‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫جامعة إفريقيا العاملية‬

‫عَبدح اىذساسبد اىعيٍب واىجحث اىعيًَ واىْشش‬
‫ميٍخ األىسِ‬
‫قسٌ اىيغبد واىتشخَخ‬

‫بحث تكميلي لنيل درحة املاحستير في الترحمة‬

‫‪An Introduction To Comparative‬‬

‫‪Legal Models Of Criminal Justice‬‬
‫( مقدمة في النماذج القانوني ــة املقارنـ ـ ـ ــة للعدالة الجنائـ ـ ـ ــية )‬
‫)‪(Cliff Roberson and Dilip k.Das‬‬
‫الصفحات من ( ‪ 1‬إلي ‪)65‬‬

‫إشــراف الدكتور‪:‬‬ ‫ترمجة الطالب‬

‫كٖٔ ػزخّ كٖٔ ػزخّ‬ ‫ٗٔخثَ ػزي هللا ٓ‪ ١ٞ٠‬ػ‪ ٝٞ‬هللا‬

‫الخرطوم – السودان‬
‫‪4111‬هـ‪2222 -‬م‬

‫‪1‬‬
I
 ‫االستهالل‬
‫ﲟﲡﲢﲣ ﲤ ﲥ‬
‫ﲠ‬ ‫ﭧﭐﭨﭐﱡﭐﲘﲙﲚﲛﲜﲝ ﲞ‬

‫ﲯﲱ ﲲﲳﲴﲵﲶﱠ‬
‫ﲬﲮ ﲰ‬
‫ﲭ‬ ‫ﲧﲩﲪﲫ‬
‫ﲨ‬ ‫ﲦ‬

‫صدق هللا العظيم‬

‫سورة المائدة اآلية ‪8‬‬

‫‪II‬‬
 ‫اإلهـــــداء‬
‫إىل من ػلمتين إمؼطاء ومغرتين حبناهنا وكرهما‬
‫أيم إمغامية‬
‫إىل من ػلمين كيف أقف بلك جبات فوق أالرض‬
‫إيب إحملرتم‬
‫إيل من إتشوق الن إرى مس تقبلهٌل إملرشق ابذن هللا‬
‫إبنيت إمغاميتني‬
‫إيل من شاركين إمرسإء وإمرضإء‬
‫زويج إخمللص‬
‫إيل مجوع الاقارب والاضدقاء‬
‫أهديمك حبيث وأدغو هللا أن حيوز إجعابمك‬

‫‪III‬‬
 ‫اىشنش واىعشفبُ‬

‫ميس من بؼد متام إمؼمل من شئ أمجل وال أحىل من إمحلد فامحلد هللا كٌل ينبغي جلالل وهجه‬
‫وغظمي سلطاهه وكٌل ينبغي جلزيل فضهل وغظمي إحساهه ػًل ما أهؼم به ػًل من إمتام هذإ إمبحث‬
‫إملتوإضع مث أهه ال يسؼين إيل أن أش يد ابمفضل وأقر ابملؼروف ملك من سامه يف إجناز هذإ‬
‫إمبحث وأخص ابذلكر ‪ ........‬أس تاذي إملرشف إدلكتور حسن غباس حسن غباس ػًل ما‬
‫خطنا به من إمتوجيه وإمتطويب وما ػلمين من فيظ أوساهيته وخلقه إمرفيع ومس توإه إمرإيق ‪.‬‬
‫وإيل لك إلشخاص من زمالء وأضدقاء وأساتذة وإمؼائةل إمكرمية وإمهيأت إميت دمعتين وساػدتين‬
‫يف إجناز هذإ إمبحث ‪.‬‬
‫إيل لك أساتذيت إلفاضل بلكية إلمسن ‪......‬‬
‫كٌل أشكر لك من مدإ يل يد إمؼون من قريب أو بؼيد وهل ابدلػاء بظهر إمغيب ‪ ،‬بورك فهيم مجيؼا‬
‫وجزإمه هللا غين إجلزإء إلوىف ‪ ،‬وهللا إملس ئول أن ينتفع هبذإ إمؼمل ػىل قدر إمؼناء فيه وأن جيؼهل‬
‫خامط ًا موهجه إمكرمي أهه ػىل ذكل مقادر ‪.‬‬

‫‪IV‬‬
 ‫اىَستخيص‬

‫هذإ إمكتاب حيتوى ػىل حملة موجزة من إمامنذج إمقاهوهية ‪ ،‬ويمت تضمني درإسات حاةل من‬
‫بدلإن خمتارة ملك منوذج قاهوين ‪ ،‬كٌل يمت درإسة إمامنذج إمقاهوهية بشلك ػام ‪.‬‬

‫‪V‬‬
 Abstract

This book contains a brief glance about the legal models, A case studies Of
selected countries are included for every legal models , in general , the legal
models also are studied .

VI
 ‫ٍقذٍخ اىَتشخٌ‬
‫ىَبرا إختشد هزا اىنتبة ؟‬
‫اهظ‪٤‬خٍ‪ٌُٜ ١‬ح حٌُظخد ًخٕ ٗظَحً ُٔخ ‪٣‬لظ‪ٓ ٖٓ ٚ٣ٞ‬خىس ػِٔ‪٤‬ش ىٓٔش ٓظٔؼِش ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔغ حُ٘ٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش‬
‫حُؼخُٔ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬ػَ‪ٜٟ‬خ ك‪ً ٢‬ظخد ‪ٝ‬حكي ‪.‬‬
‫ٖٓ هالٍ حُزلغ اًظ٘لض حٕ ‪٘ٛ‬خُي حُوِ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُظَؿٔخص ك‪ ٢‬حُٔـخٍ حُوخٗ‪. ٢ٗٞ‬‬
‫اىَشبمو واىحيىه ‪:‬‬
‫‪ُ٘ -1‬ظٌٖٔ ٖٓ آىحء طَؿٔش ٓٔظخُس ك‪ ٢‬حُٔـخٍ حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬أل‪ ١‬ى‪ُٝ‬ش الري إٔ طٌ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٢‬ىٍح‪٣‬ش رخُ٘ظخّ‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ُ ٢ٗٞ‬ظِي حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬حُوطؤ حُزٔ‪ ٢٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُظَؿٔش ًل‪ َ٤‬رؤٕ ‪٣‬ليع أ‪َٟ‬حٍحً ال ك‪ُٜ َٜ‬خ ٌُُي ‪٣‬ظطِذ ىهش ػخُ‪٤‬ش – ك‪٢‬‬
‫ػِٔ‪٤‬ش حُظَؿٔش ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ -3‬حؿ‪ٜ‬ض رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُٔ٘خًَ أ‪ٜٔٛ‬خ إٔ أٓٔخء حُ٘و‪٤ٜ‬خص ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حٌُظخد ُ‪ُٜ ْ٤‬خ َٓحىف ك‪ ٢‬حُِـش‬
‫حَُٔحى حُظَؿٔش اُ‪ٜ٤‬خ ٌُُي آظويٓض حُظَؿٔش حُلَك‪٤‬ش ‪.‬‬
‫‪٘ٛ -4‬خُي رؼ‪ ٞ‬حألهظ‪ٜ‬خٍحص ك‪ ٢‬حُٔـخٍ حُوخٗ‪ٌُُ ٢ٗٞ‬ي هٔض رظؤ‪ٜٔ٤‬خ ٌُ‪ ٠‬طؼط‪٘٤‬خ حُٔؼ٘‪٠‬‬
‫حَُٔحىف ‪.‬‬

‫‪VII‬‬
 Translator Introduction

Why you have chosen this Book ?

- My choice of this book was duo to it contains a rich scientific material

represented in collecting international legal models and presenting
them in one book .
- Through my studies , I found out that there is less translation in the
legal field .
Problems and solutions :
- To perform a good translations in the legal field for any country , we
have recognize with legal system of that country .
- A simple error in translation can lead to a big damages , so if needs
high accuracy in translation process .
- I faced some problems , one of these is name of characters in this
book, there is no equivalent for these names , so I used transliteration .

VIII
 Contents
1 An Introduction to the Study of Comparative
Legal Models 1
Key Terms 1
Introduction 5-2
Words of Art 5
Legal Models 5
Jurisprudence 5
Natural Law 5
Positive Law Approach 6
Historical Approach 6
Law as an Instrument of Control 7
Function of a Court System 8
Brief Examination of the Legal Models 8
Roman Law 12-9
Revival of Roman Law 12
Commercial Law 13
Civil Law Model 13
Common Law Model 14
Islamic Model 15
Socialist Model 16
Mixed-Legal Model 17
Law Enforcement Systems 19
Punishments 20
Comparative Violence 21
Summary 21
Questions in Review 23
2 Common Law Model: The Courts

Key Terms 24
Introduction 25
Henry II 26
The Magna Carta 26
Sir Edward Coke 27

Sir William Blackstone 28-30

Common Law in the United States 30
U.S. Court Systems Today 31
Federal System 31
U.S. Court of Appeals 31
U.S. District Courts 32
U.S. Magistrates 33
Participants in a Criminal Case 33
Trial Judge 34
Defendant 35
IX
Law in Action: The Case of Wen Ho Lee 38-48
State Attorney General 48
Defense Counsel 49
The Right to Represent Oneself 50
Privileged Communication 50
Clerk of the Court 51
Bailiff 52
Court Reporter 52
Court Commissioners 52
English Court System Today 52
Court of Queen’s or King’s Bench 53
Supreme Court of Judicature 53
Magistrates’ Court 54
Crown Court 54
Royal Courts of Justice 55

X
 ‫قائمة المحتويات‬
‫سقٌ اىصفحخ‬ ‫اىَىضىع‬
‫‪XI‬‬ ‫حُزِٔٔش‬
‫‪XI‬‬ ‫حالٓظ‪ٜ‬الٍ‬
‫‪XI‬‬ ‫ا‪ٛ‬يحء‬
‫‪XI‬‬ ‫ٌَٗ ‪ٝ‬ػَكخٕ‬
‫‪XI‬‬ ‫ٓٔظوِ‪ ٚ‬رخُِـش حُؼَر‪٤‬ش‬
‫‪XI‬‬ ‫‪Abstract‬‬
‫‪XI‬‬ ‫ٓويٓش حُٔظَؿْ‬
‫‪XI‬‬ ‫‪Translator Introduction‬‬
‫‪XI -XI‬‬ ‫‪Contents‬‬
‫‪XI -XI‬‬ ‫هخثٔش حُٔلظ‪٣ٞ‬خص‬
‫ٍقذٍخ ىذساسخ اىَْبرج اىقبّىٍّخ اىَقبسّخ‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫حُٔ‪ٜ‬طِلخص حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش‬
‫‪5-2‬‬ ‫ٓويٓش‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫ًِٔخص هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫حُ٘ٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫ػِْ حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪٢‬‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫ٗ‪ٜ‬ؾ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٟٞ‬ؼ‪٢‬‬
‫‪7‬‬ ‫حُوخٗ‪ً ٕٞ‬ؤىحس ُِٔ‪٤‬طَس‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪ٝ‬ظ‪٤‬لش ٗظخّ حُٔلخًْ‬
‫‪8‬‬ ‫كل‪ٞٓ ٚ‬ؿِ ُِ٘ٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش‬
‫‪12-9‬‬ ‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٢‬‬
‫‪12‬‬ ‫طـي‪٣‬ي حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٢‬‬
‫‪13‬‬ ‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُظـخٍ‪١‬‬
‫‪13‬‬ ‫ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪٢‬‬
‫‪14‬‬ ‫ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‬
‫‪15‬‬ ‫حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حالٓالٓ‪٢‬‬
‫‪16‬‬ ‫حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حإلٗظَحً‪٢‬‬
‫‪17‬‬ ‫حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬حُٔوظِ‪٢‬‬
‫‪18‬‬ ‫ٍأ‪ ١‬ه‪٠‬خث‪ ٢‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ٓوخٍٗش ر٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪٢‬‬
‫‪19‬‬ ‫أٗظٔش ط٘ل‪ ٌ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫‪20‬‬ ‫حُؼو‪ٞ‬رخص‬
‫‪22-21‬‬ ‫حُؼ٘ق حُٔوخٍٕ‬
‫‪23‬‬ ‫أٓجِش حَُٔحؿؼش‬
‫‪24‬‬ ‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ – ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُٔلخًْ‬
‫‪30-25‬‬ ‫ٓويٓش‬
‫‪30‬‬ ‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‬
‫‪XI‬‬
 ‫‪31‬‬ ‫أٗظٔش حُٔلخًْ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش حُ‪ّٞ٤‬‬
‫‪31‬‬ ‫ٓلٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش‬
‫‪32‬‬ ‫ٓلخًْ حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش‬
‫‪38-33‬‬ ‫ه‪٠‬خس حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‬
‫‪47-38‬‬ ‫طلؼ‪ َ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫‪47‬‬ ‫حُِٔلن أ‬
‫‪50-47‬‬ ‫حُٔلِن د‬
‫‪50‬‬ ‫حُلن ك‪ ٢‬طٔؼ‪ َ٤‬حٌُحص‬
‫‪50‬‬ ‫حُظ‪ٞ‬ح‪ َٛ‬حُٔٔ‪ِ٤‬‬
‫‪51‬‬ ‫ًخطذ حُٔلٌٔش‬
‫‪52‬‬ ‫حُٔآٓ‪ٍٞ‬‬
‫‪52‬‬ ‫ًخطذ طوخٍ‪ َ٣‬حُٔلٌٔش‬
‫‪52‬‬ ‫ٓل‪ ٟٞٞ‬حُٔلخًْ‬
‫‪52‬‬ ‫ٗظخّ حُٔلخًْ حإلٗـِ‪٣ِ٤‬ش حُ‪ّٞ٤‬‬
‫‪53‬‬ ‫ٓلٌٔش حٌُِٔش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬وؼي حُِٔي‬
‫‪53‬‬ ‫ٓلٌٔش حُو‪٠‬خء حُؼِ‪٤‬خ‬
‫‪54‬‬ ‫ٓلٌٔش حُ‪ِٜ‬ق‬
‫‪54‬‬ ‫ٓلٌٔش حُظخؽ‬
‫‪55‬‬ ‫ٓلخًْ حُؼيٍ حٌُِٔ‪٤‬ش‬

‫‪XII‬‬
 ‫ٍقذٍخ ىذساسخ اىَْبرج اىقبّىٍّخ اىَقبسّخ‬
‫اىَصطيحبد اىشئٍسٍخ‪:‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ اىَذًّ‪ :‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬هخٍس أ‪ٍٝ‬رخ‪ٓ ،‬ئْٓ ػِ‪٣ِٓ ٠‬ؾ ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حألُٔخٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حٌُ٘ٔ‪٢‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬حإلهطخػ‪ٝ ٢‬حُظـخٍ‪ٝ ١‬حُؼَك‪ٝ ،٢‬طْ حػظٔخى حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬حأل‪ٍٝ‬ر‪ ٢‬ك‪ً ٢‬ؼ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬أؿِحء أَٓ‪ٌ٣‬خ‬
‫حُالط‪٤٘٤‬ش ‪ًٌُ ٝ‬ي أٓ‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬أكَ‪٣‬و‪٤‬خ‪.‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ اىعبً ‪٘ٗ :‬ؤص ‪ٝ‬طط‪ٍٞ‬ص طِي حُٔـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬حُ٘ظَ‪٣‬ش حُلو‪٤ٜ‬ش ‪ٝ‬طٔض ‪٤ٛ‬خؿظ‪ٜ‬خ ك‪٢‬‬
‫حٗـِظَح‪.‬‬
‫اىفقه اىَقبسُ‪ :‬ىٍحٓش ٓزخىة ػِ‪ ّٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٖٓ ٕٞ‬هالٍ ٓوخٍٗش أٗظٔش حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔوظِلش‪.‬‬
‫اىتعصت اىعشقً ‪:‬حُٔ‪ َ٤‬اُ‪ ٢‬حػظزخٍ ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش حُلَى ‪ٝ‬ػوخكظ‪ٓ ٚ‬ظل‪ٞ‬هش ؿ‪٣َٛٞ‬خ ػِ‪ ٠‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ ح‪٥‬هَ‪ ٖ٣‬ك‪ٔ٤‬خ‬
‫‪٣‬ظؼِن رـْ٘ حَُٔء أ‪ٓ ٝ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػظ‪ ٚ‬حُؼَه‪٤‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ٜ‬خ ٓظل‪ٞ‬هش‪.‬‬
‫اىْظبً اىتفسٍشي ىيتذسٌس ‪:‬حُظيٍ‪ ْ٣‬رخٓظويحّ حَُ٘ف أ‪ ٝ‬حُظؼِ‪٤‬ن ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ؼ٘‪ ٠‬حُ٘‪.ٚ‬‬
‫اىدشائٌ اىذوىٍخ ‪:‬حألكؼخٍ حُظ‪ ٢‬طؼظزَ ؿَحثْ ‪ٟ‬ي ٓالّ ‪ٝ‬حٖٓ حُزَ٘‪٣‬ش ‪.‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ اإلسالًٍ ‪:‬حُظؼز‪ َ٤‬ػٖ أ‪ٝ‬حَٓ هللا ك‪ ٢‬حُٔـظٔغ حإلٓالٓ‪ٝ ٢‬ططز‪٤‬و‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٗ ٌَ٘٣‬ظخٓخ ٖٓ حُ‪ٞ‬حؿزخص‬
‫حُظ‪ ٢‬طوغ ػِ‪ ٠‬ػخطن حُِٔٔٔ‪ ٖ٤‬رلٌْ ٓؼظوي‪ ْٛ‬حُي‪.٢٘٣‬‬
‫عيٌ اىقبّىُ ‪:‬كِٔلش حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُؼِْ حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ؼخُؾ ٓزخىة حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٟٞ‬ؼ‪ٝ ٢‬حُؼالهخص حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ‪.‬‬
‫حق اىشعىة ‪:‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حألْٓ‪ ،‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حٌُ‪ ١‬أٓٔ‪ ٚ‬حُؼوَ حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ ٢‬ر‪ ٖ٤‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حألكَحى ‪ ٝ‬حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ظْ حالُظِحّ ر‪ٚ‬‬
‫رٌَ٘ ٓظٔخ‪ ٝ‬ر‪ ٖ٤‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حألْٓ‪.‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ اىطجٍعً‪ :‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼش حٌُ‪٣ ١‬وخٍ حٗ‪ ٚ‬هخرَ ُالًظ٘خف ك‪ٟٞ ٢‬ء حُطز‪٤‬ؼش أ‪ ٝ‬ػٖ ‪٣َ١‬ن‬
‫حُظلٌ‪ َ٤‬حُٔـَى‪.‬‬
‫اىسبثقخ اىقضبئٍخ ‪:‬حٓظويحّ هَحٍ ٓلٌٔش ٓخرن ًِٔطش ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤٠‬ش ٓٔخػِش أ‪٘ٓ ٝ‬خر‪ٜ‬ش الكوش ط٘ط‪١ٞ‬‬
‫ػِ‪ٔٓ ٠‬خُش هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ٓ٘خر‪ٜ‬ش‪.‬‬

‫‪1‬‬
An Introduction to the
Study of Comparative

Legal Models
Key Terms

Civil law: The law of continental Europe, based on an admixture of Roman, Germanic,
ecclesiastical, feudal, commercial, and customary law. European civil law has been
adopted in much of Latin America as well as in parts of Asia and Africa.
Common law: That body of law and juristic theory originated, developed, and
formulated in England.
Comparative jurisprudence: The study of the principles of legal science through
comparison of various systems of law.

Ethnocentrism: The tendency to regard one’s own group and culture as intrinsically
superior to all others; regarding one’s own race or ethnic group as superior.

Exegetical system of teaching: Teaching by using an explanation or com-mentary on

the meanings of text.

International crimes: Acts that are considered to be crimes against the peace and
security of humankind.

Islamic law: The expression of Allah’s commands for Muslim society; in application,
constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon Muslims by virtue of their
religious belief.

Jurisprudence: The philosophy of law, or the science that treats of the prin-ciples of
positive law and legal relations.

Jus gentium: The law of nations; the law that natural reason has established among all
individuals and that is equally observed among all nations.

Natural law: The law of nature or natural law that is said to be discoverable by the
light of nature or by abstract reasoning.

Precedent: The use of a prior court decision as authority for an identical or similar
later case involving a similar question of law.

1
 ‫قبّىُ ال ٌقجو اىدذه ‪:‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬أ‪ٗ ٝ‬ظخّ أٓخٓ‪ٓ ٢‬ليى طْ ٓ٘‪ٝ ٚ‬حػظٔخى‪ ٖٓ ٙ‬هزَ حُِٔطش حُٔ٘خٓزش ُِلٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ُ‬
‫اىقبّىُ االشتشامً ‪ :‬ظ‪ٌَٜٛ‬ح حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪٤ٍٓٝ ٢‬خ رؼي حالٓظ‪٤‬الء حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬ػ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُِٔطش ػخّ‪ٝ 1917‬كَ‪ٝ‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ أٗلخء حالطلخى حُٔ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ظ‪ ٢‬ػخّ‪ 1920‬ر٘خءح ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ل‪ ّٜٞ‬حٌُِٔ‪٤‬ش حُؼخٓش ُ‪ٓٞ‬خثَ حإلٗظخؽ ‪ٝ‬اه‪٠‬خع حُ٘ظخّ‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ُِ ٢ٗٞ‬لِد حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬ػ‪.٢‬‬
‫اىدشٌَخ اىعبثشح ىيحذود‪ :‬ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش طظؼِن رٌَ٘ ٓزخَٗ أ‪ ٝ‬ؿ‪ٓ َ٤‬زخَٗ رؤًؼَ ٖٓ أُٓش ‪ٝ‬حكيس‪.‬‬
‫ٍقذٍخ‪:‬‬
‫حُيٍحٓش حُٔوخٍٗش ُِؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ‪ ٢ٛ‬حُيٍحٓش حألًخى‪٤ٔ٣‬ش ُظ٘ظ‪ٔ٤‬خص حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ُٔوظِق حُي‪ٓٝ ٍٝ‬وخٍٗظ‪ٜ‬خ‬
‫ٗٔز‪٤‬خ ً٘‪ٜ‬ؾ ىٍحٓش ؿي‪٣‬ي ػ٘ي ٓوخٍٗظ‪ ٚ‬رؤٗ‪ٞ‬حع أهَ‪ ٖٓ ٟ‬ىٍحٓخص حُؼيحُش‪.‬‬
‫أؿَ‪٣‬ض ىٍحٓخص هِ‪ِ٤‬ش ػٖ حُؼيحُش حُٔوخٍٗش هزَ ػٔخٗ‪٤٘٤‬خص حُوَٕ حُٔخ‪ ،٢ٟ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى ىٍحٓخص‬
‫هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ٓوخٍٗش طْ اؿَحث‪ٜ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬أ‪ٝ‬حهَ حُوَٕ حُظخٓغ ػَ٘ ك‪ ٢‬كَٗٔخ ‪ٝ‬أُٔخٗ‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬حٗـِظَح ‪ًٝ‬خٗض ‪٘ٛ‬خى أ‪٠٣‬خ‬
‫ىٍحٓ خص ػِْ حالؿظٔخع حُٔوخٍٕ ك‪ ٢‬طِي حُلظَس ‪ ًٌَ٣ٝ ،‬إٔ ا‪ َ٤ٔ٣‬ى‪ٍٝ‬ه‪( ْ٤‬ك‪ِٞٔ٤‬ف ‪ٝ‬ػخُْ حؿظٔخع كَٗٔ‪)٢‬‬
‫حٌُ‪ٔ٘٣ ١‬ذ اُ‪ ٚ٤‬حٌُؼ‪ َٕٝ٤‬حُل‪ َ٠‬ك‪ ٢‬طؤٓ‪ ْ٤‬ػِْ حالؿظٔخع ً٘ظخّ‪،‬الكع ًحص َٓس إٔ " ُ‪ ْ٤‬كَػخ" ٓؼ‪٘٤‬خ‬
‫ٖٓ ػِْ حالؿظٔخع رَ ‪ ٞٛ‬ػِْ حالؿظٔخع ٗلٔ‪(" ٚ‬ؿِ٘ي‪ٝ ٕٝ‬آهَ‪.)2.ٙ،1999،ٕٝ‬‬
‫اًح ًخٗض حُيٍحٓش حُٔوخٍٗش ُِؼيحُش ًحص ه‪ٔ٤‬ش ًز‪َ٤‬س كِٔخًح حٓظـَم حُزخكؼ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬هظخ ً ‪٣ٞ١‬الً ُلل‪ ٚ‬حُٔـخٍ ؟ ك‪٢‬‬
‫ك‪ ٖ٤‬ال ط‪ٞ‬ؿي اؿخرش ‪ٝ‬ح‪ٟ‬لش ػِ‪ٌٛ ٠‬ح حُٔئحٍ‪٣ ،‬ؼظوي حُٔئُل‪ ٕٞ‬إٔ ‪٘ٛ‬خى ػخِٓ‪ٓ ٖ٤‬خ‪ٔٛ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُظؤه‪،َ٤‬‬
‫أ‪ٝ‬ال‪٣ :‬ـي ٓؼظْ حُزخكؼ‪ٛ ٖ٤‬ؼ‪ٞ‬رش ك‪ ٢‬حالكظلخظ ر٘ظخٓ‪ ْٜ‬هخ‪ٛ‬ش ٓغ حُظؼو‪٤‬ي حُٔظِح‪٣‬ي ُألٗظٔش ‪ُٝ‬ظلو‪٤‬ن حُلي‬
‫حألىٗ‪ ٖٓ ٠‬حٌُلخءس ك‪ ٢‬حألٗظٔش حألهَ‪٣ ٟ‬ظطِذ حٌُؼ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُـ‪ٜ‬ي‪.‬‬
‫ً‬
‫ٌٓظق ًحط‪٤‬خ ُي‪.ٚ٣‬‬
‫ِ‬ ‫ػخٗ‪٤‬خ‪ :‬حٌُؼ‪٘ٓ َ٤‬خ ٓوظ٘غ إٔ ُي‪ ٚ٣‬أك‪ٗ َ٠‬ظخّ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼخُْ ‪ٝ‬حٗ‪ٚ‬‬
‫‪٘ٛ‬خى ر‪ٞ‬حػغ ٗظَ‪٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬ػِٔ‪٤‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬كي ٓ‪ٞ‬حء ُيٍحٓش ٗظْ حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ُٔوظِق حُي‪.ٍٝ‬‬
‫أ‪ٝ‬ال‪٘ٛ:‬خى ك‪ ٍٞ٠‬أًخى‪ ، ٢ٔ٣‬رزٔخ‪١‬ش َٗ‪٣‬ي إٔ ٗؼَف ً‪٤‬ق طؼَٔ أٗظٔش حُؼيحُش حُٔوظِلش ٖٓ حُ٘خك‪٤‬ش حُؼِٔ‪٤‬ش‬
‫ك‪٤‬غ ال ‪٣‬ظ‪ٞ‬هق حُ٘٘خ‪ ١‬حإلؿَحٓ‪ ٢‬ػ٘ي كي‪ٝ‬ى حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪.‬‬
‫أ‪ٛ‬زلض حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ه‪٤٠‬ش ػخُٔ‪٤‬ش رٌَ٘ ٓظِح‪٣‬ي ‪ٝ‬ؿخُزخ ٓخ طٌ‪ ٕٞ‬حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ػخرَس ُِلي‪ٝ‬ى ‪ٌٛٝ‬ح ‪٘٣‬طزن رٌَ٘‬
‫هخ‪ ٙ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬ؿَحثْ ٓؼَ حإلٍ‪ٛ‬خد ‪ٝ‬حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش حالٌُظَ‪٤ٗٝ‬ش‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪٣،‬ظِو‪ٔٓ ٠‬ظويٓ‪ ٞ‬حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪٤ٓٞ٣‬خ ٍٓخثَ رَ‪٣‬ي حٌُظَ‪ ٖٓ ٢ٗٝ‬ى‪ٍٝ‬‬
‫أهَ‪ ٟ‬طظ‪ ٖٔ٠‬ػِٔ‪٤‬خص حكظ‪٤‬خٍ أ‪ٓ ٝ‬وططخص ؿ‪ َ٤‬هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش أهَ‪ٝ،ٟ‬كخثيس أهَ‪ُِ ٟ‬يٍحٓش حُٔوخٍٗش ‪ ٢ٛ‬كَ‪ٛ‬ش‬
‫حُظؼِْ ٖٓ طـخٍد ح‪٥‬هَ‪ٝ. ٖ٣‬ط‪ٞ‬حؿ‪ ٚ‬أٗظٔش حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُي‪ ٍٝ‬طلي‪٣‬خص‬
‫ٓٔخػِش(ر‪.)2.ٙ،2004،ٌْ٤‬‬
‫ًخف ُيٍحٓش حُ٘ظْ حُٔوخٍٗش ‪ُ٣ٝ‬ؼِ‪ ٟ‬حٌُؼ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُظ‪ٓٞ‬غ ك‪ ٢‬طِي‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫حُِ‪٣‬خىس ك‪ ٢‬حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش حُؼخرَس ُِلي‪ٝ‬ى ٓزذ‬
‫حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ُِظويّ حُظٌ٘‪ُٞٞ‬ؿ‪ ٢‬حٌُ‪ ١‬حى‪ ٟ‬حُ‪ ٠‬إٔ حُؼخُْ أ‪ٛ‬زق هَ‪٣‬ش ‪ٛ‬ـ‪َ٤‬س ‪٣ٝ‬ظْ ح‪ ٕ٥‬حٍطٌخد حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ طِي‬
‫حُـَحثْ رخٓظويحّ حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ‪٘ٛ ْ٤ُٝ‬خى كي‪ٝ‬ى ‪٤٘١ٝ‬ش ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حُ‪ٜ‬يى‪.‬‬

