Elliott's well
was to be started in a few days. Effie Jackson was going to teach
school over on the Neck, and was keeping company with a young
man of that neighborhood who was no one less than Ora's former
lover, Al Daly,—and so it went.
Miss Phenie had lately arisen to the glory of a pompadour, thus
emulating Mrs. Dow. "Who's ten years older than I am, if she's a
day," said Miss Phenie to Zerviah. The pompadour, very heavy, very
black, overhung Miss Phenie's forehead like a beetling crag. She
was very conscious of it and bore it stiffly, as if she expected it
momentarily to topple over and crush her. Cap'n Ben never tired of
poking fun at it. He looked up now and said, "Why don't you take off
your hat, Phenie, and stay with us awhile?"
Miss Phenie ignored the question and went on with her talk. "As I
was saying, Zerviah, Ora's duty was just as much to me as to Almira,
and her going leaves me pretty much cramped for time."
"She comes over every day and helps a lot," put in Miss Phosie, who
more than Miss Phenie, missed her helper.
"I cal'late you wouldn't be so cramped for time, if you wasn't so
everlastingly particular about that new hair contrivance of yours,"
spoke up Cap'n Ben. "Phenie cal'lates she'll prepare for cold weather
in season," he said with a grin and a nod, as he turned to Miss
Zerviah. "I guess I'll get myself one o' them warm pillows for the top
o' my head," he went on. "Hair's getting kinder thin." He passed his
hand over his bald pate and chuckled. "Keeps the sun out of your
eyes pretty good, too, don't it, Phenie? I never thought your eyes
was weak, but maybe it'll prevent you from having to get glasses. I
had to put 'em on before I was your age."
Miss Phenie arose majestically, gathering up her knitting and saying,
"Suppose we go to the settin'-room, Zerviah."
"I saw Obadiah Foster yist'day," shouted out Cap'n Ben, after her.
"He'd just shot a coot. Wanted to know if you wouldn't like a wing to
stick in that new cap he saw you was wearing." Obadiah Foster was
a widower of some months standing. He had already buried three
wives, and it was reported that he was looking out for the fourth, and
therefore Cap'n Ben's witticism was not without point. Every
available spinster or widow on the island had been mentioned by
Miss Zerviah as "settin' her cap" for Obadiah, as Cap'n Ben well
knew. He followed the departing pair to the door and continued his
pleasantries by calling, "I say, Zerviah, why don't you git one of them
caps like Phenie's? Obadiah might shoot another coot." This was too
much, as the slamming of the sitting-room door proclaimed, and
Cap'n Ben having had his joke, returned chuckling, to his paper.
"Now, father, you hadn't ought to be such a tease," said Miss Phosie,
pouring out a cup of coffee for Mr. Williams.
"Phenie hadn't ought to be such an everlasting fool, then," answered
her father. "You'd think she hadn't a namable thing to do, but dress
up her head like a Guinea nigger's. She behaves like a year old colt,
instead of a settled down old mare. Makes me sick." Cap'n Ben gave
a mighty yawn, readjusted his spectacles, and betook himself again
to his paper.
Miss Phosie, having finished serving her boarders, began to clear
the table. Her eyes followed the two men wistfully as they left the
room together. She did not wish Kenneth to go, but she would be
pleased when, for lack of other company, Luther Williams would tarry
longer in the kitchen, to talk to her while her father was absorbed in
his paper. She wondered what had been the errand to town, for it
was rarely that Mr. Williams went. Perhaps he thought he needed
winter flannels; she could tell him that those he had, well mended,
would last quite a while yet. She soon finished washing the few
dishes, and sat down to her knitting. She was making wristlets for
her father, and for Luther Williams. She kept both pairs going, and
when Zerviah was present she always worked on Cap'n Ben's, which
were red. Just now she preferred to work on the others, which were
gray. Cap'n Ben liked lively colors, Luther Williams always chose
quiet ones.
Presently the door opened and Ora came in. The pretty color was
coming back to her cheeks, but she looked older, and her blue eyes
had an expression in them which only a woman who has suffered,
may know. "Just a little too late, ain't I, Aunt Phosie?" she said. "I see
you have everything done up. I heard Mr. Williams went to town this
morning, and I knew you'd be later'n usual getting through. You had
two dinners to get, didn't you?"
"Oh, it wasn't a mite of trouble just to set his things on the table,"
returned Miss Phosie.
"Nothing is a trouble to you," said Ora. She had grown much gentler,
and liked to be with her younger aunt more than formerly. "There
doesn't seem to be much to do at our house," she went on. "We