‫‪2‬‬
Positive law: A specific law or statute that has been enacted or adopted by the proper
authority of a government.
An Introduction to Comparative Legal Models of Criminal Justice
Socialist law: The law developed in Russia after the communist seizure of power in 1917 and
imposed throughout the Soviet Union in the 1920s; based on the concept of public ownership
of the means of production and subordi-nation of the legal system to the Soviet Communist
Party.
Transnational crime: A crime that involves, directly or indirectly, more than one nation.
Introduction

The comparative study of criminal justice is the academic study of the crimi-nal justice
arrangements of various nations. Comparison as a study approach is relatively new when
compared with other types of justice studies. Few studies of comparative justice were
conducted prior to the 1980s, although there were some comparative legal studies conducted
in the late nineteenth century in France, Germany, and England. There were also some
compara-tive sociology studies during that time. It is reported that Émile Durkheim, who is
credited by many with establishing sociology as a discipline, once remarked that
―comparative sociology is not a particular branch of sociol-ogy; it is sociology itself‖
(Glendon et al., 1999, p. 2).
If comparative study of justice is so valuable, why did it take so long for researchers to
examine the area? While there is no clear answer to this question, the authors believe that two
factors contributed to the delay. First, most researchers find it difficult to keep up with their
own system, especially with the increasing complexity of the systems, and to achieve even
minimal competence in other systems takes a lot of effort. Second, many of us are con-vinced
that we have the best system in the world and that it is self-sufficient.
There are both theoretical and practical incentives for studying the crim-inal justice
systems of various nations. First, there is simply academic curios-ity. We want to know how
different justice systems function. From a practical point of view, criminal activity does not
stop at a country’s border. Crime has increasingly become a global issue. And frequently
crime is transnational. This is particularly true of crimes such as terrorism and cyber-crime.
For example, each day computer users in the United States receive e-mails from other
countries involving various scams or other unlawful schemes. Another benefit of comparative
study is the opportunity to learn from the experiences of others. Criminal justice systems in
most nations face similar challenges (Pakes, 2004, p. 3).

The increase in transnational crime is a sufficient reason to study com-parative systems.

Much of the growth in transnational crime is attributed to technological advances that have
resulted in the world getting smaller. Many crimes are now committed by using computers,
and there are no national boundaries in this regard.

2
‫‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬إٔ طظَح‪ٝ‬ف ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُـَحثْ ٖٓ حكظ‪٤‬خٍ حُٔٔظ‪ِٜ‬ي حُزٔ‪ٔٗ ٢٤‬ز‪٤‬خ اُ‪ ٢‬ؿَحثْ أًؼَ هط‪ٍٞ‬س ٓؼَ حالطـخٍ‬
‫رخُٔويٍحص ‪ٝ‬حُظ‪ َٔ٘٣ ٢‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ال‪ ٖ٤٣‬حُي‪ٝ‬الٍحص‪.‬‬
‫‪٣‬ئًي حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ ػِٔخء حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬إٔ حُ٘خّ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ال ‪٣‬لظَٓ‪ ٕٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ٓ ٕٞ‬ؼَ حألكَحى ك‪ ٢‬حُي‪ٍٝ‬‬
‫حألهَ‪ًٔٝ، ٟ‬خ ٓ‪٤‬الكع الكوخ ً ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حُل‪ُ٣، َٜ‬وظَ ػيى حًزَ ٖٓ حألكَحى رخألِٓلش ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‬
‫أًؼَ ٖٓ أ‪ ١‬ى‪ُٝ‬ش أهَ‪ ٟ‬ا‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ًُ ٠‬ي كؤٕ ٓؼيالص حُلزْ أػِ‪ ٠‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‪.‬‬
‫‪٣‬ئًي ح‪ٝ‬ر‪ُٞٞ‬ص (‪ )1980‬أٗ‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬حُ٘خثغ ؿيح‪،‬إٔ ‪ َٟ٣‬ػِٔخء حُوخٗ‪ٞٓ ٕٞ‬ح‪ ٢٘١‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ال ‪٣‬لظَٓ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُٔئٓٔخص حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش‪.‬‬
‫‪٣‬و‪ٝ ٍٞ‬حُظَ ٍ‪( ْ٤ٌِ٣‬حُزخكغ ك‪ ٢‬ػِْ حُـَحثْ)‪ :‬حُ٘خّ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ال ‪٣‬لظَٓ‪ ٕٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ظٔظغ‬
‫ر‪ ٚ‬حُ٘خّ ك‪ ٢‬حُزِيحٕ حألهَ‪ٓ ٟ‬ؼَ حٗـِظَح ‪ُ٘ٞٛٝ‬يح ‪ٝ‬أُٔخٗ‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬حُٔ‪٣ٞ‬ي‪....‬حُن‪ٝ،‬حُظوخُ‪٤‬ي حُظ‪ ٢‬طلظَّ حُوخٗ‪ٔ٤ُ ٕٞ‬ض‬
‫ه‪٣ٞ‬ش ؿيح‪.‬أَٓ‪ٌ٣‬خ ُي‪ٜ٣‬خ ٗ‪ٞ‬ع ٖٓ حُظوخُ‪٤‬ي حُوخٍؿش ػٖ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حألهَ ػوخكش كَػ‪٤‬ش ه‪٣ٞ‬ش اُ‪ ٢‬كي ٓخ ٖٓ‬
‫حُل‪ ٠ٟٞ‬حُظ‪ ٢‬ؿخءص ٓغ حٗظ٘خٍ ى‪ُٝ‬ش ؿي‪٣‬يس ‪ٝ‬حُيه‪ ٍٞ‬اُ‪ ٢‬آكخم ؿي‪٣‬يس‪ً.‬ؼ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُ٘خّ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‬
‫‪َٔ٣‬ك‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬كِٔلش حُٔوخ‪َ١‬س رخُوخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬حُِ‪ٞ‬حثق ‪ٝ‬حُظـِذ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔوخُلخص‪)2-3.ٙ(.‬‬
‫أكي حُؼ‪ٞ‬حثن حُظ‪ ٢‬طل‪ ٍٞ‬ى‪ ٕٝ‬حُظؼِْ ٖٓ حُزِيحٕ حألهَ‪ٓ ٞٛ ٟ‬ل‪ ّٜٞ‬حًَُِٔ‪٣‬ش حُؼَه‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬أكي أ‪ٛ‬يحف ٓؼظْ‬
‫ىٍح ٓخص حُؼيحُش حُٔوخٍٗش ‪ ٞٛ‬ػالؽ حًَُِٔ‪٣‬ش حُؼَه‪٤‬ش حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ‪ ،‬ر‪ٔ٘٤‬خ ط٘ـغ حُِ٘ػش حُؼَه‪٤‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬حٌُزَ‪٣‬خء‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُؼوش ‪ٝ‬حُظؼَف ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ك‪ ٢‬حُؼَف أ‪ ٝ‬حُؼوخكش أ‪ ٝ‬حألٓش ‪ٝ‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ط٘ـغ ػِ‪ ٠‬ػيّ حَُؿزش ك‪ ٢‬طوي‪َ٣‬‬
‫ح‪٥‬هَ‪ٝ ٖ٣‬حُظؼِْ ٓ٘‪.ْٜ‬‬
‫‪٣‬ظٔؼَ أكي أ‪ٛ‬يحك٘خ ك‪ ٢‬كل‪ ٚ‬حُ٘ٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش حُؤٔش حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش حُٔ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ىس كخُ‪٤‬خ ك‪ ٢‬ػخُٔ٘خ حُ‪ ّٞ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬ط‪٤ٟٞ‬ق‬
‫إٔ ًَ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ ُ‪ٔٓ ٚ‬خص ح‪٣‬ـخر‪٤‬ش ‪ِٓٝ‬ز‪٤‬ش ػ٘ي ٓوخٍٗظ‪ ٚ‬رخُ٘ٔخًؽ حألهَ‪ٝ ٟ‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬ال ‪ٞ٣‬ؿي ٗظخّ ٓؼخُ‪ُ ، ٢‬وي ٓ‪٤‬طَ‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حالٗـِ‪ ١ِ٤‬ػِ‪ ٠‬كو‪ٜ٘‬خ ُيٍؿش أٗ٘خ ٗٔ‪ َ٤‬اُ‪ ٢‬حُظـخ‪ ٢ٟ‬ػٖ حألٗظٔش حألهَ‪ ٌُٖٝ ٟ‬ػِ‪٘٤‬خ إٔ ٗظًٌَ‬
‫إٔ ٗظخٓ٘خ ُْ ‪٣‬ظْ اٗ٘خإ‪ ٖٓ ٙ‬كَحؽ ًٔخ أٗ‪ ْ٤ُ ٚ‬حُ٘ظخّ حُ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ي حُٔظط‪ ٍٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؼخُْ (ًخُل‪ُٔٞٓٝ ٢‬خٕ‬
‫‪.)25.ٙ،2000،‬‬
‫طَ٘خهٖ ٓؼظْ حٌُظذ حُٔيٍٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حٌُظخرخص حألهَ‪ ٟ‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ـخٍ حُؼيحُش حُٔوخٍٗش ُِ٘ٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش‬
‫حألٍرؼش كو‪( ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪ٝ،‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُوخٍ‪ٝ ١‬حُ٘ٔخًؽ حالٗظَحً‪٤‬ش(حُٔخًٍٔ‪٤‬ش) ‪ٝ‬حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش) ‪ُٝ.‬وي‬
‫أ‪ٟ‬ل٘خ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؿخ هخٓٔخ ‪٣‬ظٌ‪ٗ ٖٓ ٕٞ‬ظخّ ٓوظِ‪ٝ ٢‬حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُٔوظِ‪ ٞٛ ٢‬حٌُ‪ ١‬أَهظَ‪ ٝ‬ػِ‪ٗ ٠‬طخم ‪ٝ‬حٓغ ٖٓ‬
‫أػ٘‪ ٖ٤‬أ‪ ٝ‬أًؼَ ٖٓ حُ٘ٔخًؽ حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش حألهَ‪.ٟ‬‬
‫‪٣‬ظٔؼَ أكي حُٔ‪ٟٞٞ‬ػخص حألٓخٓ‪٤‬ش ُ‪ٌٜ‬ح حٌُظخد ك‪ ٢‬إٔ ٗظخّ حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ُِي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪٣‬ظٌ‪٣ٝ ٕٞ‬ظٌَ٘ ٖٓ هالٍ‬
‫ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؿ‪ٜ‬خ حُوخٗ‪ُِ ٢ٗٞ‬ؼيحُش ‪ٌٛٝ‬ح حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ ‪٣‬ظٌ‪ ٖٓ ٕٞ‬حُؼخىحص ‪ٝ‬حُي‪ٝ ٖ٣‬حُؼوخكش‪.‬ر‪ٔ٘٤‬خ ‪٣‬يٍى حُٔئُل‪ ٕٞ‬إٔ ٓؼظْ‬
‫حُي‪ٔ٤ُ ٍٝ‬ض ُي‪ٜ٣‬خ ٗظخّ ػيحُش ؿ٘خث‪٤‬ش كو‪٤‬و‪ٝ ٢‬إٔ ططز‪٤‬ن حُوخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬حُٔلخًْ ‪ٝ‬حإل‪ٛ‬الك‪٤‬خص طؼَٔ رٌَ٘ ٓٔظوَ‬
‫‪ ،‬كخٕ ٓ‪ٜ‬طِق "ٗظخّ حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش"‪ٔ٣‬ظويّ ُإلٗخٍس اُ‪ ٢‬ططز‪٤‬ن حُوخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬حُٔلخًْ ‪ٗٝ‬ظخّ حإل‪ٛ‬الف ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ر‪ٍٜٞ‬س ػخٓش‪.‬‬

‫‪3‬‬
These crimes can range from relatively minor con-sumer fraud to more serious crimes like
trafficking in drugs, which involves millions of dollars.
Many legal scholars contend that people in the United States do not have the same respect
for law as people in other major countries do. As will be noted later in this chapter, more
individuals are killed by guns in the United States than in any other major nation. In addition,
rates of confinement are higher in the United States. Opolot (1980) contends that it is quite
common for legal scholars to opine that U.S. citizens have less respect for legal institu-tions.
Walter Reckless (1961) stated:
People in the United States do not have the respect for the law that people have in other
countries; for example, England, Holland, Germany, Sweden, etc. The law-abiding
tradition is not very strong. America has a sort of lawless tradi-tion—at least a fairly
strong subculture of lawlessness, which came with the settlement of a new country and
the pushing out to new frontiers. Many per-sons in the United States oversubscribe to the
philosophy of taking chances with the law and regulations and getting by with
infractions. (pp. 2–3)
One bar to learning from other countries is the concept of ethnocen-trism. And one of the
goals of most studies of comparative justice is to remedy American ethnocentrism. While
ethnocentrism encourages pride, confidence, and group identification in one’s race, culture, or
nation, it also encourages an unwillingness to appreciate and learn from others. One of our
goals in examining the five major legal models that currently exist in our world today is to
illustrate that each model has both positive and nega-tive attributes when compared to other
models, and that there is no perfect system. The English common law has so dominated our
jurisprudence that we have tended to overlook other systems; but we need to remember that
our system was not created in a vacuum, nor is it the only highly developed sys-tem in the
world (Calvi & Coleman, 2000, p. 25).
Most textbooks and other writings in comparative justice discuss only the four major legal
models (common law, civil or continental law, socialist or Marxist, and Islamic models); we
have added a fifth model, which consists of a mixed system. The mixed model is one that has
borrowed extensively from two or more of the other major models.
An underlying theme of this book is that a nation’s criminal justice sys-tem is formed and
shaped by its legal model of justice, and that the legal model of justice is formed by customs,
religions, and culture. While the authors recognize that most nations do not have a true
criminal justice system and that law enforcement, courts, and corrections operate
independently, the term ―criminal justice system‖ is used to refer to a nation’s law
enforcement, courts, and correctional system in general.

3
‫‪٣‬زيأ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُل‪ َٜ‬رِٔلش ػخٓش ػٖ ٗٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؤٔش ‪،‬طِ‪ٜ٤‬خ ٓ٘خه٘خص ٓ‪ٞ‬ؿِس ك‪ ٍٞ‬حَُهخرش حُٔوخٍٗش‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُظ‪ٜ‬ل‪٤‬لخص ‪ُ٤ٓٝ‬وظظْ حُل‪ َٜ‬رٔ٘خه٘ش حُؼ٘ق حُٔوخٍٕ ‪ٝ‬ط٘خهٖ حُل‪ ٍٜٞ‬حُالكوش رخُظل‪ َ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ٔخًؽ‬
‫حُٔوخٍٗش ‪٣ٝ‬ظْ ط‪ ٖ٤ٔ٠‬ىٍحٓخص كخُش ٖٓ رِيحٕ ٓوظخٍس ٌَُ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ هخٗ‪ٝ ٢ٗٞ‬رؼي ٓ٘خه٘ش حُ٘ٔخًؽ‬
‫حُؤٔش ِٗو‪ٗ ٢‬ظَس ػِ‪ ٠‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُٔ٘ظٔخص حُؼخُٔ‪٤‬ش ًحص حُ‪ِٜ‬ش رخُؼيحُش ٓؼَ حُٔلٌٔش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش حُي‪٤ُٝ‬ش ‪ٝ‬‬
‫حألٗظَر‪ ٢ِٔ٣ٝ ٍٞ‬حُل‪ َٜ‬حأله‪ َ٤‬حُ‪ٞ٠‬ء ػِ‪٘ٓ ٠‬ظٔخص حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش حُي‪٤ُٝ‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ىٍحٓظ٘خ ُِ٘ٔخًؽ حُٔوخٍٗش ُِؼيحُش ٓ‪ ٌٕٞ٤‬حُظًَ‪ ِ٤‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ريال ٖٓ ػِْ حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ك‪٢‬‬
‫ك‪ ٖ٤‬أٗ‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬حُٔ‪ ْٜ‬حُ٘ظَ اُ‪ ٢‬حألٓزخد حُٔوظِلش ُِِٔ‪ٞ‬ى حإلؿَحٓ‪، ٢‬ك‪ٌٜ‬ح هخٍؽ ػٖ ٗطخم ‪ٌٛ‬ح حٌُظخد‬
‫رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ًُ ٢‬ي ٗيٍّ حُـ‪ٞ‬حٗذ حإلؿَحث‪٤‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬ػِٔ‪٤‬خص حُؼيحُش ريال ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُـ٘خث‪٢‬‬
‫حُٔ‪ٟٞٞ‬ػ‪ٝ.٢‬طُلظ‪ٓ ٠‬ؼخِٓش حُٔـ٘خء رخ‪ٛ‬ظٔخّ أًزَ ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حٌُظخد ٓٔخ طُلظ‪ ٠‬ر‪ ٚ‬ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُ‪٠‬لخ‪٣‬خ‬
‫‪ٗٝ،‬لٖ ٗيٍى إٔ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ ‪٣‬ظؼخٍ‪ٓ ٝ‬غ حالطـخ‪ ٙ‬حُؼخُٔ‪ُِ ٢‬ظؤً‪٤‬ي ػِ‪ ٠‬ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُ‪٠‬لخ‪٣‬خ ‪ٌُ٘٘ٝ‬خ ٗل‪ ْٜ‬إٔ‬
‫حَُٔحؿؼش حُ٘خِٓش ُـٔ‪٤‬غ ؿ‪ٞ‬حٗذ ٗٔخًؽ حُؼيحُش حُٔوخٍٗش ُ‪ٔ٤‬ض ‪ٗ ٖٟٔ‬طخم حٌُظخد ‪ٝ‬هي حهظَٗخ ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح‬
‫حُ‪ٜ‬يى اطزخع حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ حُظوِ‪٤‬ي‪٣ٝ ١‬ظْ كو‪ ٢‬كل‪ ٚ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬حٗذ ططز‪٤‬ن حُوخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬حُٔالكوش حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُٔلخًْ‬
‫‪ٝ‬حإل‪ٛ‬الك‪٤‬خص ُِؼيحُش‪.‬‬

‫‪4‬‬
 This chapter begins with an overview of the five law models, followed by brief
discussions of comparative policing and corrections. The chapter will conclude with a
discussion of comparative violence. Subsequent chapters dis-cuss in detail the comparative
models. Included are case studies of selected countries for each legal model. After the five
models are discussed, then we look at some world organizations that are justice-related, such
as the Interna-tional Criminal Court and Interpol. The final chapter looks at international
criminal justice organizations.
In our study of the comparative models of justice, the emphasis will be on criminal justice
rather than criminology. While it is important to look at the various causes of criminal
conduct, that is beyond the scope of this book. In addition, we examine the procedural aspects
or processes of jus-tice rather than substantive criminal law. The treatment of prisoners
receives more attention in the book than do victims’ issues. We recognize that this approach
is against the worldwide trend of emphasizing victims’ issues, but we understand that an
exhaustive review of all aspects of comparative justice models is not within the scope of the
book and have chosen in this regard to take the traditional approach and examine only the law
enforcement, pros-ecution, courts, and corrections aspects of justice.

4
‫طٔ‪ َ٤‬ىٍحٓاخص حُؼيحُاش حُٔوخٍٗاش كا‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬اخص حُٔظلايس اُا‪ ٢‬حُظًَ‪٤‬اِ ػِا‪ٗ ٠‬ظاخّ حُؼيحُاش ُاي‪٘٣‬خ ‪ٓٝ‬وخٍٗظا‪ٚ‬‬
‫ر٘ظااخّ ػيحُااش كاا‪٘ٓ ٢‬طوااش ؿـَحك‪٤‬ااش ٓؼ‪٘٤‬ااش ٓؼااَ( حُيٍحٓااخص حألٓاا‪٣ٞ٤‬ش) ‪ٛٝ‬ااٌح حُاا٘‪ ٚ‬ػزااخٍس ػااٖ ىٍحٓااش‬
‫ٓوخٍٗش ُـٔ‪٤‬غ أٗظٔش حُؼيحُش حُؤٔش حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش ‪.‬ػ٘ي ىٍحٓش حُ٘ٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش حُٔوخٍٗاش ٓاٖ حُٔ‪ٜ‬اْ إٔ ‪٣‬اظْ‬
‫ك‪ًِٔ( ْٜ‬خص هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش)ٓؼ‪٘٤‬ش ‪ٝٝ‬كوخ ٌُُي ك‪ ٢‬حُؤْ حُظخُ‪٣ ٢‬ظْ حٓظٌ٘خف رؼ‪ ٞ‬حٌُِٔخص أ‪ ٝ‬حُٔلخ‪ ْ٤ٛ‬حألًؼاَ‬
‫أ‪٤ٔٛ‬ش حُٔٔظويٓش ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘‪.ٚ‬‬
‫ميَبد قبّىٍّخ ‪:‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬أ‪ ١‬طو‪٣ ٜٚ‬ظْ حٓظويحّ ٓ‪ٜ‬طِلخص ٓؼ‪٘٤‬ش‪ٝ،‬ك‪ٛ ٢‬اٌح حُؤاْ ٗ٘اخهٖ حٌُِٔاخص حَُث‪ٔ٤‬ا‪٤‬ش حُٔٔاظويٓش‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ىٍحٓظ٘خ حُٔوخٍٗش ألٗظٔش حُؼيحُش‪.‬‬
‫اىَْبرج اىقبّىٍّخ‪:‬‬
‫ط٘‪ َ٤‬ػزخٍس "حُ٘ٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش" ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘‪ ٚ‬اُا‪ ٢‬أٓاْ حُواخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔوظِلاش حُٔٔاظويٓش كا‪ٓ ٢‬وظِاق حُاي‪ٍٝ‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬ط٘‪" َ٤‬حُ٘ٔخًؽ" اُ‪ ٢‬أٗٔخ‪٘ٓ ١‬خر‪ٜ‬ش ‪ٛٝ‬ا‪ ٢‬أ‪ٓٝ‬اغ ٓاٖ حُ٘ظاخّ ‪ٝ،‬ػِا‪ٓ ٠‬از‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼاخٍ ‪،‬طاْ طـٔ‪٤‬اغ ًاَ ٓاٖ‬
‫حُ٘ظخّ حُوخٗ‪ُِٞ ٢ٗٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ٝ‬حُ٘ظخّ حُوخٗ‪ُ ٢ٗٞ‬زَ‪٣‬طخٗ‪٤‬خ حُؼظٔ‪ًٞٔٗ ٖٟٔ ٠‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ٌُٝ‬اٖ‬
‫‪٘ٛ‬خى حهظالكخص ًز‪َ٤‬س ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُ٘ظخٓ‪ٗٝ ٖ٤‬اِػْ إٔ حُـخٗاذ حألًؼاَ أ‪٤ٔٛ‬اش ‪ٝ‬طاؤػ‪َ٤‬ح كا‪ ٢‬أ‪ٗ ١‬ظاخّ ػيحُاش ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٞ‬‬
‫ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؿ‪ ٚ‬حُوخٗ‪ٝ ٢ٗٞ‬إٔ حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ٜٞ٣ ٢ٗٞ‬ؽ ‪ٗ ٌَ٘٣ٝ‬ظخّ حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬اش ُِي‪ُٝ‬اش‪ًٔٝ.‬خ ‪ٛ‬ا‪ٔٓ ٞ‬اظويّ‬
‫ك‪ٛ ٢‬اٌح حُا٘‪ ٚ‬كاخٕ" حُ٘ظاخّ حُواخٗ‪ٛ " ٢ٗٞ‬ا‪ٓ ٞ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػاش ط٘اـ‪ٓ َ٤‬اٖ حُٔئٓٔاخص ‪ ٝ‬حإلؿاَحءحص ‪ٝ‬حُو‪ٞ‬حػاي‬
‫‪٘ٛٝ‬ااخى حُؼي‪٣‬ااي ٓااٖ حألٗظٔااش حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ااش ٓؼااَ حُااي‪ٝ ٍٝ‬حألٓااْ ‪ٝ‬حُٔ٘ظٔااخص ‪ٝ‬حُ٘ٔاا‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوااخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬اُاا‪ ٢‬كااي ٓااخ‬
‫حٗؼٌخّ ُِظوخُ‪٤‬ي حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش‪.‬‬
‫عيٌ اىقبّىُ‪:‬‬
‫ًٔخ ‪ ًٌٍٞٓ ٞٛ‬ك‪ ٢‬هخثٔش حُٔ‪ٜ‬طِلخص حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش كبٕ ػِاْ حُواخٗ‪٣ ٕٞ‬ظؼِان رلِٔالش حُواخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬ؿخُزاخ ٓاخ ‪٣‬اظْ‬
‫ططز‪٤‬ن حُٔ‪ٜ‬طِق رٌَ٘ هخ‪١‬ت ػِا‪ ٠‬أٗظٔاش حُواخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُلؼِ‪٤‬اش أ‪ ٝ‬ػِا‪ ٠‬ح‪ٍ٥‬حء حُلخُ‪٤‬اش ُِواخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬حهظاَحف‬
‫طؼي‪.ِٚ٣‬‬
‫"ػِاْ حُوااخٗ‪ ٞٛ"ٕٞ‬حٓاْ حُؼِااْ ًٔاخ إٔ "حٌُ‪٤ٔ٤‬ااخء"‪ ٢ٛ‬حٓااْ ػِاْ ‪ٛٝ‬اا‪ ٞ‬ػِاْ حُوااخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُلؼِا‪ٝ، ٢‬كاا‪ ٢‬حُٔؼ٘اا‪٠‬‬
‫حُ‪ٜ‬ل‪٤‬ق ٌُِِٔش ‪ ٞٛٝ‬ال ‪ٜ٣‬ظْ رٔٔخثَ حألهالم ‪ٝ‬حُٔ‪٤‬خٓش‪،‬ك‪٤‬غ أٗ‪ٜ‬خ طوغ ‪ ٖٟٔ‬ػخُْ حألهالم ‪ٝ‬حُظَ٘‪٣‬غ‪.‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ اىطجٍعً‪:‬‬
‫ٗ٘ؤ ٓل‪ ّٜٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ٓ ٢‬غ كالٓلش حُلو‪ ٚ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ، ٢‬رَٔ‪ ٍٝ‬حُوَ‪ ٕٝ‬هي حٓظي ُ‪٘٤‬أَ حُزِايحٕ كظا‪٠‬‬
‫ط٘‪ َ٤‬حُؼزخٍس اُ‪ ٢‬أٓخٓ‪ٓ ٢‬لظَ‪٘ٓ ٝ‬ظَى ر‪ ٖ٤‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حألٗظٔش حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ‪،‬اًح طٔض َٓحػخس أ‪ ١‬هخػيس ٓاٖ‬
‫ه‪ٞ‬حػي حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُٔزخىة ٖٓ هزَ ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حألٗظٔش ك‪٤‬ـذ إٔ طٌ‪ ٕٞ‬ؿِ ًء ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼا‪ ٢‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُواخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ٗ ٢‬لٔ‪.ٚ‬‬

‫‪5‬‬
 Comparative justice studies in the United States have tended to focus on our
justice system and on comparing it with the justice system of one particular
geographic region (e.g., Asian studies). This text is a comparative study of all
five major systems of justice.
When studying comparative legal models, it is important that certain ―words
of art‖ are understood. Accordingly, in the next section some of the more
important words or concepts that are used in the text are explored.
Words Of Arte :In any discipline, certain ―words of art‖ are used. In this
section, we discuss the key words of art used in our comparative study of justice
systems.
Legal Models : In the text, the phrase ―legal models‖ refers to the different
foundations of law used in various nations. ―Model‖ refers to similar patterns and
is broader than ―system.‖ For example, the United States’ legal system and the
legal system of Great Britain are both grouped within the common law model,
but there are great differences between the two systems. We contend that the
most impor-tant and influential aspect of any system of justice is its legal
model—that the legal model molds or shapes a nation’s criminal justice system.
As used in this text, a ―legal system‖ is an operating set of legal institutions,
procedures, and rules. There are as many legal systems as there are states,
nations, and organizations. A legal model is in some sense a reflection of legal
tradition.
Jurisprudence : As noted in the list of key words, jurisprudence concerns the
philosophy of law. The term is often wrongly applied to actual systems of law or
to cur-rent views of law, or to suggestions for its amendment. ―Jurisprudence‖ is
the name of a science just as ―chemistry‖ is the name of a science. It is the
science of actual law. In the proper sense of the word, jurisprudence is the
science of law. Jurisprudence has no concern with questions of moral or political
policy, since they fall under the provinces of ethics and legislation.
Natural Law: The concept of natural law originated with the philosophical
jurists of Rome, and has over the centuries been extended until the phrase
denotes a supposed basis common to all legal systems. If any rule of law or
principle is observed by all systems, then it must be a part of the natural law, or
jus naturale.

5
‫ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪،‬طلظَ ؿٔ‪٤‬غ أٗظٔش حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔؼَ‪ٝ‬كش حُوظَ ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُٔزٍَ ُإلٗٔخٕ ‪ٝ‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬كخٕ حُوظَ حُـ٘خث‪٢‬‬
‫ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُٔزٍَ ‪٣‬ؼي حٗظ‪ٜ‬خًخ ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪.٢‬‬
‫‪٣‬ئًي حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ ٢‬إٔ حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُظ‪ ٢‬ط٘ظْ حُؼالهخص ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُ٘خّ ػِ‪ ٠‬ؿَحٍ حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُظ‪ ٢‬طلٌْ حٌُ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬طؤٓٔض ك‪ ٢‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼش ‪ٝ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ ٢‬أري‪ٝ ١‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬هخرَ ُِظـ‪ًٔ َ٤٤‬خ إٔ هللا ‪ٜٓ ٞٛ‬يٍ حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ٝ ٖ٤‬ؿخُزخ ٓخ‬
‫‪٘٣‬خٍ اُ‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬أػِ‪ ٖٓ ٌَٗ ٠‬أٌٗخٍ حُوخٗ‪ُ ٕٞ‬ظٔ‪ ِٙ٤٤‬ػٖ حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُ‪ٟٞ‬ؼ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬أػ٘خء‬
‫حًظ٘خف ٓخ‪٤ٛ‬ش "حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪َ٣ "٢‬ىى ٓ٘خ‪ َٙٝٛ‬حُز‪٤‬خٕ حُ٘‪ُ َ٤ٜ‬وخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ ر‪ٞ‬طَ ٓظ‪ٞ٤‬حٍص‬
‫هخثِ‪ ٖ٤‬أٗ‪٣" :ْٜ‬ؼَك‪ًُ ٕٞ‬ي ػ٘يٓخ ‪ً( "َٚٗٝ٣‬خُل‪ًُٔٞٝ ٢‬خٕ‪.)7.ٙ،2000،‬‬
‫طئى‪ ١‬أ‪٘ٓ ١‬خه٘ش ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ ٢‬رٌَ٘ ػخّ اُ‪ٔٓ ٢‬ؤُش ٓخ اًح ًخٕ ٖٓ حٌُٖٔٔ طَ٘‪٣‬غ حألهالم ‪ٝ‬اًح ًخٕ‬
‫طَ٘‪٣‬غ حألهالم ‪ َ٤٘٣‬اُ‪ ٢‬حُظـ‪ َ٤٤‬حُلؼِ‪ُ ٢‬و‪ ْ٤‬حُلَى ‪،‬كٖٔ حُٔلظَٔ أٗ٘خ ال ٗٔظط‪٤‬غ طَ٘‪٣‬غ حألهالم ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ ،‬اًح ًخٕ حإلؿ‪ٜ‬خ‪ٞٔٔٓ ٝ‬كخ ر‪ ٚ‬أهاله‪٤‬خ أّ ال ال ‪٣‬ؼظٔي ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬خ اًح ًخٕ ٓٔٔ‪ٞ‬كخ ر‪ ٚ‬هخٗ‪ٗٞ‬خ‬
‫أّ ال ‪٣ ٌُٖٝ‬ؼظٔي ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔؼظوي حألهاله‪ُِ ٢‬لَى‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬أٗخٍ ًخُل‪ًُٔٞٝ ٢‬خٕ (‪ ) 2000‬اُ‪ ٢‬إٔ حُوخٗ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ٕٞ‬إٔ ‪ ُٚ ٌٕٞ٣‬طؤػ‪َ٤‬ح ػِ‪ ٠‬حألهالم ‪ٝ‬أٗخٍ‪ٝ‬ح اُ‪ ٢‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬هزَ‬
‫هٔٔ‪ ٖ٤‬ػخٓخ أػظزَ حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حألَٓ‪ ٖ٤٤ٌ٣‬أٗ‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬حُٔوز‪ ٍٞ‬طٔخٓخ حٓظويحّ حُو‪ٞ‬س ُٔ٘غ حأل‪١‬لخٍ حألَٓ‪ٖٓ ٖ٤٤ٌ٣‬‬
‫أ‪ َٛ‬أكَ‪٣‬و‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حالُظلخم رخُٔيحٍّ حُؼخٓش ‪ٞ٘ٓ ٌُٖٝ‬حص حُلو‪ٞ‬م حُٔيٗ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼخص حُٔ٘خ‪٠ٛ‬ش ُِظٔ‪ِ٤٤‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬هَحٍحص حُٔلخًْ ؿ‪َ٤‬ص أٍحء حُ٘خّ ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حُ‪ٜ‬يى‪.‬‬
‫ّهح اىقبّىُ اىىضعً‪:‬‬
‫ًٔخ ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬ليى ك‪ ٢‬حٌُِٔخص حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش كخٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٟٞ‬ؼ‪ًُ ٞٛ ٢‬ي حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حٌُ‪ ١‬طْ ٓ٘‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬هزَ ِٓطش‬
‫طَ٘‪٣‬ؼ‪٤‬ش ‪ٜٗٝ،‬ؾ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٟٞ‬ؼ‪ ٞٛ ٢‬إٔ حُوخٗ‪٣ ٕٞ‬ـذ إٔ ‪٣‬ؼٌْ رزٔخ‪١‬ش اٍحىس حألؿِز‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ ٗ‪ٜ‬ـ‪٣ ٚ‬ظْ‬
‫اُحُش حألهالم ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪٘٣ٝ ٕٞ‬ظؾ ػٖ ًُي ٓل‪" ّٜٞ‬حُو‪ٞ‬س ط‪ٜ٘‬غ حُلن"‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ كبٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬حهغ ٓخ طَ‪٣‬ي‪ ٙ‬حألؿِز‪٤‬ش إٔ ‪ٌٌٛٝ ٌٕٞ٣‬ح ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ كبٕ حُٔئحٍ‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ظَ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ ُ‪ٓ ْ٤‬خ اًح ًخٕ حإلؿ‪ٜ‬خ‪ ٝ‬أهاله‪٤‬خ أّ ؿ‪ َ٤‬أهاله‪ٓ ٌُٖٝ ٢‬خ اًح ًخٗض حألؿِز‪٤‬ش طَؿذ ك‪٢‬‬
‫إٔ ‪ ٌٕٞ٣‬هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬خ‪ٝ.‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ ‪،‬هي ‪٘٣‬ؼَ حُٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪ ٕٞ٘١‬رؤٕ هخٗ‪ٗٞ‬خ ٓؼ‪٘٤‬خ ؿ‪ َ٤‬أهاله‪٣ ٢‬زٍَ هط‪ٞ‬حط‪ُ٘ٔ ْٜ‬غ‬
‫حُِٔ‪ٞ‬ى حُٔ‪ٞ‬ػن ٖٓ حُظطز‪٤‬ن‪ٝ.‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ‪،‬هي ‪٣‬زٍَ ٗ‪ٜ‬ؾ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُوخٗ‪ٍ ٕٞ‬ر‪ ٢‬ػ‪٤‬خىس حإلؿ‪ٜ‬خ‪ ٝ‬رٔـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش‬
‫"حُلن ك‪ ٢‬حُل‪٤‬خس"‪ٓٝ،‬غ ًُي رخٓظويحّ حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ حال‪٣‬ـخر‪ ٢‬ال ‪ٞ٣‬ؿي ٓزٍَ ٓطِوخ ُِـ‪ٞ‬ء اُ‪ ٢‬أٓخُ‪٤‬ذ ؿ‪ َ٤‬هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش‬
‫إلكيحع طـ‪ َ٤٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪.ٕٞ‬‬
‫اىْهح اىتبسٌخً‪:‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬كوخ ٍ ر‪َٓ٤‬خٕ(‪ً ) 2005‬خٕ حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪ُ ٢‬يٍحٓش حُوخٗ‪٤ٟ٘ٔ ٕٞ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬طط‪ ٍٞ‬حُظوخُ‪٤‬ي حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش حُـَر‪٤‬ش ك‪٢‬‬
‫ريح‪٣‬ش حُوَٕ حُؼخٗ‪ ٢‬ػَ٘‪.‬‬

‫‪6‬‬
For example, all known systems of law prohibit the unjustified killing of another
human being. Accordingly, unjustified criminal homicide is a violation of natural law.
Natural law theorists contend that laws that regulate relationships among people,
similar to the laws that govern the physical universe, are founded in nature. Natural
law is eternal and immutable, just as God, the source of all laws, is eternal. Natural law
is often referred to as a higher form of law to dis-tinguish it from manmade laws.
While discovering what ―natural law is,‖ its advocates echo the famous statement of
Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart, saying that they ―know it when they see it‖
(Calvi & Coleman, 2000, p. 7).
Any discussion of natural law generally leads to the question of whether it is
possible to legislate morality. If ―legislating morality‖ refers to the actual changing of a
person’s values, then we probably cannot legislate morality. For example, whether or
not it is morally permissible to obtain an abortion does not depend upon whether or not
abortion is legally permissible, but on a person’s moral belief about the question.
Calvi and Coleman (2000) point out that law can have an impact on morality. They
note that fifty years ago, many Americans considered it perfectly acceptable to use
force to keep African American children from attending certain public schools. But the
years of civil rights and anti-discrimination legislation and court decisions have
changed the people’s views in this regard (p. 7).
Positive Law Approach
As defined in the key words, positive law is that law that has been enacted by a
legislative authority. The positive law approach is that law should simply reflect the
will of the majority. Under the positive law approach, morality is removed from the
law, and this results in the concept of ―might makes right.‖ Under this approach, the
law is in fact what the majority wants it to be. Thus, for example, the question under
the positive law approach is not whether abortion is moral or immoral, but whether the
majority wishes it to be legal.
Under the natural law approach, citizens who feel that a certain law is immoral may
justify their steps to prevent the legalized conduct from being accomplished. For
example, the natural law approach would justify the picketing of an abortion clinic by a
―right to life‖ group. Using the positive approach, however, there is never a
justification for resorting to unlawful methods to effect a change in a law.
Historical Approach
According to Berman (2005), the historical approach to the study of law was implicit
in the development of the Western legal tradition beginning in the twelfth century

6
‫‪ُٝ‬ؼذ ى‪ٍٝ‬ح كخٓٔخ ك‪ ٢‬طط‪ َ٣ٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حالٗـِ‪ ١ِ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوَٗ‪ ٖ٤٤‬حُٔخرغ ػَ٘ ‪ٝ‬حُظخٓغ ػَ٘ ‪ٌُٜ٘ٝ‬خ ُْ‬
‫طظط‪ًٔ ٍٞ‬يٍٓش ٓ٘ل‪ِٜ‬ش ُِلِٔلش حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش كظ‪ ٠‬حُوَٕ حُظخٓغ ػَ٘ ‪٣ٝ‬ئًي ر‪َٓ٤‬خٕ إٔ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔيٍٓش ظ‪َٜ‬ص‬
‫ك‪٤ٓ ٢‬خم حُ٘وخٕ ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُ‪ٟٞ‬ؼ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪.)16.ٙ( ٢‬‬
‫‪٣‬ئًي حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘ٔ‪ ٞ‬حُؼُ‪ُِ ١ٞ٠‬وخٗ‪٣ٝ ٕٞ‬ؼ‪ٞ‬ى حُل‪ َ٠‬اُ‪ ٢‬كَ‪٣‬يٍ‪ً ْ٣‬خٍٍ ك‪ٓ ٕٞ‬خك‪ ٢٘٤‬ك‪ ٢‬ا‪ٟ‬لخء‬
‫حُطخرغ حَُٓٔ‪ُِٜ٘ ٢‬ؾ حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪ً.٢‬خ ٕ ٓخك‪ ٢٘٤‬كو‪ٜ٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬رخكؼخ هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬خ أُٔخٗ‪٤‬خ حٌُ‪ ١‬ىػخ اُ‪ ٢‬طلِ‪ٓ َ٤‬ؼ٘‪ٓٝ ٠‬لظ‪ٟٞ‬‬
‫ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػخص حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُلخُ‪٤‬ش ٖٓ هالٍ حُزلغ ك‪ ٢‬أ‪ُٜٞٛ‬خ حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬أٗٔخ‪ ١‬طل‪ُٜٞ‬خ‪ٝ ٖٓٝ .‬ؿ‪ٜ‬ش ٗظَ ٓخك‪٢٘٤‬‬
‫‪٣‬ظْ طط‪ َ٣ٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ريح‪٣‬شً ػٖ ‪٣َ١‬ن حُؼَف ‪ٝ‬حُؼو‪٤‬يس حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ػْ رؼي ًُي ٖٓ هالٍ حُوَحٍحص حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ك‪ًَ ٢‬‬
‫ٌٓخٕ ‪ٝ‬رخُظخُ‪ ٖٓ ٢‬هالٍ ه‪ ٟٞ‬ىحهِ‪٤‬ش طؼَٔ ر‪ٜٔ‬ض ‪ ٖٓ ْ٤ُٝ‬هالٍ حإلٍحىس حالػظزخ‪٤١‬ش ُٔخٗق حُوخٗ‪ُٝ .ٕٞ‬وي‬
‫ٗظَ اُ‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ ٞٔٗ ٚ‬رطت ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٓ َ٤‬لٔ‪ ّٞ‬طوَ‪٣‬زخ ‪٣ٝ‬ظْ طٌ٘‪ ِٚ٤‬ر٘لْ حُطَ‪٣‬وش حُظ‪ ٢‬طظٌَ٘ ر‪ٜ‬خ حُِـش‬
‫‪ٝٝ‬كوخ ُ‪ ٚ‬كبٕ حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼخص ‪ٝ‬حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬طُؼط‪ ٢‬طؼز‪َ٤‬ح ٗل‪٤ٜ‬خ ُٔـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُوخثٔش حُظ‪ ٢‬ال ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬حًظ٘خف‬
‫ٓؼ٘خ‪ٛ‬خ ‪ٜٗٞٔ٠ٓٝ‬خ اال ٖٓ هالٍ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪٤‬ش حُيه‪٤‬وش‪.‬‬
‫ًٔخ ػزَ هخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش أ‪٤ُٝ‬لَ ‪٘٣ٝ‬يٍ ‪ ُِٔٞٛ‬ؿ‪)1881( ٍٞ٤ٗٞ‬ػٖ حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪ ٢‬ػ٘يٓخ‬
‫هخٍ‪:‬‬
‫ُْ طٌٖ ك‪٤‬خس حُوخٗ‪٘ٓ ٕٞ‬طو‪٤‬ش ُوي ًخٗض طـَرش‪ ،‬إ حألٓ‪ ٍٞ‬حُ‪٣ٍَٝ٠‬ش ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض ‪،‬حُ٘ظَ‪٣‬خص حألهاله‪٤‬ش‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُٔ‪٤‬خٓش حُٔخثيس ‪ٝ‬كيّ حُٔ‪٤‬خٓش حُؼخٓش حُٔؼِٖ ػ٘‪ٜ‬خ أ‪ ٝ‬حُال‪ٝ‬ػ‪ٝ ٢‬كظ‪ ٠‬حألكٌخّ حُٔٔزوش حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ظوخٓٔ‪ٜ‬خ‬
‫حُو‪٠‬خس ٓغ ُٓالث‪ ْٜ‬حَُؿخٍ ‪ًٝ‬خٕ ُ‪ٜ‬خ حٌُؼ‪ٔٓ َ٤‬خ ‪٣‬ـذ كؼِ‪ ٚ‬أًؼَ ٖٓ حُو‪٤‬خّ حُٔ٘طو‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬طلي‪٣‬ي حُو‪ٞ‬حػي حُظ‪٢‬‬
‫‪٣‬ـذ إٔ ‪٣‬لٌْ ر‪ٜ‬خ حَُؿخٍ‪٣ٝ.‬ـٔي حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ه‪ٜ‬ش طط‪ ٍٞ‬حألٓش ػزَ هَ‪ ٕٝ‬ػي‪٣‬يس(‪.)1.ٙ‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ مأداح ىيسٍطشح‪:‬‬
‫حُظ‪٢‬‬ ‫‪ُ٣‬ؼظزَ حُٔيحكؼ‪ ٕٞ‬ػٖ حُٔيٍٓش حُ‪ٟٞ‬ؼ‪٤‬ش حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬أىحس ٓ‪٤‬خٓ‪٤‬ش _ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُو‪ٞ‬حػي‬
‫أ‪ٛ‬يٍط‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٝ‬كَ‪ٟ‬ظ‪ٜ‬خ حُِٔطخص حَُٓٔ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُظ‪ ٢‬طٔؼَ إٔ اٍحىس ‪٤ٓٝ‬خٓش حَُٔ٘ػ‪ٝ ٖ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخرَ ‪٣‬ظؼخَٓ ىػخس‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ٓ ٢‬غ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬أىحس أهاله‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حألٓخّ ‪ٝ‬طـٔ‪٤‬ي ُٔزخىة حُؼوَ ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ َ٤ٔ٠‬حُٔظ‪٘ٔ٠‬ش ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُطز‪٤‬ؼش حُزَ٘‪٣‬ش ‪٣ٝ‬ظؼخَٓ حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪ٓ ٕٞ٤‬غ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ٓ ٚ‬ظ‪ٓ ٖٓ َٜ‬ظخ‪ً َٛ‬حًَس حُـٔخػش ‪ٝ‬حَُ‪ٝ‬ف‬
‫حُٔظط‪ٍٞ‬س طخٍ‪٣‬و‪٤‬خ ُِٔـظٔغ ‪ ٞٛ‬هخٗ‪.ٚٗٞ‬‬
‫ًٔخ ًًَ ر‪َٓ٤‬خٕ(‪:)2005‬‬
‫‪٣‬ئًي حُ‪ ٟٞ‬ؼ‪ ٕٞ٤‬حٌُ‪ ْٛ ٖ٣‬حُ‪ ّٞ٤‬حُٔٔ‪٤‬طَ‪ ٕٝ‬ر‪ ًَ ٖ٤‬ػِٔخء حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حأل‪ٍٝ‬ر‪ٝ ٖ٤٤‬حٍ أٗـِ‪ ٞ‬حألَٓ‪ ٖ٤٤ٌ٣‬ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫ٓ‪ٜ‬يٍ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪ٞ‬حػي حُظ‪ ٢‬طلَ‪ٜٟ‬خ حُِٔطخص حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حإلىحٍ‪٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪٣ٝ‬لِِ‪ ٕٞ‬طِي حُو‪ٞ‬حػي‬
‫رٌَ٘ ٓٔظوَ ػٖ َٓحٓالط‪ ْٜ‬آخ ٓغ حُٔزخىة حألهاله‪٤‬ش أ‪ُِٞ ٝ‬ػ‪ ٢‬حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪ُِ٘ ٢‬ظخّ حُٔ‪٤‬خٓ‪ ٢‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى‬
‫(‪)13.ٙ‬‬

‫‪7‬‬
and played a critical role in the development of the Eng-lish common law in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but it did not develop as a separate school of
legal philosophy until the nineteenth cen-tury. Berman contends that the school
emerged in the context of the debate between positivism and natural law (p. 16). The
historical approach stresses the organic growth of the law. Friedrich Karl von Savigny
is credited with the formalization of the historical approach. Savigny was a German
jurist and legal scholar who advocated that the meaning and content of existing bodies
of law be analyzed through research into their historical origins and modes of
transformation. In Savigny’s view, law is first developed by custom and popular faith,
and next by judicial decisions—everywhere, therefore, by internal, silently operating
powers, not by the arbitrary will of a law giver. He viewed law as a slow, almost
imperceptible growth that is formed in much the same way as a language is. According
to him, legislation and law codes merely give verbal expression to a body of existing
law whose meaning and content can be discovered only by careful historical
investigations.
U.S. Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. (1881), also expressed the
historical approach when he stated:
The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience. The felt neces-sities
of the time, the prevalent moral and political theories, intuitions of public policy,
avowed or unconscious, even the prejudices which judges share with their fellow-
men, have had a good deal more to do than the syllogism in determining the rules
by which men should be governed. The law embodies the story of a nation’s
development through many centuries. (p. 1)
Law as an Instrument of Control
The positivist school advocates consider law as a political instrument—a body of rules
promulgated and enforced by official authorities, representing the will, the policy, of
the lawmakers; in contrast, advocates of natural law treat law as essentially a moral
instrument, an embodiment of principles of reason and conscience implicit in human
nature. And historicists treat law as a manifestation of the group memory, the
historically developing ethos, of the society whose law it is. As stated by Harold J.
Berman (2005):
Positivists, who are today predominant among both continental European and
Anglo-American legal scholars, emphasize the source of law in the rules ―posited‖
by legislative, administrative, and judicial authorities, and analyze those rules
independently of their correspondence either to moral principles or to the historical
consciousness of the given polity. (p. 13)

7
 ‫وظٍفخ ّظبً اىَحبمٌ‪:‬‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬ظ‪٤‬لش حألٓخٓ‪٤‬ش أل‪ٗ ١‬ظخّ ه‪٠‬خث‪ ٢ٛ ٢‬حُٔٔخػيس ك‪ ٢‬حُللخظ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔالّ حُيحهِ‪ ٢‬حٓخ ك‪ ٢‬ػِٔ‪٤‬ش كلع‬
‫حُٔالّ‪ ،‬حُٔلخًْ ٓطخُزش رلَ حُوالكخص أ‪ ٝ‬حُل‪ َٜ‬ك‪ٜ٤‬خ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ‪ :‬ك‪ ٢‬كخُش ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى ِٗحع ػِ‪ ٢‬حُؼوي ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤٠‬ش ٓيٗ‪٤‬ش ال ‪ُ ٌٖٔ٣‬أل‪َ١‬حف كِ‪ٌُُ ٚ‬ي‬
‫‪ُ٣‬ؼَ‪ ٝ‬ح ُِ٘حع ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔلٌٔش ‪٣ٝ‬طِز‪ ٖٓ ٕٞ‬حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُل‪ َٜ‬ك‪ٜ٤‬خ‪ٝ.‬ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤٠‬ش ؿ٘خث‪٤‬ش ‪،‬طظ‪ ْٜ‬حُي‪ُٝ‬ش حُٔظ‪ْٜ‬‬
‫رخٍطٌخد ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬ططخُذ رخُؼو‪ٞ‬رش حُٔ٘خٓزش ُِـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ‪ ٌَ٘٣.‬حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬ػٔ‪ٓٞ‬خ حٍطٌخد حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش‬
‫‪ٝ‬رخُظؤً‪٤‬ي ال ‪٣َ٣‬ي إٔ ‪ُ٣‬ؼخهذ ‪٣ٝ،‬وٍَ حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬أ‪٤ٛ ٝ‬جش حُٔلِل‪ ٖ٤‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪٤ٟ‬غ ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٤٠‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ‬
‫حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُٔؼَ‪ٟٝ‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔلٌٔش ال ؿيحٍ ك‪ٜ٤‬خ‪ٝ.‬ك‪ ٌٙٛ ٢‬حُلخالص ‪٣‬ؼَٔ حُوخ‪ُ ٢ٟ‬لَ حُِ٘حع ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُٔظ٘خُع ك‪ٜ٤‬خ ‪٣ٝ‬ؼَٔ ر‪ٜ‬لش اىحٍ‪٣‬ش ٖٓ هالٍ ا‪ٟ‬لخء حُطخرغ حَُٓٔ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حطلخهخص‬
‫حأل‪َ١‬حف‪.‬‬
‫فحص ٍىخز ىيَْبرج اىقبّىٍّخ‪:‬‬
‫ىػ‪ٗٞ‬خ ٗزيأ رٔلخٍهش‪،‬ك‪٤‬غ إٔ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حالٗـِ‪ ١ِ٤‬حُزَ‪٣‬طخٗ‪ ٢‬هي حطوٌح ى‪ٍٝ‬حص ٓوظِلش رٌَ٘ ال ٍؿ‪ٞ‬ع‬
‫ك‪ ٚ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُؼخٗ‪ ٢‬ػَ٘‪،‬ػ٘يٓخ ًخٗض حُل‪٠‬خٍس حالٗـِ‪٣ِ٤‬ش حهَد اُ‪ ٢‬حُوخٍس حأل‪ٍٝ‬ر‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬أهَ حٗؼِحُ‪٤‬ش‬
‫ٖٓ أ‪ٝ ١‬هض أهَ‪.‬‬
‫حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؿخٕ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬خٕ حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬خٕ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼخُْ حُـَر‪ ٢‬حُلي‪٣‬غ ‪ٔٛ‬خ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ٔٗٝ ٢‬خًؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‬
‫‪ًٞٔٗ،‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬حُٔؼَ‪ٝ‬ف أ‪٠٣‬خ رخْٓ حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬حألُٔخٗ‪.٢‬‬

‫‪8‬‬
Function of a Court System
The primary function of any court system is to help keep domestic peace. In the
process of keeping peace, the courts are called upon to solve or decide controversies.
For example, in a civil case there is a contract dispute that the parties cannot resolve;
therefore, by submitting the dispute to the court, they call upon the judge to decide it .
In a criminal case, the state accuses the defendant of a crime and demands appropriate
punishment for the offense. The defendant generally denies committing the offense and
certainly does not want to suffer any punishment. The judge and/or the jury decide the
issues in this case. Many cases before the court are uncontested. In these cases, the
judge does not act to resolve the dispute. In uncontested cases, the judge acts in an
administrative capacity by formalizing the agreements of the parties.
Brief Examination of the Legal Models

Let us start with a paradox. It is that English and Continental law irrevocably took their
different courses in the very century, the twelfth, when English civilization was closer
to the Continent and less insular than at any other time (Van Caenegem, 1988, p. 85).