clear up and there's nobody to put things out of order. It's harder
work having men-folks around, but I'd rather have 'em." She sighed a
little.
"It must be dull for a young thing like her to spend her days with just
one quiet woman," thought Miss Phosie. "Zerviah and Phenie are in
the other room," she remarked to Ora. "Go in and hear the news.
Zerviah's fetched quite a budget to-day."
Ora shook her head. "I don't want to, Aunt Phosie. She speaks so
loud and says such things about—our needing a man about the
house, and about its being wrong to hug our sorrow and waste our
lives in useless repining, and all that—as if—as if I could ever forget
Manny."
"She means well," responded Miss Phosie, "but she's so fond of
managing other folks she can't see beyond her own ideas for 'em.
Don't you mind her, Ora. You ain't wasting your life, not a mite.
You've had what a good many would be thankful for, and that's the
love of the man you cared for. There wasn't ever any clouds between
you, and you was free to love each other all you wanted. It's a good
thing to be free to do that; some never are. They have to hide their
feelings from all eyes, and if the time comes that's come to you they
wouldn't be free even to mourn, except in secret."
"That's true, Aunt Phosie," replied Ora. "And now that the worst has
come I'm glad we did really belong to each other, and were husband
and wife; that's a great comfort to me.
"I'm sure it must be," returned her aunt. "I'm glad, too, Ora."
"Aunt Phenie isn't. She talks about my throwing myself away, and all
that—even now she does."
"Never you mind what folks say. You ain't wasting your life, and it
ain't likely you ever will. I guess as time goes on your duties will be
marked out pretty plain for you, and nobody'll gainsay that they're not
duties. How's Almira?"
"She's pretty smart. She eats better. That reminds me. I thought I'd
get you to let me have some of grandpap's nice good apples, if you
have any to spare. She's real fond of apples."
"Of course you shall have some," Miss Phosie responded cordially.
"We gathered some to-day from the trees down by the potato patch;
they're proper good, too." She went through to the pantry, and saw,
passing the window, Luther Williams and Kenneth pacing slowly. She
gave a quick sigh. "Yes," she murmured, "it's a great thing to have
the right to speak out your feelings. Ora hasn't lived very long, but
she's had more than I've had." Then because it seemed too bold a
thought, she thrust it from her, and diving down into the bag of
apples, selected the finest for Almira who, too, had loved and lost,
but had mourned openly.
CHAPTER XVIII
ON HASKINS' ISLAND
"It is getting too lonely for three women to be down here on this point
by themselves," remarked Miss Elliott one morning after a three
days' storm during which they had scarcely set foot out of doors.
"Lizzie is becoming discontented and yearns for city streets.
Moreover, the supplies are not what they were, and she thinks our
daily bill of fare unworthy of her powers. To be sure we are perfectly
safe, for Mr. Williams comes prowling around before daybreak to see
that we haven't been blown off the rocks over night, and Kenneth
spends most of his time here, keeping his eye on us, as it were, or
on you I should say," for it had been evident long before this how
matters stood between the young people, and Gwen had confessed
that there was an understanding between them. Once satisfied that
Kenneth's character was all that she could approve, Miss Elliott
offered no objections. "I hate to take you back to the city," she went
on. "You look like a different girl, but I should like you to have a still
longer holiday."
"I am a different girl," returned Gwen. "I am a very happy one. What
a wonderful summer it has been. To be sure it will be a little hard to
get into the traces again, but I feel quite equal to it, and the waiting
for Kenneth doesn't seem hard when I am to see him before spring."
"I hope you will not have to wait all your life, dear child," said her
aunt wistfully. "I should like to see you in a home of your own before I
am called away."
Gwen felt that the last remark did not refer to a summons to another
world. Had not Aunt Cam waited long and faithfully and might she
not any day set sail for the land of her youthful labors?
"I wish," Miss Elliott went on, "that one of you had a little fortune of
your own so you could marry while you are young."
"We don't need a big fortune, that is true," said Gwen. "We only
require just enough to keep the pot boiling. When Kenneth is sure of
that I shall be ready to share the 'olla podrida' with him, whatever olla
podrida may be. I must ask Daddy Lu. By the way, Aunt Cam, he
seems to be quite familiar with Spanish. I imagine he has been either