The two major legal models in the modern Western world are the civil law and the
common law models. The civil law model, also known as the Romano- Germanic
model

8
‫‪ ٞٛ‬حألهيّ ‪ٝ‬حألًؼَ طؤػ‪َ٤‬ح ٖٓ حالػ٘‪ٔ٣ٝ . ٖ٤‬ظويّ ٗظخّ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ٝ‬اٗـِظَح ‪ٔ٣ٝ‬ظويّ‬
‫ٗظخّ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬كَٗٔخ ‪ٝ‬أُٔخٗ‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُي‪ ٍٝ‬حأل‪ٍٝ‬ر‪٤‬ش حألهَ‪ًٔ.ٟ‬خ اٗ‪ٜ‬خ طٔظويّ حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ ى‪ٍٝ‬‬
‫أَٓ‪ٌ٣‬خ حُالط‪٤٘٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬أكَ‪٣‬و‪٤‬خ‪.‬‬
‫‪ُ٣‬ل‪ًٞٔٗ َ٠‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ًؤٓخّ ُألكٌخّ ‪٘٣ٝ‬ظوَ رٌَ٘ طـَ‪٣‬ز‪ ٖٓ ٢‬كخُش اُ‪ ٢‬أهَ‪ًٞٔٗ َ٤ٔ٣ٝ ٟ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬اُ‪ ٢‬حُظلَى أًؼَ ٖٓ حُ٘خك‪٤‬ش حُ٘ظَ‪٣‬ش ٖٓ هالٍ حالٓظيالٍ أالٓظ٘ظخؿ‪ٝ ٢‬حألكٌخّ حُٔٔظ٘يس اُ‪٢‬‬
‫حُٔزخىة حُٔـَىس ‪.‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ٓ ٢‬لخ‪ٝ ٢ٔ٤ٛ‬ػِٔ‪ ٢‬أًؼَ ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪.‬‬
‫‪٣‬ظؼخَٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬أ‪٠٣‬خ رٌَ٘ أًزَ ٓغ حُظؼَ‪٣‬لخص ‪ٝ‬حُظٔ‪ِ٤٤‬حص ؿخُزخ ٓخ ‪٘٣‬خٍ اُ‪ ٚ٤‬رخْٓ هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حألٓخطٌس‬
‫‪ٝ‬هي ‪٤ٛ‬ؾ ػِ‪ ٠‬اؿَحٍ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪.٢‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ اىشوٍبًّ‪:‬‬
‫‪٣‬ظٔ‪ًٞٔٗ ِ٤‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬رظلخػِ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ٞ٘ٓ ٢‬حط‪ ٚ‬حُظؤٓ‪٤ٔ٤‬ش ٓغ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حألُٔخٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حٌُ٘ٔ‪ٝ ٢‬هخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُظـخٍس حُي‪ٝ ٢ُٝ‬حألػَحف حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫طٔظويّ ػزخٍس "حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ُٛٞ"٢‬ق حُظوخُ‪٤‬ي حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٤‬ش رؤًِٔ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٗٝ‬ظخؽ ٖٓ حُـيح‪ ٍٝ‬حالػ٘‪٢‬‬
‫ػَ٘(ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪450 ٢‬م‪)ّ.‬اُ‪ٓ ٢‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػخص ؿ‪ٔ٤‬ظ٘‪٤‬خٕ (ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪ً)ّ534٢‬خٕ حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٕٞ٤‬أ‪ ٖٓ ٍٝ‬حػظزَ‪ٝ‬ح إٔ حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫ػِٔخ ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬ر‪ٞ‬حٓطظ‪ ٚ‬حُ٘ظَ اُ‪ ٢‬حُؼخُْ رٌَ أكَحى‪ٔٓٝ ٙ‬ظٌِخط‪ٝ ْٜ‬ػالهخط‪ ْٜ‬حُٔظيحهِش هالٍ ٓلخ‪ ْ٤ٛ‬ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ًخٗض‬
‫ٓ٘ظٔش ٓؼَ ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حَُ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬خص ‪.‬‬
‫‪٣‬ؤْ حُزخكؼ‪ ٕٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬حُوي‪ ْ٣‬ػٔ‪ٓٞ‬خ اُ‪ ٢‬كظَحص ٓوظِلش‪،‬ك‪ ٢‬اكي‪ ٟ‬حُلظَحص حأل‪ٝ ٠ُٝ‬حُظ‪ ٢‬ريأص‬
‫ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُؼخُغ هزَ حُٔ‪٤‬الى ظ‪َٜ‬ص كجش ٖٓ حَُؿخٍ طؼَف رخْٓ "حُٔٔظ٘خٍ‪ ٖ٣‬حُوخٗ‪"ٖ٤ٗٞ‬حٌُ‪ ٖ٣‬ؿؼِ‪ٞ‬ح‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬طو‪ٝ ْٜٜٜ‬ػِٔ‪ٞ‬ح ٓٔظ٘خٍ‪ُ ٖ٣‬و‪٠‬خس ػخى‪٣ ٖ٤٣‬لظخؿ‪ ٕٞ‬اُ‪ٍٞ٘ٓ ٢‬س هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ‪ٝ‬ر‪ٔ٘٤‬خ ًخٗض ‪ٌٙٛ‬‬
‫حالٓظ٘خٍحص طؼَٔ ر‪ٜ‬ل‪ ٚ‬حٓظ٘خٍ‪ ٚ٣‬كو‪ ٢‬اال أٗ‪ٜ‬خ ال طِحٍ طؼظزَ أ‪ٓ ٍٝ‬لخٓ‪ٓ ٖ٤٤‬لظَك‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؼخُْ‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ك‪ ًٍِ ٖ٤‬حُؼِٔخء ٓؼَ ٗ‪ٜٓ َٕٝ٘٤‬خٍحط‪ ْٜ‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حُزالؿش ‪ٝ‬كٌ٘ش حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ٝ‬طط‪ٍٞ‬ص حالٓظ٘خٍحص ‪ٝ‬ػِٔض ٓزخىة حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُظ‪ ٢‬طْ َٗك‪ٜ‬خ الكوخ ك‪ ٢‬حأل‪َٝ١‬كخص ك‪ ٢‬طخٍ‪٣‬و‪ٜ‬خ حُٔٔـَ‬
‫حُٔزٌَ ًخٗض ٍ‪ٓٝ‬خ ٌِٓ‪ٝ ٚ٤‬رلِ‪ٜٗ ٍٞ‬خ‪٣‬ش حُوَٕ حُٔخىّ هزَ حُٔ‪٤‬الى ‪َ١‬ى حُِٔ‪ٞ‬ى ‪ٝ‬أٗ٘جض حُـٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ًخٗض ٍ‪ٓٝ‬خ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض ٓـظٔؼخ ‪ٛ‬ـ‪َ٤‬ح ػِ‪ٟ ٢‬لخف ٗ‪ َٜ‬حُظ‪٤‬زَ ‪ٝ‬طو‪ ٍٞ‬حألٓط‪ٍٞ‬س حأل‪٤ِٛ‬ش ُِٔي‪٘٣‬ش إٔ‬
‫‪ٛ‬ئالء حُ٘خّ ‪٘٣‬ليٍ‪ ٖٓ ٕٝ‬الؿت ‪َ١‬حىس ػ٘يٓخ ىَٓ‪ٛ‬خ حإلؿَ‪٣‬ن ‪.‬‬
‫ًخٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض ػزخٍس ػٖ ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حألػَحف ؿ‪ َ٤‬حٌُٔظ‪ٞ‬رش حُظ‪ ٢‬ط٘وَ ٗل‪٤ٜ‬خ" ٖٓ ؿ‪ َ٤‬أُ‪٢‬‬
‫أهَ ‪ًٝ‬خٗض طؼظزَ ؿِءح حٍػ‪ًَٓٝ ْٜ‬خٕ‪ٝ .‬طْ ططز‪٤‬ن ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُو‪ٞ‬حػي ؿ‪ َ٤‬حٌُٔظ‪ٞ‬رش كو‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٢‬أ‪ُٝ‬جي حٌُ‪ٌٖٔ٣ ٖ٣‬‬
‫إٔ ‪٣‬يػ‪ٞ‬ح أٗ‪ٞٓ ْٜ‬ح‪ٍٓٝ ٕٞ٘١‬خٗ‪. ٕٞ٤‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬طْ طؤ‪ ْ٤‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪ ٖ٤٘١‬اُ‪ٓ ٢‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػظ‪: ٖ٤‬حألٍٓظوَح‪ٝ ٖ٤٤١‬ك‪ ْٜ٤‬حُ٘زالء‪ٝ ،‬حُؼخٓش حٌُ‪ً ٖ٣‬خٗ‪ٞ‬ح حًزَ ػيىح ‪ٌُْٜ٘ٝ‬‬
‫ٓلَ‪ ٕٞٓٝ‬رطَم ٓوظِلش رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُؼَ‪ٝ‬س ٓ٘‪ ْٜ‬حألكَحى حٌُ‪ُ ٖ٣‬ي‪ ْٜ٣‬حُ‪ٜ‬الك‪٤‬ش حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ألكؼخٍ ٓؼ‪ً ٚ٘٤‬خٗ‪ٞ‬ح‬
‫ىحثٔخ ٖٓ حُ٘زالء ‪٣‬ؼظزَ‪ ٖٓ ٕٝ‬هزَ حُؼخٓش رؤٗ‪ ْٜ‬ؿ‪ٓ َ٤‬ظل‪ ٖ٣ِ٤‬طٔخٓخ ‪.‬‬

‫‪9‬‬
is the older and more influential of the two. The common law system is used in the United
States and England. The civil law system is used in France, Germany, and many other
European countries. It is also used in many Latin American and African countries.
The common law model prefers precedent as a basis for judgments and moves empirically
from case to case. The civil law model tends to move more theoretically by deductive
reasoning, basing judgments on abstract prin-ciples. Civil law is more conceptual and more
scholarly than common law. Civil law also deals more with definitions and distinctions. It is
often referred to as the professors’ law and was molded by Roman law (Van Caenegem,
1988, p. 36).
Roman Law
The civil law model is characterized by its interaction in its formative years with Roman law,
Germanic law, canon law, international law merchant, and local customs. The phrase ―Roman
law‖ is commonly used to describe the entire Roman legal tradition and output from the
Twelve Tables (c. 450 bc) to the Justinian compilations (c. 534 ad). The Romans were the
first to con-sider law as a science by means of which they could look at the world, with all its
people and property and their intermingling relationships, through judicial concepts that were
as orderly as the laws of mathematics (Kolbert, 1979, p. 6).
Researchers of ancient Roman law generally divide it into various periods. In one of the
first periods, which started about the third century bc, a class of men known as ―juris-
consults,‖ who made law their specialty, appeared and acted as consultants to lay judges who
needed legal advice. While these consults acted only in an advisory capacity, they are still
considered to have been the world’s first professional lawyers. Whereas the orators like
Cicero focused their skills on rhetoric and statesmanship, the consults developed and taught
the principles of law that were later expounded in treatises.
In its early recorded history, Rome was a monarchy. By the end of the sixth century bc,
the kings were expelled and a republic was established. Rome at this time was a small
community on the banks of the Tiber River. The city’s origin legend held that these people
descended from the refugees of Troy when it was destroyed by the Greeks. The law at that
time was a set of unwritten customs passed on orally from one generation to another and was
regarded as part of their heritage as Romans. These unwritten rules were applied only to those
who could claim to be Roman citizens. The citizen body was divided into two groups: the
patricians, who were families of noble birth, and the plebeians, who were numerically greater
but disadvantaged in various ways, including wealth. The individuals who determined the
legal validity of particular acts were always patricians and were considered by the plebeians
as not entirely unbiased.

9
‫اىػخء ػخٓش حُ٘خّ أُ‪ ٢‬حٗ‪ ٚ‬أًح طٔض ًظخرش حألػَحف ك‪ ٢‬ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ٔٓ ٖ٤‬زوخ كؤٕ حألكَحى ٓ‪٤‬ؼَك‪ٓ ٕٞ‬خ ‪٢ٛ‬‬
‫ٓ‪ٞ‬حهل‪ ْٜ‬حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش هزَ حُظ‪َٜ‬ف ك‪ٞٓ ٢‬هق ٓؼ‪.ٖ٤‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ (‪451‬م‪،)ّ.‬طْ طؼ‪ُ ٖ٤٤‬ـ٘ش ٖٓ ػَ٘‪ٞٓ ٙ‬ح‪ًِٝ ٖ٤٘١‬لض رٔ‪ٜٔ‬ش طي‪ ٖ٣ٝ‬حألػَحف ك‪ٓ ٢‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش‬
‫ٖٓ حُو‪ٞ‬حػي‪ٝ.‬أ‪ٛ‬زق ػِٔ‪ٓ ْٜ‬ؼَ‪ٝ‬كخ رخْٓ حُـيح‪ ٍٝ‬أالػ٘‪ ٢‬ػَ٘ ‪ٝ‬طٔض حُٔ‪ٞ‬حكوش ػِ‪ ٢‬حُو‪ٞ‬حػي ٖٓ هزَ‬
‫ٓـِْ ٗؼز‪ُِٞٔ ٢‬ح‪ٝ ٖ٤٘١‬أ‪ٛ‬زلض هخٗ‪ٗٞ‬خ‪.‬ػ٘ي ٓ٘ق ٓ‪ٞ‬حكوظ‪ٜ‬خ ػِ‪ ٢‬حُـيح‪٘٣ ُْ ٍٝ‬ؼَ حُٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪ ٕٞ٘١‬أٗ‪ْٜ‬‬
‫ًخٗ‪ٞ‬ح ‪ ٕٞ٘ٔ٣‬ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬ؿي‪٣‬يس ‪ ،‬رَ هخٓ‪ٞ‬ح كو‪ ٢‬رظلي‪٣‬ي أًؼَ ىهش ُٔخ ًخٕ ‪٣‬لؼِ‪ ٚ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ىحثٔخ‪.‬رؼي إٔ طْ‬
‫طلؼ‪ِٜ٤‬خ ك‪ ، ٚٗ ٢‬أ‪ٛ‬زلض طؼَف رخْٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُلؼِ‪( ٢‬حُ٘ظخّ حألٓخٓ‪ ٢‬حُٔي‪( )ٕٝ‬حُٔلَى‬
‫(‪ُِ" )legere)ٖٓ)lex‬وَحءس " (ًِٔخص الط‪٤٘٤‬ش) )‪.‬‬
‫طؼظزَ حُـيح‪ ٍٝ‬أالػ٘‪ ٢‬ػَ٘ ريح‪٣‬ش ُٔخ ٗؼَك‪ ٚ‬ح‪ ٕ٥‬رخْٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٖ٤‬إٔ حُ٘‪ ٚ‬حأل‪٢ِٛ‬‬
‫ُِـيح‪ُ ٘٣ ُْ ٍٝ‬ؾ أال حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حأل‪َٝ١‬كخص ك‪ ٢‬حٌُظخرخص حُالكوش ‪ٔٓ،‬لض ُِؼِٔخء ربػخىس ر٘خث‪ ٚ‬رٌَ٘‬
‫ًز‪ًٍِ.َ٤‬ص حُـيح‪ ٍٝ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘وخ‪ ١‬حُظ‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حُٔلظَٔ إٔ طٌ‪ ًَِٓ ٕٞ‬حُوالكخص ريال ٖٓ ٓخ ‪٣‬ؼَك‪ٚ‬‬
‫حُـٔ‪٤‬غ ‪٣ٝ‬وزِ‪ ٚٗٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬هخٗ‪ٓ .ٕٞ‬خى حإلؿَحء ك‪ ٢‬حُـيح‪ ٍٝ‬ػ٘يٓخ ٗ٘ؤص حُوالكخص‪ً،‬خٕ حأل‪َ١‬حف‬
‫‪ُٔ٣‬ؼالٕ أٓخّ ه‪٠‬خس ػخى‪ ٖ٤٣‬رٌَ٘ ػخّ ‪ًٝ‬خٕ ‪ٝ‬حؿذ حُو‪٠‬خس إٔ ‪٣‬وٍَ‪ٝ‬ح ٓخ اًح ًخٕ حُِ٘حع ‪٣‬ؼ‪ َ٤‬ه‪٤٠‬ش‬
‫‪٣‬ؼظَف ر‪ٜ‬خ حُوخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬اًح ًخٕ حألَٓ ًٌُي ً‪٤‬ق ‪٘٣‬زـ‪ ٢‬كَ حُِ٘حع‪.‬رخًَح ك‪ٍٓٝ ٢‬خ ‪٣ ُْ،‬ظؼخَٓ حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫ٓغ ٓخ ‪٣‬ليع ك‪ ٢‬ىحهَ حألَٓس‪ً .‬خٗض حُؼالهخص ر‪ ٖ٤‬أكَحى حألَٓس طؼظزَ ٖٓ حألٓ‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬ال‬
‫‪ِٔ٣‬ي حُٔـظٔغ ِٓط ش ُِٔ‪٤‬طَس ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُظ‪ ٢‬ط٘ظَٔ ػِ‪ ٠‬ؿَحثْ هظَ‪٣،‬ظوٌ حُوخ‪(٢ٟ‬هخ‪ٝ‬‬
‫ػخى‪ُٓ)١‬خّ حُٔزخىٍس ػٖ حُٔـظٔغ ًٌَ ُٔالكوش حٌُٔٗذ ٖٓ أؿَ ٓ٘غ اٍحهش حُيٓخء ر‪ٖ٤‬‬
‫حُؼخثالص(حٓظ‪.)1999،ٖ٤‬‬
‫حرظيح ًء ٖٓ ػخّ ‪367‬م‪،ّ.‬طْ حٗظوخد هخ‪ ٝ‬هخ‪٣ ٙ‬يػ‪ ٠‬حُزَ‪٣‬ظ‪ُِ ٍٞ‬ظؼخَٓ ك‪٣َٜ‬خ ً ٓغ اهخٓش حُؼيٍ ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫حَُؿْ ٖٓ إٔ حُزَ‪٣‬ظ‪ُ ٌٖ٣ ُْ ٍٞ‬ي‪ ٚ٣‬طيٍ‪٣‬ذ هخٗ‪ً ،٢ٗٞ‬خٕ ٖٓ حُٔظ‪ٞ‬هغ إٔ ‪َُ٘٣‬ف ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُٔكِش حَُٓٔ‪٤‬ش‬
‫ٌَُ اؿَحء هخٗ‪ ،٢ٗٞ‬ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض ًخٕ ٌَُ اؿَحء قبّىًّ ٍشحيتٍِ‪:‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬حَُٔكِش حأل‪ : ٠ُٝ‬طْ ط‪٤ٜ٘‬ق حُٔٔؤُش حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش اُ‪ ٠‬أكي حألٌٗخٍ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش حُوخثٔش ‪.‬‬
‫أٓخ حَُٔكِش حُؼخٗ‪٤‬ش حُظ‪ً ٢‬خٗض ؿ‪٤ٍٔٓ َ٤‬ش ٗٔز‪٤‬خ‪ ،‬كظظؤُق ٖٓ طـَرش كؼِ‪٤‬ش ُِو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ٗظَح ألٕ حَُٔكِش‬
‫حُؼخٗ‪٤‬ش ًخٗض طٔظـَم ‪ٝ‬هظخ ‪٣ٞ١‬ال‪ ،‬كوي طْ طؼ‪ ٖ٤٤‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪ ٖ٤٘١‬ى‪ ٕٝ‬أ‪ ١‬طيٍ‪٣‬ذ هخٗ‪ً ٢ٗٞ‬و‪٠‬خس ػخى‪ٖ٤٣‬‬
‫ُ‪٤‬وٍَ‪ٝ‬ح ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ك‪ ٢‬طِي حَُٔكِش ‪.‬هالٍ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُ‪ٞ‬هض‪ ،‬أىٍى حُٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪ ٕٞ٘١‬إٔ حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُوالكخص‬
‫ٗ٘ؤص ُ ‪ ْ٤‬رٔزذ حُوالف ٓخ ك‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٖٓ ٌُٖٝ ٕٞ‬هالٍ حُوالف ك‪ٓ ٍٞ‬خ كيع رخُلؼَ ( ‪ٝ‬هخثغ‬
‫حُو‪٤٠‬ش ) ٌُُي هالٍ حُ٘‪ٜ‬ق حُؼخٗ‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حُـٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش ريح حُو‪٠‬خس ك‪ ٢‬حُٔٔخف ُألكِحد رخُظؼز‪ َ٤‬ػٖ‬

‫‪10‬‬
The plebeians advocated that if the cus-toms were written into laws in advance, individuals
would know what their legal positions were prior to acting in a certain situation.
In 451 bc, a commission of ten citizens was appointed and charged with the task of writing
down the customs into a set of rules. Their work became known as the Twelve Tables. The
rules were approved by a popular assembly of citizens and became the law. In giving its
approval to the Tables, the citi-zens did not feel that they were enacting new laws, only fixing
more precisely what had always been the law. After being enacted in a text, they became
known as leges (singular, lex, from legere ―to read out‖) (Stein, 1999).
The Twelve Tables are considered the beginning of what we now know as Roman law. While
the original text of the Tables has not survived, many quo-tations in later writings have
allowed scholars substantially to reconstruct it. The Tables concentrated on points that were
likely to be the center of disputes rather than on what everyone knew and accepted as the law.
Procedure dom-inated the Tables. When disputes arose, the parties generally appeared before
lay judges. The duty of the judges was to decide whether the dispute raised an issue that the
law recognized, and if so, how the dispute should be resolved.
In early Rome, the law did not deal with what went on within a family. The relationships
between members of a family were considered private mat-ters, which the community had no
authority to control. In cases involving homicides, a magistrate (lay judge) would take the
initiative on behalf of the community as a whole to prosecute the wrongdoer in order to
prevent fur-ther bloodshed between families (Stein, 1999).
During most of the duration of the Republic, the law developed through the control of
legal remedies. When the concept of legal actions was first developed, there were few legal
forms, and a cause of action was required to fit within one of the forms. At that time, the law
was formal and rigid. It was characterized by attention to detail, and often a cause of action
was lost because of a small mistake by one of the parties.
Beginning around 367 bc a special magistrate, called a praetor, was elected to deal
exclusively with the administration of justice. Even though the praetor had no legal training,
he was expected to supervise the formal stage of every legal action. At that time each formal
legal action had two stages. In the first stage, the legal issue was categorized into one of the
exist-ing legal forms. The second stage, which was relatively informal, consisted of an actual
trial of the issues. Since the second stage was more time-consum-ing, citizens without any
legal training were appointed as lay judges to decide the issues in that stage.
During this time the citizens realized that many disputes arose not because of a disagreement
about the law, but through a disagreement as to what actually happened (the facts of the case).
Therefore, during the sec-ond half of the Republic, magistrates began to allow parties to
express their

10
‫حالىػخءحص ‪ٝ‬حُيكخػخص ريال ٖٓ حالُظِحّ رخألٌٗخٍ حُؼخرظش‪ .‬رؼي إٔ حًظ٘ق حُوخ‪ٓ ٢ٟ‬خ ًخٗض ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬حٌُِٔ٘ش ‪٤ٓ ،‬ليى‬
‫رٔ‪ٜ‬طِلخص حكظَح‪٤ٟ‬ش ك‪ٝ ٢‬ػ‪٤‬وش ٌٓظ‪ٞ‬رش طؼَف رخُ‪٤ٜ‬ـش (كَك‪٤‬خ ‪ٛ ٌَٗ"،‬ـ‪ .)" َ٤‬ط٘‪ ٚ‬حُ‪٤ٜ‬ـش ػِ‪ ٠‬إٔ حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُٔظ‪ ٖٔ٠‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوالف ‪ٓٝ‬خ ‪٣‬ـذ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُلِد اٗ٘خء‪ ٖٓ ٙ‬حُل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حالٓظَىحى ‪ُِ ٌٖٔ٣ .‬زَط‪ ٍٞ٤‬إٔ ‪٘ٔ٣‬ق ‪٤ٛ‬ـش‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬كخُش ُْ طٌٖ ك‪ٜ٤‬خ ٓخروش ‪ٝ‬ر‪ٔ٘٤‬خ ًخٕ حُزَ‪٣‬ظ‪ ٖٔ٣ ٍٞ‬هخٗ‪ٗٞ‬خ ؿي‪٣‬يح رٌَ٘ ؿ‪ً ٢ٍٔٓ َ٤‬خٕ ‪٘٣‬ظَ اُ‪ ٚ٤‬كو‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حٗ‪ٚ‬‬
‫ٓـَى ط٘ل‪ُِ ٌ٤‬وخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُلخُ‪. ٢‬‬
‫ٓغ ط‪ٓٞ‬غ حُلظ‪ٞ‬كخص حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حٓظيحى حُلٌْ حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬ؿَد حُزلَ حألر‪ ٞ٤‬حُٔظ‪ ٢ٓٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُؼخُغ هزَ‬
‫حُٔ‪٤‬الى ُحى ػيى حألؿخٗذ حُٔ٘وَ‪ ٖ٤١‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘ظخّ حُوخٗ‪. ٢ٗٞ‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬حُزيح‪٣‬ش ًخٕ حُ٘ظخّ ‪٣‬ظ‪َٜ‬ف ريػ‪ ٟٞ‬إٔ حألؿخٗذ ًخٗ‪ٞ‬ح ٓ‪ٞ‬ح‪ ، ٖ٤٘١‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 242‬هزَ حُٔ‪٤‬الى أه‪ٔ٤‬ض ٍثخٓش ػخرظش‬
‫‪ٝ‬طؼخَٓ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُزَط‪ ٍٞ٤‬رٌَ٘ هخ‪ٓ ٙ‬غ حُلخالص حُظ‪ ٌٖ٣ ُْ ٢‬ك‪ٜ٤‬خ حكي أ‪ً ٝ‬ال‪ٔٛ‬خ ٓ‪ٞ‬ح‪ٝ . ٖ٤٘١‬طْ طٔ‪ ِ٤٤‬حُزَ‪٣‬ظ‪ ٍٞ‬ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫أٗ‪ٜ‬خ ك‪٣َ٠‬خٕ أ‪ ٝ‬أؿ٘ز‪٤‬خٕ)‪.‬‬
‫حػظزَ حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٕ إٔ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٞٛ ٢‬كوَ ٓخ ُي‪ٝ ْٜ٣‬ال ‪٘٣‬زـ‪ ٢‬إٔ ‪ٔ٣‬ظي رٌَ٘ ػ٘‪ٞ‬حث‪ ( َٔ٘٤ُ ٢‬حَُكخُش‪ ،‬حُٔلَ أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫حألؿخٗذ )‪.‬‬
‫رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ًُ ٠‬ي هالٍ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُلظَس ًخٕ ٖٓ حُٔظ‪ٞ‬هغ إٔ ‪ِ٣‬ظِّ حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٕ ر‪ٜ‬لظ‪ٞٓ ْٜ‬ح‪ ٖ٤٘١‬رٔؼخ‪ َ٤٣‬أػِ‪ ٖٓ ٠‬حُِٔ‪ٞ‬ى‬
‫ٖٓ ً‪ ْٜٗٞ‬أؿخٗذ ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝٝ‬كوخ ٌُُي ًخٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض ‪٣‬ظؤُق ٖٓ ٗ‪ٞ‬ػ‪ ٖٓ ٖ٤‬حُٔئٓٔخص ‪ً،‬خٕ ‪٘ٛ‬خى ٓؼ‪ٜ‬ي حُٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪ٖ٤٘١‬‬
‫حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٕ ‪ٝ‬حُؼخٗ‪ ٢‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حألْٓ أ‪ ٝ‬كن حُ٘ؼ‪ٞ‬د‪.‬‬
‫‪ًٝ‬خٕ كن حُ٘ؼ‪ٞ‬د ٓظخكخ ً ُِٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪ٝ ٖ٤٘١‬حألؿخٗذ ػِ‪ ٠‬كي ٓ‪ٞ‬حء ‪ٝ‬أٗخٍ حُزؼ‪ ٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬كن حُ٘ؼ‪ٞ‬د ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬هخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫‪١‬ز‪٤‬ؼ‪ًٝ ٢‬خٕ ٖٓ حُٔوز‪ ٍٞ‬إٔ هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حألْٓ ‪ٝ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ٓ ٢‬ظ٘خر‪ٜ‬خٕ ألٗ‪ٜٔ‬خ ال ‪٣‬و‪ٓٞ‬خٕ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔٔخٍٓش حُظوِ‪٤‬ي‪٣‬ش ‪ٌُٖٝ‬‬
‫ػِ‪ ٠‬حُلطَس حُِٔ‪ٔ٤‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬حُؼوَ حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪. ٢‬‬
‫حُلوزش حُظ‪٢‬‬
‫‪٣‬ؼظزَ حُوَٗخٕ حأل‪ٝ ٍٝ‬حُؼخٗ‪ ٢‬رؼي حُٔ‪٤‬الى ػالٓش ‪ٝ‬ح‪ٟ‬لش ك‪ ٢‬طط‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ، ٢‬طٔ‪ِ٤‬ص ‪ِ ٌٙٛ‬‬
‫ً‬
‫‪ٛٝ‬وال ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٓ ٢ٛٝ . ٢‬لخٍهش ألٗ‪ ٚ‬هالٍ‬ ‫‪٘٣‬خٍ اُ‪ٜ٤‬خ رخْٓ حُلظَس حٌُالٓ‪٤ٌ٤‬ش رخُظط‪ٍٞ‬حص حألًؼَ طويٓخ ً‬
‫‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُوَ‪ً ٕٝ‬خٗض حإلٓزَح‪٣ٍٞ١‬ش حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٤‬ش أك‪٤‬خٗخ ً أرخ‪َ١‬س ٓظ‪ٞ‬ك٘‪ٝ ٕٞ‬هخٍؿ‪ ٕٞ‬ػٖ حُوخٗ‪ٓ ٕٞ‬ؼَ ٗ‪ًٝ َٝ٤‬خُ‪٤‬ـ‪ٞ‬ال‬
‫‪ٝ‬ى‪٤ٓٝ‬ظ‪٤‬خٕ ‪ٝ .‬ك‪ًٍٝ ٢‬ط‪ً ٚ‬خٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٣ ٢‬ؼظزَ ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُلٌٔش حُؼِٔ‪٤‬ش ٖٓ حُ٘‪ٞ‬ع حٌُ‪ٜ٘٣ ُْ ١‬ي‪ ٙ‬حُؼخُْ‬
‫ٖٓ هزَ (هِ٘ي‪ٝ ٍٝ‬آهَ‪ ٖٓ )18.ٙ.1999،ٕٝ‬حُٔلظَٔ إٔ طٌ‪ ٌٙٛ ٕٞ‬حُلظَس ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬هي حٗظ‪ٜ‬ض رخُلَد‬
‫حأل‪٤ِٛ‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬ريأص ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 835‬رؼي حُٔ‪٤‬الى‪ .‬كُويص ٓؼظْ حُٔ‪ٜ‬خىٍ حُوي‪ٔ٣‬ش ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُٔخىّ‬
‫حُٔ‪٤‬الى‪ ١‬طلض اَٗحف حإلٓزَح‪ ٍٞ١‬ؿٔظ٘‪٤‬خٕ‪ ،‬هخّ حُلو‪ٜ‬خء حُز‪ِٗ٤‬ط‪ ٕٞ٤‬ربىهخٍ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔظ٘‪٤‬خٕ‬
‫ً‪ٍٞ‬ر‪ٝ ّٞ‬ؿ‪٤ٓ ْ٣ٍٞ‬لِ‪ٓ( ْ٤‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬كٔخ‪٣‬ش حُزَ٘‪٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬كٔخ‪٣‬ش حُل‪٤‬خس حإلٗٔخٗ‪٤‬ش) ‪ٝ‬طْ طؤ‪ْ٤‬‬
‫حُٔـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش اُ‪ ٢‬أٍرؼش أؿِحء ‪ :‬حُٔؼخ‪ٛ‬ي ‪ٝ ،‬حُِٔلوخص ‪ ،‬حُٔي‪ٗٝ‬ش ‪،‬حَُ‪ٝ‬ح‪٣‬خص‪ .‬كؼَ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٕٞ٤‬حُز‪ِٗ٤‬ط‪ٕٞ٤‬‬
‫أًؼَ ٖٓ ٗٔن هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُلظَحص حُٔخروش ‪ٝ‬أ‪ٟ‬خك‪ٞ‬ح ‪ٝ‬ػيُ‪ٞ‬ح حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ٝ ٖ٤‬حٓظَٔ‪ٝ‬ح ك‪ ٢‬حالرظؼخى ػٖ حًٌُ‪ٍٞ‬س ‪ٓ ٞٛٝ ،‬خ أٗـِ‪ٙٝ‬‬
‫ٖٓ هالٍ طوِ‪ َ٤‬حُظًَ‪ ِ٤‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حُـ‪ٞ‬حٗذ حُل٘‪٤‬ش ُإلؿَحءحص حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ‪ًٝ .‬خٕ ً‪ٍٞ‬ر‪ ّٞ‬ؿ‪ٗ ْ٣ٍٞ‬ظخؿخ الهظ‪٤‬خٍ رؼ‪ٞ‬‬
‫ك٘‪ ٕٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔخرن ‪ٍٝ‬ك‪ ٞ‬حألؿِحء حألهَ‪ ،ٟ‬طْ ط‪ ْ٤ٜٔ‬حُوخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬حُِٔو‪ٌُٗٞ٤ُ ٚ‬خ اػخىس ‪٤ٛ‬خؿش ًخِٓش ‪ٞٓٝ‬ػوش‬
‫ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪. ٢‬‬
‫ًخٕ حُـِء حألًؼَ أ‪٤ٔٛ‬ش ك‪ًٍٞ ٢‬ر‪ ّٞ‬ؿ‪ ٞٛ ٍّٞ‬حُِٔو‪ًٝ ٚ‬خٗض حهظ‪ٜ‬خٍحً ػ٘يٓخ حػظوي حُ ٌُظخد حٗ‪ ٚ‬أًؼَ حألؿِحء‬
‫ه‪ٔ٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حٌُظخرخص حُٔخروش‪.‬‬

‫‪11‬‬
claims and defenses rather than adhering to the fixed forms. After the mag-istrate discovered
what the issue was, he would set out in hypothetical terms in a written document known as a
formula (literally, a ―small form‖). The formula declared what law was involved in the
dispute and what a party had to establish in order to obtain recovery. The praetor could grant
a formula in a case in which there was no precedent. While unofficially the praetor was
making new law, he was considered just to be implementing existing law.
As Roman conquests expanded and Roman rule was extended over the western
Mediterranean in the third century bc, the number of noncitizens involved in the legal system
increased. At first, the system acted under the fiction that the foreigners were citizens. In 242
bc, a second praetorship was instituted; this praetor especially dealt with cases in which one
or both par-ties were not citizens. The two praetors were distinguished as ―urban‖ and
―peregrine.‖ The Romans considered that the civil law was their proud pos-session and should
not be extended indiscriminately to ―peregrines‖ (―travel-ers,‖ or noncitizens). In addition,
during this period Romans, being citizens, were expected to observe higher standards of
conduct than were foreigners. Accordingly, Roman law at that time consisted of two kinds of
institutions. There was the institute for Roman citizens, and a second one, the ―law of
nations‖ or ius gentium. The ius gentium was available to both citizens and noncitizens. Some
referred to the ius gentium as natural law; it was accepted that the law of nations and natural
law were similar because they were based not on traditional practice but on common sense, or
natural reason.
The first and second centuries ad are considered the high mark in the development of
Roman law. This era, referred to as the ―Classical period,‖ marked the most sophisticated and
refined developments in Roman law—a paradox, because during these centuries the Roman
Empire sometimes had brutal, lawless emperors such as Nero, Caligula, and Domitian. At its
apex, Roman law was considered ―a body of practical wisdom of a kind the world had not
seen before‖ (Glendon et al., 1999, p. 18). This period of Roman law likely ended with the
civil war that commenced around 235 ad.
Most of the ancient sources of Roman law were lost. In the sixth cen-tury ad under the
direction of Emperor Justinian, Byzantine jurists codi-fied Roman law into the Corpus Juris
Civilis of Justinian. Corpus Juris was divided into four parts: the Institutes, the Digests, the
Code, and the Novels. The Byzantine Roman lawyers did more than copy the law of earlier
periods. They added and modified laws and continued the movement away from for-malism,
which they accomplished by reducing the emphasis on the technical aspects of legal
procedure. The Corpus Juris was the product of selecting some parts of the prior law and
rejecting other parts. The Code and the Digest were designed to be the complete and
authoritative restatement of Roman law.
The most important part of the Corpus Juris was the Digest. It was a summary of what the
writers believed were the most valuable parts of prior

11
‫ػٖ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ٢‬ط٘خ‪ُٝ‬ض ٓ‪ٞ‬ح‪٤ٟ‬غ حأل‪َٟ‬حٍ ‪ٝ‬حُؼَحء حُـخثَ ‪ٝ‬حُؼو‪ٞ‬ى ‪ٓٝ‬زَ حالٗظ‪ٜ‬خف ‪ ٌ٘ٓٝ .‬إٔ طْ طيٓ‪َ٤‬‬
‫ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حٌُظخرخص حُٔخروش ػٖ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬طوَ‪٣‬زخ كوي أ‪ٛ‬زق حُٔ‪ٜ‬يٍ حَُث‪ُٔ ٢ٔ٤‬ؼَكظ٘خ ك‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٢‬‬
‫حُٔزٌَ ‪ .‬حكظ‪ٞ‬ص حُٔؼخ‪ٛ‬ي ػِ‪ ٚٗ ٢‬طٔ‪٤ٜ‬ي‪ُ ١‬طالد حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ً . ٢‬خٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ػزخٍس ػٖ ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٓ٘‪ٜ‬ـ‪٤‬ش ٖٓ‬
‫حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼخص حُٔخروش ‪ٝ‬حكظ‪ٞ‬ص حَُ‪ٝ‬ح‪٣‬خص ػِ‪ ٢‬حُظَ٘‪٣‬غ حٌُ‪ ١‬طْ ٓ٘‪ ٚ‬رؼي حًظٔخٍ حُٔي‪ٗٝ‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُِٔو‪.ٚ‬‬
‫رؼي ٓو‪ ١ٞ‬حإلٓزَح‪٣ٍٞ١‬ش حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٤‬ش ‪،‬حٓظويّ حُـِحس حألُٔخٗ‪ ٖ٤٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ُ ٢‬لٌْ ٍػخ‪٣‬خ‪ ْٛ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٕ ‪١ٝ‬زو‪ٞ‬ح‬
‫ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ْٜ٘٤‬حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش ػِ‪ٗ ٢‬ؼ‪ٞ‬ر‪ٝ . ْٜ‬رؼي ٓو‪ ١ٞ‬حإلٓزَح‪٣ٍٞ١‬ش ‪ٝ‬كظ‪ ٠‬اك‪٤‬خء حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُلخى‪ ١‬ػَ٘ ‪،‬‬
‫ط‪ُٞ‬ض حٌُ٘‪ٔ٤‬ش حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٤‬ش حٌُخػ‪٤ٌ٤ُٞ‬ش ٓ‪ٜ‬خّ حُلٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش ‪ٝ‬كَ‪ٟ‬ض هخٗ‪ٜٗٞ‬خ حٌُ٘ٔ‪ٓٝ ٢‬غ ًُي طْ طط‪ َ٣ٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حٌُ٘ٔ‪ٖٓ ٢‬‬
‫هالٍ ططز‪٤‬ن حُٔلخ‪ ْ٤ٛ‬حُٔٔ‪٤‬ل‪٤‬ش ػِ‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪. ٢‬‬
‫تدذٌذ اىقبّىُ اىشوٍبًّ ‪-:‬‬
‫ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ ،1050‬ىهِض أ‪ٍٝ‬رخ كظَس طل‪٤ٓ ٍٞ‬خٓ‪ٝ ٢‬حهظ‪ٜ‬خى‪ٝ ١‬ػوخك‪ٝ ، ٢‬أىص ػ‪ٞ‬ىس حُ٘ظخّ حُٔ‪٤‬خٓ‪ٝ ٢‬حالٓظوَحٍ‬
‫حالهظ‪ٜ‬خى‪ ١‬حُ٘ٔز‪ ٢‬اُ‪ ٢‬حُزلغ ػٖ آٌخٗ‪٤‬ش حُظ٘زئ ‪ٝ‬حألٓخُ‪٤‬ذ حُلؼخُش ُلَ حُِ٘حػخص ‪ٝ .‬حى‪ٌٛ ٟ‬ح حُزلغ اُ‪ ٢‬اك‪٤‬خء‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ . ٢‬ريأ حإلك‪٤‬خء ك‪ٔٗ ٢‬خٍ ح‪٣‬طخُ‪٤‬خ ك‪ٜٗ ٢‬خ‪٣‬ش حُوَٕ حُلخى‪ ١‬ػَ٘‪.‬‬
‫حؿظٔغ ‪١‬الد ٖٓ ؿٔ‪٤‬غ اٗلخء أ‪ٍٝ‬رخ ك‪ ٢‬ؿخٓؼش ر‪٤ُٗٞٞ‬خ ُالٓظٔخع اُ‪ٓ ٢‬لخ‪َٟ‬حص ػٖ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ٢‬أ‪ٛ‬زلض‬
‫حُـخٓؼش حًَُٔ ِ حَُحثي ُِظؼِْ حُوخٗ‪ًٔٝ ٢ٗٞ‬خ ًخٕ ر‪ٜ‬خ أ‪ٓ ٍٝ‬لظَكخص هخٗ‪ٓٝ ٕٞ‬ؼظٔ‪ٍ ٖٜ‬ح‪ٛ‬زخص ‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُزيح‪٣‬ش أػِٖ‬
‫حُٔلخ‪ َٕٟٝ‬طل‪ٞ‬م ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬ؿٔظ٘‪٤‬خٕ ‪ُ ،‬ػَف ‪ٛ‬ئالء حُٔلخ‪ َٕٟٝ‬ربْٓ "حُٔؼخؿْ" ألٗ‪ ْٜ‬كخ‪ُٞٝ‬ح اػخىس‬
‫حُز٘خء ريهش ‪َٗٝ‬ف حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ، ٖ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حالٗـِ‪٣ِ٤‬ش ‪ًِٔ ٢ٛ "gloss" ،‬ش آهَ‪" ٍ ٟ‬طؼِ‪٤‬ن ‪ٛ‬خٓ٘‪ "٢‬أ‪ "ٝ‬طؼَ‪٣‬ق "‪ٍ .‬أ‪ٟ‬‬
‫حُٔلخ‪ َٕٟٝ‬حُالكو‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُؼخُغ ػَ٘ ‪،‬إٔ ػِٔ‪٤ٌ٣ ْٜ‬ق حُو‪ٞ‬حٗزٖ حُظ‪ٞٗ ٢‬ه٘ض ك‪ ٢‬حُِٔو‪ٜ‬خص‬
‫ُِو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُٔؼخ‪َٛ‬س‪.‬‬
‫أ‪ٛ‬زق حُٔلخ‪ َٕٟٝ‬حُالكو‪٣ ٕٞ‬ؼَك‪ ٕٞ‬رخْٓ "حُٔ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ "ٖ٤ٜ‬ألٗ‪ ْٜ‬أ‪٠٣‬خ طؤػَ‪ٝ‬ح رَ‪ٝ‬ف حالٓظلٔخٍ حُؼوالٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حُـيٍ‬
‫حُظؤِٓ‪ً . ٢‬خٕ ط‪ٓٞ‬خّ ‪ ٖٟٔ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ ٌُٖٝ ٖ٤ٜ‬أٗ‪ً َْٜٛ‬خٕ رخٍط‪ ٖٓ ُْٞ‬ؿخٓؼش ر‪َٝ٤‬ؿ‪٤‬خ‪ (.‬رخٍط‪ ُٞٞ‬ى‪ٓ ١‬خًٔ‪ٞ‬ك‪َ٤‬حط‪ٞ‬‬
‫‪ُٝ )1357-1314-‬ي رخٍط‪ ، ُْٞ‬أٗ‪ٓ َٜ‬ؼِْ ك‪ٓ ٢‬يٍٓش حُلو‪ٜ‬خء حُـيُ‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 1314‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬خٓ‪ٞ‬ك‪َ٤‬حط‪ ٞٛٝ ، ٞ‬أ‪٠٣‬خ‬
‫ػِ‪ ٢‬ؿَحٍ رخٍط‪ ُٞٞ‬ى‪ٓ ١‬خًٔ‪ ٞ‬ك‪َ٤‬حط‪ٝ ٞ‬طؼ‪ٞ‬ى ٓٔؼظ‪ ٚ‬اُ‪ ٢‬طخٍ‪٣‬ن طؼ‪ ٚ٘٤٤‬ك‪ٜ٘ٓ ٢‬ذ ٍث‪ ْ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿخٓؼش‬
‫ر‪َٝ٤‬ؿ‪٤‬خ ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 1343‬ك‪٤‬غ كخ‪ُٞ٘ٔ َٟ‬حص ػي‪٣‬يس ‪ٍٝ‬كغ ‪٤ٛ‬ض ًِ‪٤‬ش حُلو‪ٞ‬م ك‪ ٢‬ر‪َٝ٤‬ؿ‪٤‬خ اُ‪ٔٓ ٢‬ظ‪ ٟٞ‬ر‪٤ُٗٞٞ‬خ ‪،‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬ط‪ٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 1357‬ك‪ ٢‬ر‪َٝ٤‬ؿ‪٤‬خ ‪٣ٝ .‬ؼظزَ رخٍط‪ ُْٞ‬حألٓظخً حٌُ‪ ١‬هيّ حُطَ‪٣‬وش حُـيُ‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬طيٍ‪ ْ٣‬حُوخٗ‪ٍٝ ٕٞ‬رٔخ‬
‫طَؿغ ٓٔؼظ‪ ٚ‬اُ‪ ٢‬كو‪٤‬وش أٗ‪ ٚ‬أػخى اك‪٤‬خء حُ٘ظخّ حُظلٔ‪ُ ١َ٤‬ظيٍ‪ ْ٣‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬رَ‪ٝ‬ف أػطظ‪ ٚ‬ك‪٤‬خس ؿي‪٣‬يس ‪ُٝ‬وي أ‪ٟ‬ل‪ ٠‬ػِ‪٢‬‬
‫طيٍ‪ ٚٔ٣‬كخثيس ػِٔ‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬هزَط‪ ٚ‬حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪.‬‬

‫‪12‬‬
writings on Roman law and dealt with the subjects of torts, unjust enrich-ment, contracts, and
remedies. Since almost all prior writings on Roman law have been destroyed, it has become
our principal source of knowledge about early Roman law. The Institutes contained an
introductory text for students of Roman law. The Code was a systematic collection of prior
legislation. The Novels contained the legislation that was enacted after the Code and the
Digest were completed.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Germanic invaders used Roman law to govern
their Roman subjects and applied their own law to their own people. After the fall of the
Empire and until the revival of Roman law in the eleventh century, the Roman Catholic
Church assumed the functions of government and imposed its canon law. Canon law,
however, was developed by applying Christian notions to Roman law.
Revival of Roman Law
About 1050, Europe entered a period of political, economic, and cultural transformation. The
return of political order and relative economic stabil-ity led to a search to establish
predictability and efficient methods of dispute resolution. This search led to the revival of
Roman law. The revival started in northern Italy around the end of the eleventh century.
Students from all over Europe assembled at the University of Bologna to hear lectures on
Roman law. The university became the leading center for legal learning. It also had the first
women law professionals, most of whom were nuns. At first, the lecturers proclaimed the
superiority of the Justinian Digests. These lecturers became known as ―glossators‖ because
they tried to reconstruct accurately and explain the Digests; in English, ―gloss‖ is another
word for ―marginal commentary‖ or ―definition.‖ Later lecturers, in about the thirteenth
century, saw their work as adapting the laws discussed in the Digests to contemporary issues.
The later lecturers became known as ―com-mentators‖ because they were also influenced by
the spirit of rational inquiry and speculative dialectic. Included in the commentators was
Thomas Aqui-nas. But the most famous was Bartolus (Bartolo de Saxoferrato, 1314–1357) of
the University of Perugia.
Bartolus, the most famous master of the dialectical school of jurists, was born in 1314, at
Sassoferrato, is also styled Bartolo de Saxoferrato. His repu-tation dates from his appointment
in 1343 to a chair of civil law in the Uni-versity of Perugia, where he lectured for many years,
raising the character of the law school of Perugia to equal that of Bologna. He died in 1357 at
Perugia. Bartolus is considered to have been the professor who introduced the dialec-tical
method of teaching law. His reputation probably owed more to the fact that he revived the
exegetical system of teaching law in a spirit that gave it new life. He imparted to his teaching
a practical interest, from the judicial