to Spain or to some Spanish speaking country."
"Very possibly. He is an enigma, Gwen. Once or twice I have fancied
I could solve the mystery of his early life, but now I realize that it is
only one of those strong resemblances which are evident sometimes
in persons distantly connected. At first I was very much upset by it,
but I have gradually come to believe that he simply looks like some
one else."
"I've felt, myself, as if his were a familiar face," returned Gwen. "Well,
no matter whom he looks like, he always appears like a gentleman.
Even in his old fisherman's clothes he is never anything but neat and
tidy. He is a dear, and I shall hate to part from him. We have been
trying to persuade him, Kenneth and I, to come away with us, but he
will not do it. He says as we shall be in different cities, he couldn't be
with us both, though he confesses he is trying to work out a plan
which will bring us all together. I hope he will. I have become so used
to seeing his dear old face around that I shall miss it. I hate to think
of leaving him here. I know he will be lonely."
"After all these years? Surely he has become accustomed to the
place and the people."
"Oh, but consider; this summer is the first time that he has made
advances to anyone who came from the outside world. He has lived
with his books. I fancy they will seem somewhat unresponsive now."
The day was bright and clear, though the wind still whistled through
the pines and made a doleful clamor around the corners of the
house. The open fire was now a necessity instead of merely a luxury,
and the kitchen stove sent out a comforting heat all day. The nights
were cold indeed, and more than once the dwellers at Wits' End had
resorted to hot bricks in order to remove the chill from the beds when
they crept between the sheets.
"Yes, it is time we were going," said Gwen as she and Kenneth
started for a last walk to Sheldon woods. "We cannot stay till the
snow flies, although I'd like to see the islands all a beautiful white like
frosted cakes sitting on the blue platter of the ocean. Aunt Cam is
fairly frozen out, and says it is getting to be next door to impossible
to find anything we like to eat. I suppose we could order stores from
Portland, but we really ought to be back, so next week finger-plays
and cardboard patterns for me, while for you?"
"A plunge into study, life classes, models, talks with my fellow artists,
and a hunt for a cheap studio."
"It makes life seem very complicated after this lovely simplicity,
doesn't it? We are so free here, and it is so delightful to be able to
wear your old clothes all the time. Now I shall have to wrestle with
the problem of a winter outfit, and of how to make the best
appearance on the least outlay. I can manage very well, though," she
added quickly. "I'm not wild about clothes, and yet I don't believe I
ever look really dowdy. Did I look dowdy that first time you saw me,
so long, so long ago?"
"You never looked anything but adorably lovely," returned Kenneth
with enthusiasm.
She lifted a protesting hand. "None of that."
"I thought you the most graceful girl I ever saw," Kenneth went on. "I
remember thinking I'd like to make a study of you as you sat there."
"Where? That first time, was it?"
"Yes, at Madge McAllister's tea, where I had gone with my sister. You
were sitting on a divan in one of your unconsciously picturesque
poses. You wore a big black hat and some sort of pale yellow thing
around your neck. Your dress was a pastel green, I remember. It was
a charming study in color, and I would like to have painted you then
and there."
"You never said so."
"I didn't dare then. I hoped to see you again and I had a sense of
being defrauded when you suddenly disappeared and I couldn't find
you, though I went through all the rooms. I remember that day when
I met you on the train going to Annapolis; I thought it such a streak of
good luck and meant to follow it up, but when I got back to the city
you had left."
"And if you hadn't come up here, perhaps our ways would have
parted."
"No, they would not. I should have hunted you out this winter when I
went to Washington."
"And we should not yet have been more than mere acquaintances."
"Are you glad it is otherwise, sweet Gwen?"
"Please don't."
"I can't help it. The parting hour is so near. It makes me wild to think
of it. How can I keep back what I so long to say? I love you, love you,
love you, Gwen. Let me tell you here in these woods where we have
had so many happy times. You needn't say anything in return, my
darling girl, though I am a selfish beast, and long to have you." He
caught her hand and kissed the blue-veined wrist where it showed
white between her glove and the dark of her jacket.
HE CAUGHT HER HAND AND KISSED THE BLUE-VEINED
WRIST.
"Oh, Kenneth!" expostulated Gwen. "You mustn't, you know you