12
‫حُظ‪ ٢‬حًظٔز‪ٜ‬خ أػ٘خ ػِٔش ً ُٔو‪ُِٔ ْ٤‬لخًْ ك‪( ٢‬ط‪ٞ‬ى‪ ٝ ١‬ر‪ٔ٤‬خ ) ‪ٓ ،‬وخ‪١‬ؼظخٕ ك‪ ٢‬ا‪٣‬طخُ‪٤‬خ هزَ إٔ ‪٣‬ظ‪ٜ٘ٓ ٢ُٞ‬ذ أٓظخً ‪ٝ‬طُؼي‬
‫أُ‪َٝ١‬كخط‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٍٞ‬حإلؿَحءحص ‪ٝ‬حألىُش ٖٓ ر‪ ٖ٤‬أًؼَ أػٔخُش ه‪ٔ٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬هي حُػظزَ طؼِ‪٤‬و‪ ٚ‬ػِ‪ ٢‬ؿٔظ٘‪٤‬خٕ ك‪ ٢‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُزِيحٕ‬
‫ًحص ِٓطش ٓظٔخ‪٣ٝ‬ش ٓغ حُوخٗ‪ٗ ٕٞ‬لٔ‪(ٚ‬ح‪ُٔٝ‬خٕ‪ًٔ )1962،‬خ أُػ‪٤‬ي ر٘خء حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ٢‬أُٓظٌَٔ ر‪ٞ‬حٓطش‬
‫حُٔؼخؿْ ‪ٝ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ًٝ ٖ٤ٜ‬خٕ ‪٣‬ؼظزَ هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬أ‪ٍٝٝ‬رخ ‪ٜ٣ٝ ،‬ق ؿ‪ )1985( ١َ٘ٛ ٕٞ‬طِي حُلوزش ‪ً" :‬خٗض ‪٘ٛ‬خى ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش‬
‫ٓ٘ظًَش ٖٓ حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ٝ ٖ٤‬حٌُظخرش ػٖ حُوخٗ‪ُ ٝ ٕٞ‬ـش هخٗ‪٘ٓ ٕٞ‬ظًَش ‪٣َ١ٝ‬وش ٗخثؼش ُِظيٍ‪ٝ ْ٣‬حُٔ٘ق حُيٍحٓ‪٤‬ش ‪.‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ اىتدبسي ‪-:‬‬
‫ًٔخ ٗخه٘٘خ ٓخروخ ً ‪ً ،‬خٗض أ‪ٍٝ‬رخ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼ‪ ٍٜٞ‬حُ‪ٓٞ‬ط‪ ٢‬طُ٘ظْ رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حٌُ٘ٔ‪ ٢‬حٌُ‪ ١‬أ‪ٛ‬يٍط‪ٚ‬‬
‫حٌُ٘‪ٔ٤‬ش رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ًُ ٢‬ي طْ طط‪ٓ َ٣ٞ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ُِ ٖ٤‬ظؼخَٓ ٓغ حُظـخٍس حُ٘خٗجش ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُي‪ٝ ٍٝ‬حُظـخٍس‬
‫حُزلَ‪٣‬ش‪ .‬طط‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُظـخٍ‪ ١‬الٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حٌُ٘ٔ‪ٌٗٞ٣ ُْ ٢‬خ َٓٗخٕ رٔخ ‪ٌ٣‬ل‪ُِ ٢‬ظؼخَٓ ٓغ حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ‬
‫حُٔظؼِوش رخُٔؼخٓالص حُظـخٍ‪٣‬ش ‪ .‬أُٗ٘جض ٓلخًْ حُظـخٍ ‪ٝ‬هي ‪ٟٝ‬ؼض ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔلخًْ ري‪ٍٛٝ‬خ اؿَحءحط‪ٜ‬خ حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش ُظ٘ظ‪ْ٤‬‬
‫حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ‪ًٝ‬خٗض ه‪ٞ‬حػي‪ٓ ْٛ‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬ش ‪ُ ٜٚٔٔٓٝ‬ظَٔ‪٣‬غ حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ أٓخّ حُٔلخًْ ‪ٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘‪ٜ‬خ‪٣‬ش أ‪ٛ‬زق" هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُظخؿَ" ًٔخ‬
‫ٓٔ‪٤‬ض ه‪ٞ‬حػي‪٤ٛ ْٛ‬جش ى‪٤ُٝ‬ش ٖٓ حُو‪ٞ‬حػي حُظـخٍس حُٔوز‪ُٞ‬ش ‪ُ ٌُٖٝ.‬لظَس ٖٓ حُِٖٓ طْ طـخ‪ َٛ‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُظخؿَ ٖٓ هزَ‬
‫حُٔلخًْ حُٔيٗ‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬أ‪ٍٝٝ‬رخ ‪ٝ .‬ك‪ٜٗ ٢‬خ‪٣‬ش حُٔطخف ‪ٝ ،‬حكوض حُٔلخًْ حُٔيٗ‪٤‬ش رظَىى ػِ‪ ٢‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُظخؿَ رخػظزخٍ‪ٙ‬‬
‫ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ‪ٛ‬خُلش ‪.‬‬
‫َّىرج اىقبّىُ اىَذًّ ‪-:‬‬
‫أكٌخّ حُٔلخًْ ُ‪ُٜ ْ٤‬خ ه‪ٞ‬س اُِحٓ‪٤‬ش اال ك‪ ٢‬حألٓزخد حُظ‪ٛ ٢‬يٍص ك‪ٜ٤‬خ ‪ُ٣ ٝ ،‬لظَ ػِ‪ ٢‬حُو‪٠‬خس ك‪ٔٓ ٢‬خثَ حؿظ‪ٜ‬خى‪ْٛ‬‬
‫ا‪ٛ‬يحٍ أ‪ ١‬كٌْ ُِظطز‪٤‬ن حُؼخّ أ‪ ٝ‬حُالثلش ( حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ٌُُٓٞٞ ٢‬ز‪٤٤‬خ ‪ 1337‬حُٔخىس ‪ُ٣ )17‬ؼَف ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬أ‪٠٣‬خ رخْٓ "ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُظلو‪٤‬ن "ٖٓ ك‪٤‬غ إٔ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪َٓ ٢‬طز‪ ٢‬رٌَ٘ ػخّ رخُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ، ٢‬اال حٗ‪ ٚ‬ال‬
‫‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬اٍؿخػ‪ ٚ‬اُ‪ٜٓ ٢‬يٍ ‪ٝ‬حكي ‪٘ٛٝ‬خى حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُي‪ ٍٝ‬حُظ‪ ٢‬طٔظويّ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ٜ٘ٓ ٌَُٝ ٢‬خ أ‪ٛ‬خُظ‪ٜ‬خ‬
‫حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش ‪ .‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ؿٔظ٘‪٤‬خٕ ‪ ٞٛ‬كـَ حُِح‪٣ٝ‬ش ك‪ًٞٔٗ ٢‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬حُلخُ‪ً ( ٢‬خُلخ ‪ًُٔٞٝ‬خٕ‪.) 34.ٙ،2000،‬‬
‫طَ٘ٔ ى‪ ٍٝ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬كَٗٔخ ‪ٝ‬أُٔخٗ‪٤‬خ ‪ُ٘ٞٛٝ‬يح ‪ ٝ‬حُٔ‪٣ٞ‬ي ‪ٝ‬حُ٘ٔٔخ ‪َٔ٣ٞٓٝ‬ح ‪ٝ‬ح‪٣‬طخُ‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬حٓزخٗ‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬حُيٗٔخٍى‬
‫‪ٝ‬حَُ٘‪٣ٝ‬ؾ ‪ٝ‬كِ٘٘يح ‪ٝ‬رِـ‪ٌ٤‬خ ‪ ٝ‬حُزَطوخٍ ‪.‬ك‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٖ٤‬إٔ حُظط‪ ٍٞ‬حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪ُ٘ ٢‬ظخّ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٌٙٛ ٢‬حُزِيحٕ ٓؼوي ُِـخ‪٣‬ش‬
‫‪٣ٝ‬ؼ‪ٞ‬ى حُل‪ َ٠‬حٌُز‪ُ٘ َ٤٤‬خرِ‪ ٕٞ٤‬ر‪ٗٞ‬خر‪ٍٞ‬ص حٌُ‪ٗ ١‬ـغ حُظلي‪٣‬غ حُ٘خَٓ ‪.‬‬

‫‪13‬‬
experience he had acquired while acting as assessor to the courts at Todi and at Pisa before he
assumed a professorial chair. His treatises On Procedure and On Evidence are among his
most valuable works, and his Commentary on the Code of Justinian has in some countries
been regarded as of equal authority with the Code itself (Ullmann, 1962).
The Roman civil law as reconstructed and supplemented by the glossa-tors and
commentators was considered the law of Europe. John Henry Mer-ryman (1985) describes
the era: ―There was a common body of law and of writing about law, a common legal
language and a common method of teach-ing and scholarship.‖
Commercial Law
As discussed earlier, Europe in the Middle Ages was regulated by Roman law and canon law
handed down by the church. In addition, a body of law developed to deal with the emerging
commerce between countries and with maritime trade. Commercial law developed because
Roman law and canon law were not flexible enough to handle the issues involved in
commercial transactions. Merchants’ courts were established, and these courts in turn
established their own procedures to govern the cases. Their rules were infor-mal and designed
to expedite the issues before the courts. Eventually the ―law merchant,‖ as their rules were
called, became an international body of accepted commercial rules. For a period of time,
however, the law merchant was ignored by the civil courts in Europe. Eventually the civil
courts reluc-tantly accepted the law merchant as a valid body of law.
Civil Law Model
The judgments of the courts have no binding force except in the causes in which they are
rendered. Judges are forbidden in matters of their jurispru-dence to make any ruling of
general application or regulation. (Civil Code of Colombia, 1887, Article 17)
The civil law model is also known as the ―inquisitorial model.‖ While civil law is commonly
tied to Roman law, it cannot be traced to a single source. There are many nations that use the
civil law model, and each of them has its own originality. The Justinian Code is the
cornerstone of today’s civil law model (Calvi & Coleman, 2000, p. 34).
The civil law countries include France, Germany, the Netherlands, Swe-den, Austria,
Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Belgium, and Portugal. While
the historical development of the civil law system in these countries is quite complicated,
much of the credit is given to Napoleon Buonaparte, who encouraged comprehensive
modernization

13
‫ُِ٘ظخّ حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬حأل‪ٍٝ‬ر‪ًٝ ٢‬ـِء ٖٓ هطظ‪ ٚ‬أل‪ٍٝٝ‬رخ حُٔظليس ‪ ٚٗ ،‬ػَ ‪٤ٛ‬خؿش هخٗ‪ٗ ٕٞ‬خرِ‪ ٕٞ٤‬حُٔيٗ‪ ، ٢‬حٌُ‪ ١‬اكظ‪ٟٞ‬‬
‫ػِ‪ ٢‬اػخىس حُ‪٤ٜ‬خؿش ُِٔزخىة حُوي‪ٔ٣‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ‪ٜ‬طِلخص حُلي‪٣‬ؼش ( أ‪ٝ‬ر‪ُٞٞ‬ص ‪ )1980،.10ٙ ،‬حٓظويٓض آزخٗ‪٤‬خ‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُزَطوخٍ ُٔ٘‪ٞ‬حص ػي‪٣‬يس حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ُٔ ٢‬ؼظْ حألؿَح‪٣ ، ٝ‬يػ‪ ٢‬ح‪ٝ‬ر‪ُٞٞ‬ص إٔ ٌٓخٕ آزخٗ‪٤‬خ أ‪ٛ‬زل‪ٞ‬ح ٓي‪ٖ٤ٗٝ‬‬
‫َُِ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ٖ٤٤‬حُالط‪ ٖ٤٤٘٤‬رخٌُخَٓ ػِ‪ ٢‬أٓخّ حُظؤػ‪ َ٤‬حُؼوخك‪ . )11ٙ( ٢‬طْ ٗوَ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ًٔ ٢‬خ ‪ٔ٣‬خٍّ ك‪ ٢‬آزخٗ‪٤‬خ‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُزَطوخٍ اُ‪ ٢‬أَٓ‪ٌ٣‬خ حُالط‪٤٘٤‬ش ٖٓ هزَ حُـِحس ‪ٝ‬حُٔٔظ‪ ٖ٤٘١ٞ‬ح‪٥‬هَ‪ٝ ٖ٣‬أ‪ٛ‬زق ؿِء ٖٓ حُؼوخكش ‪ ،‬طٔخٓخ ًٔخ كؼِض‬
‫حُِـظخٕ حالٓزخٗ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُزَطـخُ‪٤‬ش ‪ً ،‬خٕ ٗٔ‪ٗ ٢‬وَ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ٓ ٢‬ظ٘خر‪ٜ‬خ ً ُِـخ‪٣‬ش ‪ٗ ،‬وَ حُلَٗٔ‪ ٕٞ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪٢‬‬
‫اُ‪ ٢‬حُـِحثَ ‪ٝ‬حُ٘‪٤‬ـَ ‪ٝ‬ط‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٓٝ ٞ‬خُ‪ٝ ٢‬ط٘خى ‪ٝ‬ؿٍِ حُؤَ( ‪٣‬ؼظزَ حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬حُلخُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٍِ حُؤَ ٗظخٓخ‬
‫ٓوظِطخ ً ‪ ،‬ك‪٤‬غ طٌَ٘ حُوخٗ‪ ٖ٤ٗٞ‬حُلَٗٔ‪ٝ ٢‬حإلٓالٓ‪ ٢‬أٓخٓخ ُوخٗ‪ٞٓ ٕٞ‬كي ؿي‪٣‬ي )‪ٗ .‬وَ حُزِـ‪ٗ ٕٞ٤ٌ٤‬ظخٓ‪ ْٜ‬حُوخٗ‪٢ٗٞ‬‬
‫اُ‪ ٢‬أؿِحء ٖٓ ‪َٗٝ ٢ٓٝ‬م أكَ‪٣‬و‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ،‬أهٌ حُٔٔظ‪ ٕٞ٘١ٞ‬حُزَطـخُ‪ٗ ٕٞ٤‬ظخٓ‪ ْٜ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬اُ‪ ٢‬حٗـ‪ٞ‬ال ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪٤٘٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬ر‪ٔ٤‬خ‬
‫‪ٝ‬ؿٍِ حَُأّ حأله‪ُٞٓٝ َ٠‬ر‪٤‬ن ‪ٝ .‬كَ‪ ٝ‬حألٓزخٕ ٗظخٓ‪ ْٜ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٜ‬لَحء حإلٓزخٗ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪٤٘٤‬خ حالٓظ‪ٞ‬حث‪٤‬ش‬
‫‪ٝ،‬كَ‪ ٝ‬حال‪٣‬طخُ‪ ٕٞ٤‬كٌٔ‪ ْٜ‬ػٖ ُ‪٤‬ز‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٜٓٞ‬خٍ (ح‪ٝ‬ر‪ُٞ‬ض ‪َٔ٣ .)1980 ،‬ى ح‪ٝ‬ر‪ُٞ‬ض ٓزخىة حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪٢‬‬
‫حُ٘ل‪ ٞ‬حُظخُ‪: ٢‬حٗ‪ٗ ٚ‬ظخّ طلو‪٤‬ن ‪٘ٛٝ ،‬خُي حٓظويحّ ٓليى ُ‪٤ٜ‬جش حُٔلِل‪٣ٝ ٖ٤‬ئًي ػِ‪ ٢‬حٗ‪ ٚ‬هخٗ‪ٌٓ ٕٞ‬ظ‪ٞ‬د ‪٣ ُْٝ‬ظْ‬
‫حٓظويحٓ‪ٓ ٚ‬خروخ ‪.‬‬
‫َّىرج اىقبّىُ اىعبً ‪ -:‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ٝ ٖ٤‬حُو‪ٞ‬حػي حُلو‪٤ٜ‬ش حُظ‪٘ٗ ٢‬ؤص ‪ٝ‬طط‪ٍٞ‬ص ‪٤ٛٝ‬ـض‬
‫‪ٝ‬أُى‪َ٣‬ص ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح ‪٣ .‬ظؤُق حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ٖٓ ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش حُٔزخىة ‪ٝ‬ه‪ٞ‬حػي حُؼَٔ حُٔٔظٔيس ٖٓ حألػَحف حُٔخثيس ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُؼ‪ ٍٜٞ‬حُوي‪ٔ٣‬ش ( هخٓ‪ ّٞ‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬رالى ) ‪ .‬حُ‪٣ ّٞ٤‬ؼظزَ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؿخ ً ػيحث‪٤‬خ ً ‪ٝ‬طَ٘ٔ حُزِيحٕ حُظ‪٢‬‬
‫طٔظويّ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ً٘ٝ‬يح ‪ٝ‬حٌُِٔٔش حُٔظليس ‪ٓٝ‬ؼظْ حُٔٔظؼَٔحص حُزَ‪٣‬طخٗ‪٤‬ش حُٔخروش رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي‬
‫أٓظَحُ‪٤‬خ ‪ِ٘٣ُٞ٤ٗٝ‬يح ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٜ٘‬ي ‪ٝ‬أؿِحء ٖٓ أكَ‪٣‬و‪٤‬خ ‪٘ٓٝ‬طوش حُزلَ حٌُخٍ‪٣‬ز‪٣ . ٢‬ظظزغ ٓؼظْ حُٔئٍه‪ ٖ٤‬أ‪ َٛ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح ك‪ ٢‬ػ‪ٜ‬ي ‪٤ِ٣ٝ‬خّ حُلخطق ( هخثي حُـ‪ ١ٌُ ٖ٤‬حٗظ‪ َٜ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُلَد ) ‪ٝ‬ك‪ٝ ٢‬هض ؿِ‪ ٝ‬اٗـِظَح ُْ ‪٘ٛ ٌٖ٣‬خى هخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫ؿ٘خث‪ٞٓ ٢‬كي آٌٗحى ‪.‬‬
‫طٔض ًظخرش أ‪ ٍٝ‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬اٗـِ‪ٓ ١ِ٤‬ؼَ‪ٝ‬ف ك‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُٔخرغ ٖٓ هزَ حُِٔي أ‪٣‬ؼِزَص ‪ًٝ‬خٗض ط‪٣َٜ‬لخط‪ ٚ‬ػٖ حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫طٔٔ‪" ٢‬حُؼٌحد " ‪ٝ‬طؤػَص ر٘‪٤‬ش حُطزوش حالؿظٔخػ‪٤‬ش ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض ‪ٝ ،‬ؿخُزخ" ٓخ ‪٣‬ظْ طلي‪٣‬ي حُؼو‪ٞ‬رخص ك‪ ٢‬ظَ حُؼٌحد‬
‫ٖٓ هالٍ ‪ٟٝ‬غ حُ‪٠‬ل‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ُ٣ ،‬ؼخهذ ػِ‪ ٢‬حَُٔهش ٖٓ ٍؿَ ٓويّ رـَحٓش طزِؾ ػالػش أ‪ٟ‬ؼخف‬
‫ه‪ٔ٤‬ش حُٔٔظٌِخص حَُٔٔ‪ٝ‬هش ‪ٝ ،‬ر‪ٔ٘٤‬خ ‪ُ٣‬ؼخهذ ػِ‪ ٢‬حَُٔهش ٖٓ حُِٔي رـَحٓش طزِؾ طٔؼش أ‪ٟ‬ؼخف ه‪ٔ٤‬ش حُٔٔظٌِخص أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫رخإلػيحّ ‪.‬‬

‫‪14‬‬
Of the Continental legal system and, as part of his plan for a united Europe, provided for the
drafting of the Napoleonic Code Civil, which contained a restatement of the ancient principles
in modern terms (Opolot, 1980, p. 10). Spain and Portugal had for many years used the
Roman law for most purposes. Opolot claims that Spain’s inhabitants had become thoroughly
romanized on the basis of cultural influence (p. 11).
The civil law, as practiced in Spain and Portugal, was transported to Latin America by the
conquistadores and other settlers and became part of the culture, just as the Spanish and
Portuguese languages did. The pattern of transporting the civil law model to Africa was very
similar. The French car-ried civil law into Algeria, Niger, Togo, Mali, Chad, and the Comoro
Islands (the present legal model in the Comoro Islands is considered a mixed system, since
both French and Islamic law formed the basis of a new consolidated code). Belgians
transported their legal system into parts of Central and East Africa. Portuguese settlers took
their legal system into Angola, Guinea Bis-sau, the Cape Verde Islands, and Mozambique.
The Spanish imposed their legal system in the Spanish Sahara and Equatorial Guinea. The
Italians imposed theirs in Libya and Somaliland (Opolot, 1980).
Opolot (1980) lists the tenets of civil law as follows: it is an inquisitorial system; there is
limited use of the jury; it emphasizes a written code; and precedent is not used.
Common Law Model
Common law is that body of law and juristic rules which was originated, developed,
formulated, and administered in England … common law com-prises the body of principles
and rules of action … which are derived from usages and customs of immemorial antiquity.
(Black’s Law Dictionary)
The common law model is regarded as an ―adversarial‖ model. Today, countries that use
common law include the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, and most of the former
British colonies including Australia, New Zealand, India, and parts of Africa and the
Caribbean. Most historians trace the origin of the common law in England to the reign of
William the Con-queror. At the time of his conquest of England (1066), there was no uniform
criminal law there.
The first known English code had been written in the seventh century by King Aethelbert.
His proclamations of the code were called ―dooms,‖ and were influenced by the social class
structure of the time. Punishments under the dooms were often determined by the status of the
victim. For example, stealing from a holy man was punished by a fine three times the value of
the property stolen, whereas stealing from the king was punished by a fine nine times the
value of the property—or by death.

14
‫ػ٘يٓخ حٓظ‪٤ُٝ ٠ُٞ‬خّ ‪ٝ‬أَٓحء‪ ٙ‬حُ٘‪ٍٓٞ‬خٗي‪ ٕٞ٣‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُؼَٕ طْ طؤ‪ ْ٤‬اٗـِظَح اُ‪٘ٓ ٢‬خ‪١‬ن هزِ‪٤‬ش طُؼَف رؤْٓ "ٗ‪" َّ٤‬‬
‫( ٓوخ‪١‬ؼخص ٗخ‪ َ٣‬ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح) ‪ًٝ .‬خٗض حُؼيحُش طُيحٍ ٖٓ هزَ " ٗ‪٣ٍ ١َ٤‬لِ" ( حَُ٘‪٣‬ق طؼ٘‪ ٢‬حُٔوظ‪ ٚ‬رللع حألٖٓ‬
‫"ٗ‪ "َ٤‬طؼ٘‪ٔٓ ٢‬ؼَ حُِٔي ‪ٝ‬رخُظخُ‪ ٢‬حُٔؼ٘‪ٔٓ( ٢‬ؼَ حُِٔي ُللع حألٖٓ ) حٌُ‪ ١‬طَأّ ٓلخًْ ٗخ‪ٝ َ٣‬أ‪ٛ‬زق ٗ‪١َ٤‬‬
‫ٍ‪٣‬لِ ‪٣‬ؼَف ك‪ٔ٤‬خ رؼي رخْٓ " حُ ُؼٔي" هز َ حُلظق ‪ًٝ ،‬خٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬هخثٔخ ػِ‪ ٠‬حألػَحف حُوي‪ٔ٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬ط٘‪ٞ‬ع ٓغ ًَ ٓ٘طوش‬
‫هزِ‪٤‬ش ‪ًٝ‬خٕ ٗ‪٤ٔ٣ ١َ٤‬طَ ػِ‪ٓ ًَ ٢‬وخ‪١‬ؼش ‪ٝ‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ‪٤ٔ٣‬طَ ػِ‪ ٢‬حُٔلخًْ ك‪ ٢‬طِي حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش ‪ ٌ٘ٓٝ‬إٔ كيى ٗ‪١َ٤‬‬
‫ٍ‪٣‬لِ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش ُْ ‪٘ٛ ٌٖ٣‬خُي ٗظخّ حٗـِ‪ٞٓ ١ِ٤‬كي ‪ .‬ط‪ ْ٤ِ٣ٝ ٢ُٞ‬اىحٍس ٓلخًْ حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص ‪ٝ‬ؿؼِ‪ٜ‬خ ٓلٌٔش‬
‫ٌِٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬أٍَٓ ٓٔؼِ‪ ٖ٤‬اُ‪ ٢‬حُٔلخًْ ُظٔـ‪ َ٤‬هَحٍحط‪ ْٜ‬ػْ ‪ُٝ‬ع هَحٍحص ٓلخًْ ٓوظخٍس ‪ٗٝ .‬ظَح َُ‪ٝ‬ط‪ ٌٙٛ ٖ٤‬حُٔلخًْ ‪،‬‬
‫أ‪ٛ‬زق ٖٓ حٌُٖٔٔ حُظ٘زئ روَحٍحط‪ٜ‬خ رخَُؿ‪ٞ‬ع اُ‪ ٢‬ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ٓٔخػِش حُظ‪ ٢‬طْ طلي‪٣‬ي‪ٛ‬خ ‪َٛ٘ٗٝ‬خ ‪ ٌ٘ٓ .‬حُزيح‪٣‬ش ‪ٓ ٍِٞ ُ١ ،‬زيأ‬
‫"‪َٓ(" stare decisis‬حػخس ‪ٝ‬حكظَحّ حُٔ‪ٞ‬حرن حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش (ك‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُظخٓغ ػَ٘ ‪ .‬هخّ ‪ ْ٤ِ٣ٝ‬رظـٔ‪٤‬غ هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُـَحثْ‬
‫حٌُ‪ ١‬الكظظ‪ٓ ٚ‬ؼظْ ٓ٘خ‪١‬ن حٌُِٔٔش رٌَ٘ ٓ٘ظَى ‪ٝ‬أ‪ٛ‬زلض ‪ ٌٙٛ‬ؿَحثْ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ك‪ ٢‬أٗـِظَح ‪.‬‬
‫ُ‪ٟ ًْٞ‬ي ‪ٛ‬خؿ‪ً 69، ٖ٤‬خٍ‪)1886( 10.674.ٙ،255.‬‬
‫ػ٘ي حُظلون ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ك‪ ٢‬حٗـِظَح ‪٣ ،‬ـ‪ُ٘ ُٞ‬خ ‪٣ٝ‬ـذ ػِ‪٘٤‬خ كل‪ٞٓٝ ٚ‬حُٗش أٓزخد حُوَحٍحص ‪ ْ٤ُ ،‬كو‪٢‬‬
‫ُِٔلخًْ حالٗـِ‪٣ِ٤‬ش ‪ ٌُٖٝ‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ُٔلخًْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ ٝ‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص كظ‪ ٠‬حُ‪ٞ‬هض حُلخ‪ٗ ، َٟ‬لٖ ال‬
‫ٗوظ‪ َٜ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘ظَ ك‪ ٢‬حُوَحٍحص حالٗـِ‪٣ِ٤‬ش حُ‪ٜ‬خىٍس هزَ ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ . 1776 ٞ٤ُٞ٣ 4‬حُو‪ ٍٞ‬رخٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ك‪٢‬‬
‫اٗـِظَح ‪٣‬ظ ٌ‪ٓ ٖٓ ٕٞ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُٔزخىة حُٔ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ىس ك‪ ٢‬أٍحء حُلٌٔخء ‪ ،‬أ‪ٔٓ ٝ‬ظوِ‪ٜ‬ش ٖٓ حالٓظويحّ حُؼخُٔ‪ ٢‬حُوي‪ْ٣‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬طِو‪ ٢‬ػو‪ٞ‬رخص حُٔلخًْ رٌَ٘ طيٍ‪٣‬ـ‪. ٢‬طْ حٓظ‪َ٤‬حى ٖٓ هزَ أٓالك٘خ حالٓظؼٔخٍ‪ ، ٖ٤٣‬رويٍ ٓخ ًخٕ هخرَ ُظطز‪٤‬ن ‪ٝ‬طٔض‬
‫حُٔ‪ٞ‬حكوش ػِ‪ ٖٓ ٚ٤‬هزَ حُٔ‪٤‬ؼخم حٌُِٔ‪ٝ ٢‬طْ حُؼؼ‪ ٍٞ‬ػِ‪ ٢‬أك‪ َ٠‬ىُ‪ َ٤‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ُ ٕٞ‬ؼخّ ك‪ ٢‬هَحٍحص حُٔلخًْ ك‪ ٢‬هَحٍحص‬
‫حُٔلخًْ ‪ ،‬حُ‪ٞ‬حٍىس ك‪ٓ ٢‬ـِيحص ػي‪٣‬يس ٖٓ حُظوخٍ‪ٝ َ٣‬ك‪ ٢‬أ‪َٝ١‬كخص ‪ِٓٝ‬و‪ٜ‬خص حُؼِٔخء حُظ‪ ٢‬ط‪٠‬خػلض ٌٓ٘ حُلظَحص‬
‫حأل‪ ٖٓ ٢ُٝ‬حُظخٍ‪٣‬ن حالٗـِ‪ ١ِ٤‬كظ‪ ٠‬حُ‪ٞ‬هض حُلخ‪. َٟ‬‬
‫‪َٔ٣‬ى ح‪ٞ٣ُٞٝ‬ص ( ‪ ) 38 . ٙ . 198‬حُٔزخىة حُظخُ‪٤‬ش ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ "حٗ‪ ٚ‬ؿ‪ٌٓ َ٤‬ظ‪ٞ‬د اُ‪ ٢‬كي ًز‪ " َ٤‬حٗ‪٣ ٚ‬لظ‪ ١ٞ‬ػِ‪٢‬‬
‫ٓزيأ َٓحػخس حُٔ‪ٞ‬حرن حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪،‬أٗش ٗظخّ ػيحث‪ٔ٣ٝ ٢‬ظويّ حَُٔحؿؼش حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُٔلخًٔش ٖٓ هزَ ‪٤ٛ‬جش حُٔلِل‪. ٖ٤‬‬
‫اىَْىرج اإلسالًٍ‪:‬‬
‫حإلٓالّ ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٗخِٓش ٖٓ حُ‪ٞ‬حؿزخص حُي‪٤٘٣‬ش ‪ٓ ٞٛٝ ،‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش أ‪ٝ‬حَٓ هللا حُظ‪ ٢‬ط٘ظْ ك‪٤‬خس ًَ ِْٓٔ ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ‬
‫ؿ‪ٞ‬حٗز‪ٜ‬خ ‪.‬‬

‫‪15‬‬
 When William and his Norman lords seized the throne, England was divided into
tribal areas known as ―shires.‖ Justice was administered by ―shire-reeves‖ who
presided over the shire courts. The shire-reeves later became known as ―sheriffs.‖ Prior
to the conquest, the law was based on ancient cus-tom and varied with each tribal area.
Each county was controlled by a shire-reeve who also controlled the courts in that
county. Since the shire-reeve determined the law in the county, there was no uniform
English system.
William took over the county courts and made them royal courts. He sent
representatives to the courts to record their decisions and then distrib-uted selected
court decisions. As the routine of these courts became firmly established, it became
possible to predict their decisions by reference to simi-lar cases that had been decided
and published. From this beginning, the doc-trine of stare decisis developed in the
eighteenth century. William compiled the law of crimes that most areas of the kingdom
observed in common. These became the common law crimes of England.
Lux v. Haggin, 69 Cal. 255, 10 P. 674 (1886)
In ascertaining the common law of England, we may and should examine and weigh
the reasoning of the decisions, not only of the English courts, but also of the courts of
the United States and of the several states, down to the present time. We are not limited
to the consideration of the English decisions rendered prior to July 4, 1776. The
common law of England may be said to consist of a collection of principles found in
the opinions of sages, or deduced from universal and immemorial usage, and receiving
progressively the sanction of the courts. It was imported by our colonial ancestors, so
far as it was applicable, and was sanctioned by royal char-ters. The best evidence of the
common law is found in the decisions of the courts, contained in numerous volumes of
reports, and in the treatises and digests of scholars which have been multiplying from
the earliest periods of English history down to the present time.
Opolot (1980, p. 38) lists the following tenets of common law: it is largely
unwritten; it contains the principle of stare decisis; it is an adversary system; it uses
judicial review; it utilizes trial by jury.
Islamic Model
The sacred law of Islam is an all-embracing body of religious duties, the total-ity of
Allah’s commands that regulate the life of every Muslim in all its aspects.

15
‫ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حُؤْ ٓ٘٘خهٖ حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬الكوخ ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘‪٤ٓ ٚ‬ظْ ٓ٘خه٘ش حطـخ‪ٛ‬خص ‪ٝ‬طلي‪٣‬غ حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ك‪٢‬‬
‫رِيحٕ ٓؼَ ٓ‪ٝ َٜ‬أكـخٗٔظخٕ ‪ٝ‬رخًٔظخٕ ‪.‬‬
‫حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ ٢ٛ‬هال‪ٛ‬ش حُلٌَ حإلٓالٓ‪ . ٢‬إ حُو‪ٞ٠‬ع حُظخّ ‪ٝ‬حُـ‪ ١َٝ٘ٓ َ٤‬إلٍحىس هللا (هللا ) ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬زيأ‬
‫أٓخٓ‪ٓ ٖٓ ٢‬زخىة حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ .‬حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ ٢ٛ‬رزٔخ‪١‬ش طؼز‪ َ٤‬ػٖ أ‪ٝ‬حَٓ هللا ُِٔـظٔغ طوغ ػِ‪٢‬‬
‫ػخطن حُِٔٔٔ‪ ٖ٤‬رلٌْ ٓؼظويحط‪ ْٜ‬حُي‪٤٘٣‬ش ‪ٝ .‬طٌَ٘ حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ ،‬حُٔؼَ‪ٝ‬كش رخْٓ حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش ‪ٔٓ ،‬خٍحً ٓؼ‪٘٤‬خ ً ٖٓ‬
‫حُِٔ‪ٞ‬ى حإلُ‪ٞ٣ ٢ٜ‬ؿ‪ ٚ‬حُِٔٔٔ‪ٗ ٖ٤‬ل‪ ٞ‬طؼز‪ َ٤‬ػِٔ‪ ٢‬ػٖ ه٘خط‪ ْٜ‬حُي‪٤٘٣‬ش ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حُؼخُْ ‪ٛٝ‬يف حُ٘ؼٔش حإلُ‪٤ٜ‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ح‪٥‬هَس ‪.‬‬
‫‪٣‬ؼظوي حُِٔٔٔ‪ ٕٞ‬إٔ ٓلٔي ُْ ‪٣‬ؤص ُِؼخُْ رٌِٔش هللا ػِ‪ ٌَٗ ٢‬حُوَإٓ كلٔذ ‪ ،‬رَ أ‪٠٣‬خ هخٗ‪ٗٞ‬خ ً اُ‪٤ٜ‬خ ً هخ‪ ٙ‬رخإلٓالّ ‪،‬‬
‫‪ ٞٛٝ‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬طَى ؿٌ‪ ٍٙٝ‬رخٌُخَٓ ك‪ ٢‬حُوَحٕ ‪ ٌٖ٣ ُْ ٌُٖٝ‬طزِ‪ ٌٖٔٓ ٍٙٞ‬ري‪ ٕٝ‬أه‪ٞ‬حٍ ‪ٝ‬أكؼخٍ حَُٓ‪ . ٍٞ‬طؼظزَ ٓيحٍّ‬
‫حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش حُٔ٘‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُ٘‪٤‬ؼش ‪ ،‬إٔ ٓ٘ش حُ٘ز‪ ) ٙ( ٢‬أ كؼخٍ ‪ٝ‬أه‪ٞ‬حٍ ‪ٝ‬أكخى‪٣‬غ رٔؼخرش حُٔ‪ٜ‬يٍ حألٓخٓ‪٣َُِ٘ ٢‬ؼش‬
‫حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش رؼي حُوَإٓ ك‪ ٢‬حإلٓالّ ‪ ،‬كظ‪ ٠‬حُ٘ز‪َ٘ٓ ْ٤ُ ٢‬ػخ ك‪ ٢‬كي ًحط‪ . ٚ‬ريال ٖٓ ًُي كخٕ هللا ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘‪ٜ‬خ‪٣‬ش ‪ٞٛ‬‬
‫حَُٔ٘ع حُ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ي ‪٣‬ؼظوي حُِٔٔٔ‪ٓ ٕٞ‬غ ًُي إٔ ٓلٔيحَ ر‪ٜ‬لظ‪ٗ ٚ‬ز‪ ٢‬هللا ػَف حإلٍحىس حإلُ‪٤ٜ‬ش ًٔخ ًخٕ ٖٓ حُٔلظَ‪ ٝ‬إٔ‬
‫‪٣‬ظْ طي‪ٜ٘٣ٝ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ٌُُ ٝ‬ي ُؼزض أكؼخُ‪ٝ ٚ‬هَحٍحط‪ ٚ‬حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ى‪ٍٝ‬حَ الؿ٘‪ ٠‬ػ٘ش ك‪ ٢‬طي‪ ٖ٣ٝ‬حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش ك‪٢‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬هض الكن ٖٓ هزَ ٓوظِق حُٔيحٍّ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ( ر‪َٓ٤‬خٕ ‪ . )2005 ،‬طظٌ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼِٔ‪٤‬ش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ٖٓ ؿِأ‪: ٖ٣‬‬
‫حُٔلخًٔش ‪ٝ‬اىحٍس حُؼو‪ٞ‬رخص اًح ُِّ حألَٓ ‪ .‬حُـَ‪ ٖٓ ٝ‬حُٔلخًٔش ‪ ٞٛ‬طلي‪٣‬ي ‪َ١‬ف ػخُغ ُ‪ٔ٠‬خٕ حُؼيحُش ‪.‬اىحٍس ؿِء‬
‫ٖٓ حُؼو‪ٞ‬رخص ٓ٘خر‪ُ ٚ‬ـِٔش حُؼوخد ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪.‬‬
‫حُ‪ٜ‬يف حألٓخٓ‪٣َُِ٘ ٢‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪٘ٓ ٞٛ‬غ حَُ٘ ‪ُِٝ ،‬وخٗ‪ٓ ٕٞ‬زيإٔ ‪ٔٛ‬خ حُٔٔخ‪ٝ‬حس ‪ٝ‬كٖٔ حُ٘‪٤‬ش ‪ٝٝ .‬كوخ ال‪ٝ‬ر‪ُٞٞ‬ص‬
‫(‪ . ) 82ٙ .1980‬حُوخٗ‪ ٞٛ ٕٞ‬أًؼَ حألٗظٔش حُظ‪ ٢‬طًَِ ػِ‪ ٢‬حُ‪٠‬ل‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬طخٍ‪٣‬ن حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ‪ٗ ًَِ٣ٝ‬ظخّ‬
‫حُؼيحُش ػِ‪ ٖٓ ًَ ٢‬حُ‪٠‬ل‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُـخٗ‪ ْ٤ُ ، ٢‬كو‪ ٢‬حُٔلخًٔش ‪ ٌُٖٝ‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ً رؼي حإلىحٗش‪.‬‬
‫اىَْىرج االشتشامً ‪-:‬‬
‫طْ طط‪ًٞٔٗ َ٣ٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حالٗظَحً‪ ٢‬أل‪َٓ ٍٝ‬س ك‪٤ٍٓٝ ٢‬خ رؼي آظ‪٤‬الء حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬ػ‪ ٖ٤٤‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حُِٔطش ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪1917‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬كَُ‪ ٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ أٗلخء حالطلخى حُٔ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ظ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬ػَ٘‪٤٘٣‬خص حُوَٕ حُٔخ‪ . ٢ٟ‬رؼي حُلَد حُؼخُٔ‪٤‬ش حُؼخٗ‪٤‬ش ‪ ،‬كَُ‪ٝ‬‬
‫حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ظ‪ ٢‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ً ػِ‪ ٢‬حألٗظٔش حُظ‪ ٖٔ٤ٜ٣ ٢‬ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ ٓؼ‪ٜ‬ي طٌ٘‪ُٞٞ‬ؿ‪٤‬خ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص ك‪َٗ ٢‬م ‪٢ٓٝٝ‬‬
‫أ‪ٍٝٝ‬رخ ‪ .‬ك‪ٝ ٢‬هض الكن طز٘ض حألكِحد حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬ػ‪٤‬ش حُلٌٔش ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ًٞٝ ٖ٤ٜ‬رخ ‪٣ًٍٞٝ‬خ حُ٘ٔخُ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬ك‪٤‬ظ٘خّ ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش‬
‫ٓظ٘‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ظ‪ ، ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ظ‪ ٢‬حٌُ‪ ١‬طـ‪ َ٤‬ؿٌٍ‪٣‬خ ٌٓ٘ ‪َ١‬ك‪ ٚ‬أل‪َٓ ٍٝ‬س ك‪ ٢‬حالطلخى حُٔ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ظ‪، ٢‬‬
‫أػخى اك‪٤‬خء رؼ‪ٔٓ ٞ‬خص هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُو‪ َٜ٤‬حُٔخرن ‪.‬‬

‫‪16‬‬
In this section, we will discuss traditional Islamic law, later in the text the trends and
modernization of Islamic law in countries such as Egypt, Afghan-istan, and Pakistan will be
discussed.
Islamic law is the epitome of Islamic thought. Total and unqualified submission to the will
of Allah (God) is a fundamental tenet of Islamic law. Islamic law is simply an expression of
Allah’s commands for Muslim society. Islamic law has been described as a system of duties
that are incumbent upon Muslims by virtue of their religious beliefs. Known as shari’ah,
Islamic law constitutes a divinely ordained path of conduct that guides Muslims toward a
practical expression of their religious conviction in this world and the goal of divine favor in
the world to come.
Muslims believe that Muhammad brought to the world not only the word of God in the
form of the Qur’an, but also a divine law specific to Islam, a law whose roots are contained
completely in the Qur’an but whose crystal-lization was not possible without the words and
deeds of the Prophet. The schools of Islamic law (shari’ah), both Sunni and Shi’ite, consider
that the Sunnah (deeds and actions) and hadith (anecdotes) of the Prophet serve as the
primary source of Islamic law after the Qur’an. In Islam even a prophet is not by himself a
legislator; instead, God is ultimately the only legislator (al-Shari’). Muslims believe,
however, that, as God’s prophet, Muhammad knew the divine will as it was meant to be
codified in Islamic law. His actions and juridical decisions therefore played an indispensable
role in the later codifi-cation of the shari’ah by various legal schools (Berman, 2005).
The Islamic criminal process consists of two parts: the trial and the administration of
penalties if warranted. The purpose of the trial is to iden-tify the wrongdoer. The state acts as
a third party to ensure that justice is done. The administration of penalties segment is similar
to the common law punishment hearing.
The primary objective of Islamic law is to prevent evil. The law has two main tenets,
equality and good faith. According to Opolot (1980, p. 82), Islamic law is the most victim-
centered system in criminal justice history. Its criminal justice system focuses on both the
victim and the offender, not only during the trial but also after conviction.
Socialist Model
The socialist model of law was first developed in Russia after the commu-nist seizure of
power in 1917 and imposed throughout the Soviet Union in the 1920s. After World War II,
the Soviet legal model also was imposed on Soviet-dominated regimes in eastern and central
Europe. Later, ruling com-munist parties in China, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam adopted
varia-tions of Soviet law. Soviet law, which has changed radically since it was first
introduced in the Soviet Union, revived certain features of earlier tsarist law

16
‫ٗخٍى حُؼ٘خ‪ َٛ‬حألٓخٓ‪٤‬ش ٓغ هخٗ ‪ ٕٞ‬حُي‪ٌ٣‬ظخط‪٣ٍٞ‬خص حألهَ‪ٝ ، ٟ‬أىهَ ُ‪ٓٞ‬خثَ حإلٗظخؽ ‪ٝ‬اه‪٠‬خع حُ٘ظخّ حُوخٗ‪٢ٗٞ‬‬
‫ُِلِد حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬ػ‪ ٢‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ظ‪. ٢‬‬
‫ىهِض ٓؼظْ حُٔٔخص حألٓخٓ‪٤‬ش ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ظ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ِ٤‬حُظ٘ل‪ ٌ٤‬رؼي حُؼ‪ٍٞ‬س حَُ‪٤ٓٝ‬ش ‪ 1917‬ر‪ٞ‬هض ه‪ٟٝ ، َ٤ٜ‬ؼض‬
‫حُلٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش حُـي‪٣‬يس ٗلٔ‪ٜ‬خ ػِ‪ ٢‬حُل‪ ٍٞ‬ك‪ٞ‬م حُوخٗ‪٘ٓٝ ٕٞ‬لض ٍث‪ ْ٤‬حُلِد حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬ػ‪ِٓ ٢‬طخص ٓٔخػِش ُظِي حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ظٔظغ ر‪ٜ‬خ‬
‫حُو‪. َٜ٤‬هٍَص حُلٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش حُو‪٠‬خء ػِ‪ ٢‬أػيحء حُؼ‪ٍٞ‬س ى‪ ٕٝ‬حُلخؿش اُ‪ ٢‬حُٔلخًٔخص ‪ٛ .‬خىٍ أٍح‪ٜٓٝ ٢ٟ‬خٍف‬
‫‪ًَٗٝ‬خص ‪ٝ‬طؤٓ‪ٜٓٝ ٖ٤‬خٗغ ًؼ‪َ٤‬س ‪ٝ .‬أ‪ٛ‬يٍص أ‪٣‬ي‪ُٞٞ٣‬ؿ‪٤‬ظ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٝ‬هٔؼض حُوطخد حُٔؼخٍ‪ًٝ . ٝ‬خٗض حال‪٣‬ي‪ُٞٞ٣‬ؿ‪٤‬ش‬
‫حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬ػ‪٤‬ش ٓؼخى‪٣‬ش ‪ٓٝ‬ؼِ٘ش ر٘خء ػِ‪ِٓ ٢‬طش ًخٍٍ ٓخًْ ‪ ،‬إٔ حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪ٝ‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ ٓئٓٔخط‪ٜ‬خ ( رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُٔئٓٔخص‬
‫حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ) ٓ‪ٞ‬ف "طٌرَ" ك‪ٜٗ ٢‬خ‪٣‬ش حُٔطخف رؼي حُؼ‪ٍٞ‬س حالٗظَحً‪٤‬ش ‪.‬‬
‫ُِ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حالٗظَحً‪ ٢‬حٌُالٓ‪ ٢ٌ٤‬ػالع أؿَح‪)1(-: ٝ‬ط‪ٞ‬ك‪ َ٤‬حألٖٓ حُو‪ )2( ٢ٓٞ‬ط٘ظ‪ ْ٤‬حالهظ‪ٜ‬خى رخٓظويحّ حُٔزخىة‬
‫حالٗظَحً‪٤‬ش (‪)3‬ط‪ٞ‬ػ‪٤‬ش ػخٓش حٌُٔخٕ ‪ًٌُٝ‬ي حُٔوخُل‪ُِ ٖ٤‬وخٗ‪( ٕٞ‬كخه‪ . ) 12 ٙ ، 1997، ٞ‬طٔؼَ ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ٖ٤ٜ‬‬
‫حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حالٗظَحً‪ ٢‬حُٔؼخُ‪ ٚ٘٣ٝ ٢‬ىٓظ‪ٍٛٞ‬خ ػِ‪ ٠‬إٔ حألٓش ‪ ٢ٛ‬ى‪ُٝ‬ش حٗظَحً‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ظَ ىًظخط‪٣ٍٞ‬ش حُ٘ؼذ‬
‫حُي‪ٔ٣‬وَح‪٤١‬ش ‪ٝ‬طو‪ٞ‬ى‪ٛ‬خ حُزَ‪٤ُٝ‬ظخٍ‪٣‬خ ( ًِٔش الط‪٤٘٤‬ش طؼ٘‪ ٢‬حُطزوش حُظ‪ ٢‬ال طِٔي أ‪ٓٝ ١‬خثَ اٗظخؽ ‪ٝ‬طؼ‪ ٖٓ ٖ٤‬ر‪٤‬غ‬
‫ٓـ‪ٜٞ‬ى‪ٛ‬خ حُلٌَ‪ ١‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُؼ‪ ) ٢ِ٠‬ػَ أٓخّ طلخُق حُؼٔخٍ ‪ٝ‬حُلالك‪ . ٖ٤‬حالٗظَحً‪٤‬ش ‪ ٢ٛ‬حُ٘ظخّ حألٓخٓ‪ُِ ٢‬زِي ك‪٤‬غ‬
‫طٌ‪ ًَ ٕٞ‬حُِٔطش ِٓي ُِ٘ؼذ (ى‪ُ ٝ ٝ‬حٗن‪ًٔ )14.ٙ،1990،‬خ ‪ ٚ٘٣‬حُيٓظ‪ ٍٞ‬ػِ‪ ٢‬إٔ حُ٘ظخّ حالهظ‪ٜ‬خى‪ُِ ١‬ي‪ُٝ‬ش‬
‫‪٣‬و‪ ّٞ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٢‬ل‪ ّٜٞ‬حٌُِٔ‪٤‬ش حالٗظَحً‪٤‬ش حُؼخٓش‪ .‬طْ ط‪ ْ٤ٜٔ‬حإلؿَحءحص حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ُ‪ٜ‬خُق حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪ ،‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ ٗظخّ‬
‫حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش حطزغ رٌَ٘ ػخّ حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حأل‪ٍٝ‬ر‪ ٢‬حُوخٍ‪ٝ ، ١‬حٌُ‪ٔ٣ ١‬ظويّ طلو‪٤‬وخص أ‪٤ُٝ‬ش ٌٓؼلش اال إٔ حُٔلون ك‪٢‬‬
‫ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُـَحثْ حُوط‪َ٤‬س ًخٕ ٓٔئ‪ٝ‬ال رخُلِد ‪ٔٓ ْ٤ُٝ‬ئ‪ٝ‬ال ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬خ ً ‪ًٔ ،‬خ ‪ ٞٛ‬حُلخٍ ك‪ ٢‬أ‪ٍٝٝ‬رخ حُـَر‪٤‬ش ‪ٌٖٔ٣،‬‬
‫رٔلخّ ُٔيس ٗ‪. ٍٜٞ‬‬
‫ِ‬ ‫ُِٔلون حٌُ‪ً ١‬خٕ أ‪٠٣‬خ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ حكظـخُ ٓ٘ظز‪ ٚ‬ر‪ ٚ‬ى‪ ٕٝ‬حالط‪ٜ‬خٍ‬

‫اىَْىرج اىقبّىًّ اىَختيظ ‪:‬‬

‫حُـِحثَ ‪ٓ ٢ٛ‬ؼخٍ ألٓش ًحص ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ هخٗ‪ٓ ٢ٗٞ‬وظِ‪ٗ ، ٢‬ظخٓ‪ٜ‬خ حُوخٗ‪ٔٓ ٢ٗٞ‬ظٔي ٖٓ حُظوخُ‪٤‬ي حُلَٗٔ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُؼَر‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬طؤػَ‬
‫رخٌُٔ‪ٛ‬ذ حالؿظٔخػ‪ . ٢‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ إٔ حُيٓظ‪ ٍٞ‬حُـِحثَ‪ ٚ٘٣ ١‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حٓظـالٍ حُو‪٠‬خء ‪ ،‬اال إٔ حُِٔطش حُظ٘ل‪٣ٌ٤‬ش‬
‫طٔخٍّ رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُظؤػ‪ َ٤‬ػِ‪ ٢‬ػِٔ‪٤‬خط‪ٜ‬خ ‪ُِٔ .‬لخًْ حُؼخى‪٣‬ش حهظ‪ٜ‬خ‪ ٙ‬أ‪ ٢ُٝ‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حإلؿَحءحص حُٔيٗ‪٤‬ش ‪ ٖٓ ٌَُ .‬حُٔلخ‪َٟ‬‬
‫‪ٓ 48‬لٌٔش حٓظج٘خف طَحؿغ هَحٍحص حُٔلٌٔش حأل‪٤ُٝ‬ش ‪.‬حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ ُي‪ٜ٣‬خ أػِ‪ِٓ ٠‬طش ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش‪ .‬حُٔلخًْ حإلىحٍ‪٣‬ش‬
‫ُي‪ٜ٣‬خ حهظ‪ٜ‬خ‪ ٙ‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حُٔ٘خُػخص حُ‪ٜ‬ـ‪َ٤‬س ‪ٓ .‬ـِْ حُي‪ُٝ‬ش حٌُ‪ ١‬أُْٓ ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪٘٣1998‬ظْ حُٔلخًْ حإلىحٍ‪٣‬ش ‪.‬‬
‫حُٔ‪ٜ‬خىٍ حَُث‪ٔ٤‬ش حُؼالع ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُـِحثَ‪ ٢ٛ ١‬حُٔؼخ‪ٛ‬يحص أ‪ ٝ‬حالطلخهخص حُظ‪ٛ ٢‬يم ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬حَُث‪ٝ ْ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُوخٗ‪٢ٗٞ‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ .‬حُلو‪ ٚ‬حُلَٗٔ‪٢‬‬

‫‪17‬‬
shared key elements with the law of other dictatorships, and introduced pub-lic ownership of
the means of production and subordination of the legal sys-tem to the Soviet Communist
Party.
Most of the basic features of Soviet law came into effect very soon after the 1917 Russian
Revolution. The new government immediately placed itself above the law and gave the head
of the Communist Party powers similar to those enjoyed by the tsars. The government
decreed that enemies of the Revolution should be eliminated without the need for trials; it
expropriated land, banks, insurance companies, and large factories; and it promulgated its
ideology and suppressed opposing speech. The communist ideology was hostile to law,
proclaiming, on the authority of Karl Marx, that the state and all its institutions (including
legal ones) would eventually ―wither away‖ after the socialist revolution.
The classic socialist model has three purposes: (1) to provide for national security; (2) to
regulate economics by using socialist principles; and (3) to educate the general population as
well as lawbreakers about the law (Vago, 1997, p. 12). The People’s Republic of China
represents the typical socialist model. Its constitution establishes the nation as a ―socialist
country under the people’s democratic dictatorship and led by the proletariat on the basis of a
worker-peasant alliance. Socialism is the political system of the coun-try where all power
belongs to the people‖ (Du & Zhang, 1990, p. 214). The constitution also provides that the
state’s economic system is based on the concept of socialist public ownership.
Criminal procedure was designed to favor the state. Although the crimi-nal justice system
generally followed the Continental European model, which uses extensive preliminary
investigations, the investigator in cases of serious crimes was an official of the Party and not a
judicial official, as in western Europe. The investigator, who was also the prosecutor, could
hold a suspect without contact with legal counsel for months.
Mixed-Legal Model
Algeria is an example of a nation with a mixed-legal model. Its legal system was derived
from French and Arabic legal traditions and influenced by social-ism. Although Algeria’s
constitution mandates an independent judiciary, the executive branch exercises some
influence over its operations. Ordinary courts have initial jurisdiction over civil proceedings.
Each of the 48 prov-inces has a court of appeal that reviews initial court decisions. The
Supreme Court has the highest jurisdiction. Administrative courts have jurisdiction over
minor disputes. The State Council, which was established in 1998, regu-lates the
administrative courts.