mustn't."
"I'll behave," he said, pulling himself up, "but it's awfully hard, when
you're all the world to me, and I am going to lose you so soon."
"You're not going to lose me—ever."
"Darling!" he murmured. "There, I'll not say it again, and I'll not touch
even your little finger, if you say I mustn't. See that boat off there. It
looks like Daddy Lu's."
"Where?" Gwen looked off toward the nearest island to their right.
The ocean lay to their left, but from the blue waters of the bay more
than one island rose to view. "I am sure it is Daddy Lu's boat,"
declared Gwen after a few minutes' steady outlook. "I wonder what
he has been doing at Haskins' Island."
"He told me he was going there to-day to take something to the old
fellow who lives on the island as sort of caretaker. You know there
are only two or three summer cottages, and when their owners
leave, this old man is about the only person remaining. Daddy Lu
told me he goes over once in a while to see that all is well with John
Bender, I believe they call him."
"The one who is in the boat is not Daddy Lu," said Gwen. "See, he is
rowing as fast as he can pull. He is making straight for this island."
"Probably he is using the boat to make the trip in, and has left Daddy
Lu behind till he gets back."
"Why should he do that? I don't understand it," said Gwen. "Let us
go back and see."
"My dear Gwen, you look as if you thought something was wrong."
"I am afraid there is."
"But why? It seems to me a very natural thing that Bender should
use the boat to come over in."
"He never does come over. He always goes to the Neck for his
supplies. Cap'n Ben told me so. Come, please come."
She was so evidently anxious that Kenneth said not another word of
dissent, but led the shortest way back and before long they had
arrived at Cap'n Ben's door. Two or three men were standing outside
talking excitedly. Gwen went up to one of them. "What is the matter,
Ned?" she asked, for it was Ned Symington whom she questioned.
"Bad news, Miss Gwen," he replied, shaking his head. "Mr. Williams
—"
"Not dead"—cried Gwen, clutching his arm, "Please don't say he is
dead."
"No, but badly hurt."
Cap'n Ben at this moment came dashing by in his buggy, urging his
old horse to its utmost speed. He was on his way to the end of the
island, from which point he would be quickly rowed across to the
next, and would bring back the physician who lived there, for
Fielding's did not boast of a doctor among its winter residents.
"Cap'n Ben's going for the doctor," said Kenneth, who had been
speaking to one of the other men. "We can't do anything yet."
"Tell me about it." Gwen turned again to Ned.
"He went over to take some tobaccy to John Bender. They was on
the rawks together, John says, looking at some ducks off shore.
John took a crack at 'em, and the rawk he was standing on gave
way. Soon as Mr. Williams saw him go, he reached out and tried to
haul him back, but more rawks had got loose, and he went down,
too, with the rawks on top of him. Fortunate for John he'd kind of slid,
and wasn't hurt any to speak of, but Mr. Williams got the worst of it."
"Where is he now?"
"There still. John couldn't lug him by himself. Two or three of the
boys have gone back with John, but they'll wait till the doctor gets
there before they attempt to move him; it mightn't be safe to do it at
once."
Gwen turned to Kenneth, her eyes full of tears. "Isn't it dreadful,
dreadful?" she said. "Can't we do something?"
"I'm going right over with Ned and the rest," he told her. "I will come
back and tell you what the doctor says. He may not be so badly hurt
as it seems. A broken arm or leg may mean he must be laid up for
awhile, but I hope there is nothing worse to fear."
Gwen scanned his face earnestly. "You believe there is nothing
worse to fear?"
"We can't tell yet. Very likely there is not."
"You will come and tell me soon?"
"As soon as I possibly can."

Recycled Plastic Biocomposites MD Rezaur Rahman All Chapter

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Recycled Plastic Biocomposites Md

Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri

For information on all Woodhead publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

1 Introduction to recycled plastic biocomposites 1

2 Food residue to reinforce recycled plastic biocomposites 29

3 Development of pulp and paper waste-recycled plastic biocomposites 51

4 Recycled polymer and plastic waste and its biocomposites 81

5 Recycled plastic and textile waste biocomposites 97

6 Recycled wood plastic biocomposites and development

6.5 Size and dimension effects on the properties of recycled

7 Recycled rubber waste plastic and its composites 147

8 Role of agricultural waste in recycled plastic biocomposites 165

9 Micro and nano effects of recycled plastic waste

10 Recycled industrial plastics’ fine waste incorporated into

11 Marine-based reinforcing materials for biocomposites 229

12 Impact of recycled plastic biocomposites on the economy and

13 Resources and energy recovery with recycled plastic biocomposites 261

13.3 Biocomposites and composites resources and regeneration 264

14 Education and awareness of waste and recycled plastic biocomposites 281

Ahsan Ali School of Chemical and Materials Engineering (SCME), National

Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy

Nur-Azzah Afifah Binti Taib Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,

Andrey Burkov Building Structures and Machines Department, Vyatka State

Wong Yeng Chiang Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne

Faisal I. Chowdhury Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong,

Samiya Fariha Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong,

Sr Subroto Haldar Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong,

Jahidul Islam Department of Chemistry, University of Chittagong, Chittagong,

Anthonette Anak James Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota

Elammaran Jayamani Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne

Afrasyab Khan Department of Hydraulics and Hydraulic Systems, Institute of

Cindy Ong Siaw Ki Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne

Kuok King Kuok Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of

Sim Rui Li Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of

Md Mahbubul Matin Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department

Armstrong Ighodalo Omoregie Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi

Md Rezaur Rahman Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability,

Khairuddin Sanaullah Department of Chemical and Energy Sustainability, University

Chin Mei Yun Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of

Hossain M. Zabed School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University,

Dr. Md Rezaur Rahman is currently working as a Senior Lecturer (Assistant

Dr. Muhammad Khusairy Bin Bakri is a specialist in materials and mechanical

1.1.1 Plastics and polymer

Recycled Plastic Biocomposites. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-88653-6.00005-5

A polymer consists of large molecules known as macromolecules, which are made up

classified as thermoplastics retain their plasticity indefinitely. The structure of the

1.2 Principal processes of plastics and polymers

1.2.1.1 Single screw extruder

during modification of polymers through a chemical reaction (Xanthos, 1992). Due

Fig. 1.5 Injection molding equipment.

et al., 2008). High performance plastics such as polyarylsufones and polyetherimides,

1.2.3 Reaction injection molding

Fig. 1.7 Reaction injection molding of polyurethane.

Injection Blow mould Blow mould Blow

Fig. 1.8 Injection blow molding process.

Fig. 1.9 Extrusion blow molding process.

Preform clamped Stretching Preform blown to

Fig. 1.10 Injection stretch molding process.

Fig. 1.11 Transfer molding configuration.

Fig. 1.12 Thermoforming process.

Fig. 1.13 The four basic steps of rotational molding.

1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of recycled plastic

1.1.1 Plastics and polymer

1.2 Principal processes of plastics and polymers

1.2.1.1 Single screw extruder

1.2.3 Reaction injection molding

1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of recycled plastic

1.4 Potential and application of recycled plastic