The three main sources of Algerian law are treaties or conventions rati-fied by the president,
the legal code, and Islamic law. French jurisprudence

17
‫ُْ ‪٣‬ظْ ٓالكظظ‪ ٌ٘ٓ ٚ‬ػخّ ‪ٝٝ .1975‬كوخ ً ُِيٓظ‪٣ ٍٞ‬لن ُِٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ٓ ْٜ٤‬لخًٔش ػِ٘‪٤‬ش ‪ُ٣ ،‬لظَ‪ ٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬أٗ‪ ْٜ‬أرَ‪٣‬خء هالُ‪ٜ‬خ‬
‫‪٣ٝ ،‬ـ‪ٞٓ ُْٜ ُٞ‬حؿ‪ٜ‬ش حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى ‪ٝ ،‬هي ‪٣‬ويٓ‪ ٕٞ‬أىُش ًٔخ ‪٣‬لن ُ‪ ْٜ‬أ‪٠٣‬خ حٓظج٘خف حُلٌْ ‪.‬‬

‫سأي قضبئً ثَىخت َّىرج اىقبّىُ اىعبً ٍقبسّخ ثَْىرج اىقبّىُ اىَذًّ‬
‫ط‪٤ٟٞ‬ق ح ُلَم ر‪ٔٗ ٖ٤‬خًؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ٝ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ٔ٘ٓ ٢‬ظويّ كخُش كو‪٤‬و‪٤‬ش كيػض ك‪ٓ ٢‬وخ‪١‬ؼش ٓخ‪ ١ٝ‬ر‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬ش‬
‫‪ٛ‬خ‪ٝ‬ح‪. ١‬‬
‫كوخثن حُو‪٤٠‬ش ‪ :‬طِو‪ٟ ٢‬زخ‪١َٗ ١‬ش هْٔ ٓخ‪ٌٓ ١ٝ‬خُٔش ‪ٛ‬خطل‪٤‬ش ٖٓ ٗو‪ٓ ٚ‬ـ‪ٝ ٍٜٞ‬ط‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٜٞ‬ح اُ‪ٗ ٢‬خ‪١‬ت ر‪ ٝٞ‬أ‪ٝ‬ال‪١‬‬
‫(ٗخ‪١‬ت ك‪ٓ ٢‬وخ‪١‬ؼش ٓخ‪ٛ ، ١ٝ‬خ‪ٝ‬ح‪ ، ١‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ) ُِزلغ ػٖ كٔخٓخص ٗٔٔ‪٤‬ش ٌٓ٘‪ٞ‬كش ‪ٝ .‬ػ٘ي حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪٠‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٜ‬ظ‪ ْٜ‬هخٓض حَُ٘‪١‬ش رٔٔق حُ٘خ‪١‬ت ٖٓ أكي حُظالٍ ‪ٝ‬ػ٘ي حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ٝ ٠‬ؿ‪ٜ‬ظ‪ ْٜ‬هخٓض حَُ٘‪١‬ش رٔٔق حُ٘خ‪١‬ت ٖٓ‬
‫أكي حُظالٍ رخٓظويحّ ػ‪ ْٜٗٞ٤‬حُٔـَىس ‪٘ٓٝ‬ظخٍ‪ٍٝ ْٛ‬أص حُٔظ‪ٔٓ ٖ٤ٜٔ‬ظِو‪ ٖ٤‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘خ‪١‬ت ُػَحس طٔخٓخ ً ‪ ،‬حكي‪ ْٛ‬ػِ‪٢‬‬
‫رط٘‪ٝ ٚ‬حألهَ ػِ‪ ٠‬ظ‪ٝ ، َٜٙ‬هي حهظَد أكي ٖٓ حُٔظ‪ٝ ٖ٤ٜٔ‬أػظوِ‪ ْٜ‬رظ‪ ٜٚٔ‬حٌُ٘ق ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُالثن ‪ٝ ،‬أػظَف ‪ٟ‬زخ‪١‬‬
‫حَُ٘‪١‬ش رؤٕ حُٔظ‪٘٣ ُْ ٖ٤ٜٔ‬خًٍ‪ٞ‬ح ك‪ ٢‬أ‪٘ٗ ٟ‬خ‪ ١‬أهَ ؿ‪ َ٤‬كٔخٓخص حُْ٘ٔ ‪ٝ .‬ك‪ٝ ٢‬هض حالػظوخٍ ًخٕ ‪٘ٛ‬خى حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ‬
‫حألٗوخ‪ ٙ‬ح‪٥‬هَ‪ ٖ٣‬ػَحس ػِ‪ ٢‬حُ٘خ‪١‬ت ‪ًٝ‬خٗض حُو‪٤٠‬ش حأل‪ ٠ُٝ‬حُظ‪ِ١ ٢‬ذ ٖٓ حُٔلٌٔش إٔ طوٍَ ك‪ٜ٤‬خ حالٓظج٘خف ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٓ ٢ٛ‬خ اًح ًخٕ حُٔيحكؼ‪ ٕٞ‬هي طٔزز‪ٞ‬ح ك‪ ٢‬اُػخؽ ٓ٘ظَى ٖٓ هالٍ كٔخٓخص حُْ٘ٔ ػَحس ػِ‪ٗ ٢‬خ‪١‬ت ػخّ ‪.‬‬

‫‪ ٚ٘٣‬هخٗ‪ٛ ٕٞ‬خ‪ٝ‬ح‪ ١‬حألٓخٓ‪ ( 727-1 ،hrs( ٢‬ػِ‪ ٢‬حُ٘ل‪ ٞ‬حُظخُ‪- : ٢‬‬

‫ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش حإلُػخؽ حُؼخّ ‪ ٢ٛ‬طؼَ‪ ٞ٣‬حُٔالٓش حُ٘و‪٤ٜ‬ش حُؼخٓش أ‪ ٝ‬حُ‪ٜ‬لش ُِوطَ ‪ ،‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُو‪٤‬خّ رٔخ ‪ٔٓ ٞٛ‬ت أ‪ٓ ٝ‬ئً‬
‫ُِـٔ‪ ٍٜٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُظٔزذ ك‪ ٚ٤‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُظَ‪٣ٝ‬ؾ ُ‪ ٚ‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُللخظ ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬أ‪ ٝ‬حالٓظَٔحٍ ك‪ ٚ٤‬أ‪ ٞٛ ٝ‬ؿ‪٠‬ذ ػخّ ‪ٟ‬ي ح‪٥‬ىحد حُؼخٓش أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫حألهالم حُؼخٓش ‪ ،‬أ‪ َ٤ٔ٣ ٝ‬رٌَ٘ ‪ٝ‬ح‪ٟ‬ق ‪ٓٝ‬زخَٗ اُ‪ ٠‬كٔخى حألهالم ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٜ‬يم ‪ٝ‬حُؼخىحص حُلٔ‪٤‬يس ُِ٘خّ ‪ٗ ،‬لْ حُ٘ت‬
‫ى‪ِٓ ٕٝ‬طش أ‪ ٝ‬طزَ‪ َ٣‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ حُوخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬ؿِ‪ٓ ٢‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ ،‬كخك٘ش أ‪ِٞٓ ٝ‬ى كخ‪ٟ‬ق أ‪ ٝ‬ك‪٠‬ق ؿ‪ َ٤‬الثن ‪.‬‬
‫ٍأ‪ٓ ٖٓ ١‬لٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف ك‪ٛ ٢‬خ‪ٝ‬ح‪ ( ١‬رخٓظويحّ ٓزخىة حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ) ال ‪٣‬ؼظزَ أهٌ كٔخٓخص حُْ٘ٔ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼَ‪١‬‬
‫ؿ‪ َ٤‬هخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬كي ًحط‪٣ .ٚ‬ـذ إٔ ‪٣‬وظَٕ رو‪ٜ‬ي ك‪٠‬ق حُ٘لْ رٌَ٘ ؿ‪ َ٤‬الثن ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬حٓظ٘خىحً ُ‪ٌٜ‬ح حُز‪٤‬خٕ ‪ ،‬حٓظ٘‪ٜ‬يص حُٔلٌٔش رو‪٤٠‬ش حُِٔي ‪ٟ‬ي ؿَ‪٣‬ق ٍ‪ٝ‬رَص ‪ٛ 6،‬خ‪( . )1883( 740 . ٝ‬حُٔلٌٔش‬
‫حُؼِ‪٤‬ش ُِ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ٛ .‬خ‪ٝ‬ح‪ ، ١‬أرَ‪ٝ )1883( َ٣‬ه‪٠‬ض حُٔلٌٔش ‪ٔٓ ،‬ظ٘‪ٜ‬يس د ٓ‪٘٤ٔ٤‬خ ‪ٟ‬ي حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪ ّ ،‬ى ‪،6-2 .‬‬
‫‪ 130 ، 606‬أ ‪ 2.‬ى ‪، 212 )1957( 875‬رؤٕ حُـَ‪ ٝ‬حُ‪ ٞٛ ١ٍَٝ٠‬ؿَ‪ٟ‬خ ً ػخٓخ" ‪ٓ ْ٤ُٝ‬ليى ‪ ،‬أ‪ ١‬أٗ‪ٖٓ ْ٤ُ ٚ‬‬
‫حُ‪ ١ٍَٝ٠‬إٔ ‪٣‬ظْ حٌُ٘ق رو‪ٜ‬ي إٔ ‪َ٣‬ح‪ٗ ٙ‬و‪ٓ ٚ‬ؼ‪ ٌُٖٝ ٖ٤‬كو‪ ٢‬إٔ ‪ ٌٕٞ٣‬حٌُ٘ق هي طْ ك‪٤‬غ ‪ُ٣‬لظَٔ إٔ ‪٣‬الكظ‪ٚ‬‬
‫ح‪٥‬هَ‪ٝ . ٕٝ‬رخُظخُ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ، ٢‬حٓظ٘ظخؽ حُو‪ٜ‬ي ٖٓ ِٓ‪ٞ‬ى حُٔظ‪ٝ ْٜ‬حُظَ‪ٝ‬ف ‪ٝ‬ر‪٤‬جش حُلخىػش ‪.‬‬

‫‪18‬‬
has not been observed since 1975. According to the constitution, defendants are entitled to a
public trial, during which they are presumed innocent, they may confront witnesses, and they
may present evidence. They also have the right to appeal the verdict.
Judicial Opinion under the Common Law
Model Compared to Civil Law Model

To illustrate the difference between the common law and civil law mod-els, we will use an
actual case that occurred in the County of Maui, State of Hawaii.
Facts of the Case: Police officers of the Maui Police Department received a phone call
from an anonymous person and proceeded to the Puu Olai beach at Makena to look for
nude sunbathers. On reaching their destination, the police surveyed the beach from a ridge
using both their naked eyes and binoculars and saw the defendants lying on the beach
completely nude, one on his stomach and the other on his back. The officers then
approached the defendants and arrested them for indecent exposure. It was admitted by the
police officers that defendants were not at any time engaged in any activity other than
sunbathing. At the time of the arrest there were several other people on the beach who
were nude. The first issue the court was asked to decide on appeal was whether defen-
dants created a common nuisance by sunbathing in the nude on a public beach.
The Hawaii statute (HRS § 727-1) reads as follows:
The offense of common nuisance is the endangering of the public personal safety or
health, or doing, causing or promoting, maintaining or continuing what is offensive, or
annoying and vexatious, or plainly hurtful to the public; or is a public outrage against
common decency or common morality; or tends plainly and directly to the corruption of
the morals, honesty, and good habits of the people; the same being without authority or
justification by law: … as for example: … Open lewdness or lascivious behavior, or
indecent exposure.
Opinion by Hawaii Appellate Court (using common law principles) Sunbathing in the
nude is not per se illegal. It must be coupled with

the intent to indecently expose oneself. As authority for this statement, the court cited the case
of The King v. Grieve, 6 Haw. 740 (1883). The court, citing Messina v. State, 212 Md. 602,
606, 130 A.2d 578, 580 (1957) held that the intent necessary is a general intent, not a specific
intent; i.e., it is not necessary that the exposure be made with the intent that some particular
person see it, but only that the exposure was made where it was likely to be observed by
others. Thus, the intent may be inferred from the conduct of the accused and the
circumstances and environment of the occurrence.

18
‫ػْ ٗظَص حُٔلٌٔش ك‪ ٢‬حٌُٔخٕ حُؼخّ حُٔطِ‪ٞ‬د ‪ ،‬حٌُٔخٕ ‪ٌٓ ٞٛ‬خٕ ػخّ اًح ًخٕ حالٌٗ٘خف ُيٍؿش أٗ‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬حُٔلظَٔ إٔ‬
‫‪َ٣‬ح‪ ٙ‬ػيى ٖٓ حَُٔحهز‪ ٖ٤‬حُؼخى‪ ٖ٤٣‬كخٕ ‪ٗٞٛ‬ض ‪ٟ‬ي حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪ . ٕ 46‬ؽ ‪ )1884(،170 ، 160 . ٍ .‬هَحٍ ٓلٌٔش‬
‫حالٓظج٘خف ‪ :‬طْ طؤً‪٤‬ي حُلٌْ رخألىُش (حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪ٟ‬ي ٍ‪ٛ52 ، ًَٝ‬خ‪ 457 ،336 . ٝ‬د ‪ 20‬ى ‪ٛ 1970 ، 684‬خ‪ٌَُ٘ٔ ٝ‬‬
‫‪ٛ[ 135‬خ‪) ]1970 ٝ‬‬
‫طؼِ‪٤‬ن ‪ :‬الكع ً‪٤‬ق حٓظويّ حُو‪٠‬خس هَحٍحص ٓلٌٔش ٓخروش ( ٓخروش ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ) ُظزَ‪ َ٣‬هَحٍحط‪٤ً . ْٜ‬ق ‪٘٣‬ظَ هخ‪٢ٟ‬‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪ٗ ٢‬لْ حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ؟ الكع إٔ هخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬ال ‪٘٣‬ظَ اُ‪ ٢‬هَحٍحص حُٔلٌٔش حُٔخروش ‪٣ٝ‬ـذ إٔ‬
‫‪٣‬ظوٌ هَحٍ‪ ٙ‬أ‪ ٝ‬هَحٍ‪ٛ‬خ ر٘خء ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘ظخّ حألٓخٓ‪ٝ ٢‬حإلٓظيالٍ حُٔ٘طو‪.٢‬‬
‫ٓالكظش‪ ٖٓ :‬حُٔظ‪ٞ‬هغ ػٔ‪ٓٞ‬خ إٔ ‪٣‬ظزغ ه‪٠‬خس حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حُوَحٍص حُٔخروش ألٕ أكي أ‪ٛ‬يحف حُ٘ظخّ حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬ا‪ٛ‬يحٍ‬
‫هخٗ‪ ٌُٕٞ٣ ٕٞ‬ػيحُش ٓ‪ٞ‬كيس ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ٝ‬حُظ٘زئ ر‪ٜ‬خ ‪.‬ك‪ ٢‬رِيحٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪، ٢‬ال ‪٣‬ظطزن ٓزيأ حُٔ‪ٞ‬حرن حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪٣ .‬ـذ ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬ططز‪٤‬ن حُوخٗ‪ًٔ ٕٞ‬خ أٗ٘ؤط‪ ٚ‬حُ‪٤ٜ‬جش حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼ‪٤‬ش ‪.‬ك‪ٗ ٢‬ظخّ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ،٢‬ال ‪ ٌٕٞ٣‬هَحٍ حُوخ‪ِِٓٓ ٢ٟ‬خ ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُٔٔظوزِ‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫أّظَخ تْفٍز اىقبّىُ ‪:‬‬
‫ٖٓ حُٔ‪ ْٜ‬حُظٔ‪ ِ٤٤‬ر‪" ٖ٤‬حَُ٘‪١‬ش" ‪ٟ" ٝ‬ز‪ ٢‬حألٖٓ "‪ٜ٣ ،‬ق ‪ٟ‬ز‪ ٢‬حألٖٓ ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش حُؼِٔ‪٤‬خص حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ظْ حٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ ك‪٢‬‬
‫ٓلخ‪ُٝ‬ش ُِللخظ ػِ‪ ٠‬حألٖٓ ٖٓ هالٍ حَُٔحهزش ‪ٝ‬حُظ‪ٜ‬ي‪٣‬ي رخُؼو‪ٞ‬رخص‪ .‬اٗ‪ٓ ٚ‬ل‪ٝ ّٜٞ‬حٓغ ٗٔز‪٤‬خ ً ‪ٓ َٔ٘٣ٝ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ‪ٝ‬حٓؼش‬
‫ٖٓ حألٗ٘طش‪ٝ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪٣ ،‬و‪ ّٞ‬كٌْ ًَس حُِٔش رؤىحء ٓ‪ٜ‬خّ حَُ٘‪١‬ش ػ٘يٓخ ‪ٔ٣‬خٍّ ُؼزش ًَس حُِٔش‪ٝ ،‬رخُٔوخرَ‬
‫ط٘‪ًِٔ َ٤‬ش ر‪ ْ٤ُٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬ك‪ ٖ٤‬حألكَحى حٌُ‪٣ ٖ٣‬و‪ ٕٞٓٞ‬رخٌُؼ‪ٜٓ ٖٓ َ٤‬خّ حَُ٘‪١‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ط٘‪ َ٤‬حَُ٘‪١‬ش اُ‪ ٠‬حُٔئٓٔش أ‪ ٝ‬حُ‪ًٞ‬خُش حُٔ٘خًٍش ك‪ ٢‬ططز‪٤‬ن حُوخٗ‪ ( .ٕٞ‬ر‪.)26 ٙ ،200 ،ٌْ٤‬‬
‫ٓ‪ٞ‬ف ٗٔظويّ ألؿَح‪ٟ٘‬خ ‪ًٝ‬خالص حَُ٘‪١‬ش‪ًٝ .‬خالص ططز‪٤‬ن حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ٜ‬خ هخرِش ُِظزخىٍ‪.‬‬
‫ك‪َٓ ٢‬حؿؼش أٗظٔش ط٘ل‪ ٌ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ٜ‬خ هخرِش ُِظزخىٍ‪.‬‬
‫ك‪َٓ ٢‬حؿؼش أٗظٔش ط٘ل‪ ٌ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُزِيحٕ حُٔوظِلش ‪ َ٤ٔٗ ،‬اُ‪ٍ ٠‬إ‪٣‬ش ٗ‪ٞ‬ػ‪ ٖ٤‬أٓخٓ‪ ٖٓ ٖ٤٤‬حألٗظٔش‪ ،‬أكي‪ٔٛ‬خ ك‪٤‬غ‬
‫ط‪ ٖٔ٤ٜ‬ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ حَُ٘‪١‬ش حُ‪٤٘١ٞ‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬ططز‪٤‬ن حُوخٗ‪ٝ ،ٕٞ‬ح‪٥‬هَ ك‪٤‬غ ط‪ ٖٔ٤ٜ‬ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ ‪ًٝ‬خالص ط٘ل‪ ٌ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش‬
‫رٔ٘خًٍش ‪٤٘١ٝ‬ش ٓليىس‪.‬‬
‫ٓؼخٍ ػِ‪ٞٗ ٠‬ع حَُ٘‪١‬ش حُ‪٤٘١ٞ‬ش ‪ ٞٛ‬أٗـ‪ٞ‬ال ‪٘ٛ‬خُي حَُ٘‪١‬ش حُ‪٤٘١ٞ‬ش ‪ ٢ٛٝ‬ه‪ٞ‬س ػٌَٔ‪٣‬ش طَ٘ٔ ‪ٝ‬حؿزخط‪ٜ‬خ حُيكخع ػٖ‬
‫حَُ٘ػ‪٤‬ش حُي‪ٔ٣‬وَح‪٤١‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬حُللخظ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘ظخّ حُؼخّ ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٜ‬ي‪ٝ‬ء ‪ٝ‬حكظَحّ حُٔٔخٍٓش حُٔ٘ظظٔش ُِلو‪ٞ‬م ‪ٝ‬حُلَ‪٣‬خص حألٓخٓ‪٤‬ش‬
‫ُِٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪ٝ ٖ٤٘١‬حُيكخع ػٖ حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ‪ٝ‬كٔخ‪٣‬ظ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٝ‬حُٔٔظٌِخص حُؼخٓش ‪ٝ‬حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش ‪٘ٓٝ‬غ حُـ٘‪ٞ‬ف ( حالٗلَحف) ‪ٝ‬حُلي ٖٓ حُ٘٘خ‪١‬‬
‫حإلؿَحٓ‪ٞٓٞٓ ( .٢‬ػش حَُ٘‪١‬ش حُؼخُٔ‪٤‬ش‪ ،2006 ،‬حُؼٔ‪ٞ‬ى حأل‪.)25 ٙ ، ٍٝ‬‬

‫‪19‬‬
 The court then looked at the ―public place‖ requirement and stated: ―The place is a public
one if the exposure is such that it is likely to be seen by a number of casual observers. Van
Houten v. State, 46 N.J.L. 16, 17 (1884).‖
Decision of the Appellate Court: The conviction was affirmed (approved).
(State v. Rocker, 52 Haw. 336, 475 P.2d 684, 1970 Haw. LEXIS 135 [Haw. 1970])
Comment: Note how the justices used prior court decisions (prec-edent) to justify their
decisions. How would a civil law judge look at the same issues? Note that the civil law
judge does not look at prior court decisions and must make his or her decision based on the
statute and logical reasoning.
Note: The common law judges are generally expected to follow earlier decisions,
because one of the goals of a legal system is to render law that is uniform and predictable
justice. In the civil law countries, the doctrine of judicial precedent does not apply. The
judge should apply the law as created by the legislature. In the civil law system, the
judge’s decision is not binding in future cases.
Law Enforcement Systems

It is important to distinguish between ―police‖ and ―policing.‖ ―Policing‖ describes the set of
processes that are used in an attempt to maintain security through surveillance and the threat
of sanction. It is a relatively broad con-cept and encompasses a wide range of activities. For
example, a basketball referee conducts policing when he or she works a basketball game; in
con-trast, the word ―police‖ refers to the body of people who carry out much of the policing
function. ―Police‖ refers to the institution or the agency involved in law enforcement (Pakes,
2004, p. 26). For our purposes, we will use ―police agencies‖ and ―law enforcement agencies‖
as interchangeable.
In a review of various nations’ law enforcement systems, we tend to see two basic types of
systems: one where the national police dominate law enforcement, and one where it is
dominated by local law enforcement agen-cies with limited national involvement.
An example of the national police type is Angola. There, the National Police is a militarized
force whose duties include the defense of democratic legality, the preservation of public order
and calm, respect for the regular exercise of the fundamental rights and liberties of citizens,
defense and protection of state, collective and private property; and prevention of delin-
quency and reduction of criminal activity (World Police Encyclopedia, 2006, vol. 1, p. 25).

19
‫ً٘يح ‪ٓ ٢ٛ‬ؼخٍ ُي‪ُٝ‬ش ط‪ ٖٔ٤ٜ‬ك‪ٜ٤‬خ ‪ًٝ‬خالص ط٘ل‪ ٌ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬ططز‪٤‬ن حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حألٓخٓ‪ ٢‬ـ ك‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٖ٤‬إٔ ًَ ٓوخ‪١‬ؼش‬
‫ٖٓ حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص حٌُ٘ي‪٣‬ش حُؼَ٘ ط‪٠‬غ ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬طليى ٓؼخ‪ُٔٔ َ٤٣‬خثَ ٓؼَ حُل‪ًٔٞ‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُظ‪ٞ‬ظ‪٤‬ق ‪ٝ‬طيٍ‪٣‬ذ ‪ٟ‬ازخ‪ ١‬حُ٘اَ‪١‬ش ‪،‬‬
‫كبٕ حُزِي‪٣‬خص ٓٔج‪ُٞ‬ش ػٖ كلع حألٖٓ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ٘خ‪١‬ن حُل‪٣َ٠‬ش ‪٘ٛ.‬خى ٓخ ‪٣‬وخٍد ‪٘ٓ 300‬ظٔش َٗ‪١‬ش ك‪ً٘ ٢‬يح رخإل‪ٟ‬اخكش‬
‫اُ‪ًُ ٢‬ي ‪ٞ٣،‬ؿي ك‪ً٘ ٢‬يح حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ ٓ٘ظٔخص حَُ٘‪١‬ش حُ‪٤٘١ٞ‬ش رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي َٗ‪١‬ش حُو‪ّ٤‬خُاش حٌُ٘ي‪٣‬اش (ؿ‪ٜ‬اخُ أٓ٘ا‪ٔٓ ٢‬اِق‬
‫ُؼٔاخٕ ٓوخ‪١‬ؼاخص‬
‫ِ‬ ‫‪٘٣‬لٌ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬أُٗ٘ت ػخّ‪ٝ )1873‬ط‪ٞ‬كَ َٗ‪١‬ش حُو‪٤‬خُش حٌُ٘ي‪٣‬ش حٌُِٔ‪٤‬اش هايٓخص حُ٘اَ‪١‬ش رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿاذ ػواي‬
‫ٖٓ أ‪ َٛ‬ػَ٘س ‪ٝ‬ىػْ اىحٍحص حَُ٘‪١‬ش حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش ‪،‬رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ًُ ٠‬ي‪ ،‬كبٕ َٗ‪١‬ش حُو‪ّ٤‬خُش حٌُ٘ي‪٣‬ش حٌُِٔ‪٤‬ش ٓٔائ‪ُٝ‬ش ػاٖ‬
‫ط٘ل‪ ٌ٤‬حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش (ىحّ ‪ ٝ‬رخُٔ‪٤‬ظ‪،2007، ٞ‬حُؼٔ‪ٞ‬ى حأل‪.)1580.ٙ،ٍٝ‬‬
‫اىعقىثبد‪:‬‬
‫ط‪٘ٔ٠‬ض حألٌٗخٍ حأل‪ُِ ٠ُٝ‬ؼو‪ٞ‬رخص حُظ‪ ٢‬كَ‪ٟ‬ظ‪ٜ‬خ حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ػٔ‪ٓٞ‬خ حُٔ‪٤‬طَس حالؿظٔخػ‪٤‬ش ػٖ ‪٣َ١‬ن حألَٓ رظؼ‪ٓ ٞ٣ٞ‬خُ‪٢‬‬
‫‪.‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ‪،‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؼ‪ ٍٜٞ‬حُ‪ٓٞ‬ط‪، ٠‬أَُٓ حُـ٘اخس رايكغ ٓزِاؾ ٓؼا‪ٓ ٖ٤‬اٖ حُٔاخٍ ُِ‪٠‬ال‪٤‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬ألٓاَط‪ًٝ. ٚ‬اخٕ حُايحكغ‬
‫‪ٍٝ‬حء حٓظويحّ حُظؼ‪ ٞ٣ٞ‬حُٔخُ‪ ٞٛ ٢‬طوِ‪ َ٤‬حكظٔخُ‪٤‬اش حُؼاؤٍ را‪ ٖ٤‬حُؼاخثالص ‪.‬ؿخُزاخ ٓاخ ‪٣‬ؼظٔاي حُٔزِاؾ حُٔايك‪ٞ‬ع ػِا‪ٟٝ ٠‬اغ‬
‫حُ‪٠‬ل‪٤‬ش أًؼَ ٖٓ حُ‪ ٍَ٠‬حٌُ‪ُ ١‬لن ر‪. ٚ‬‬
‫حُٔـٖ أ‪ ٝ‬حُظو‪٤‬ي حُـٔي‪ً٘ ١‬اٌَ ٓاٖ أٗاٌخٍ حُؼو‪ٞ‬راش ُاْ ‪٣‬ظ‪ٜ‬اَ كظا‪ٝ ٠‬هاض ٓظاؤهَ ٗٔاز‪٤‬خ كا‪ ٢‬حُظاخٍ‪٣‬ن ‪ .‬حُلازْ ‪،‬ػِا‪٢‬‬
‫حَُؿْ ٖٓ ظ‪ ٍٜٙٞ‬حُٔظؤهَ اال أٗش أ‪ٛ‬زق ح‪ٗ ٕ٥‬خثؼخ ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ أٗلخء حُؼخُْ ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ً ّ2002‬خٕ ‪٘ٛ‬خى ٓخ ‪٣‬واخٍد ٓاٖ‬
‫‪ٗ ٕٞ٤ِٓ 8,5‬و‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُلزْ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬كوخ ٍ ر‪ ،)2004( ٌْ٤‬كخٕ حالهظالكخص ك‪ٔٓ ٢‬خٍٓخص ا‪ٛ‬يحٍ حألكٌخّ ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُزِيحٕ طوزَٗاخ ٗا‪٤‬جخ ػاٖ ٍإ‪ ٟ‬حُٔاِطخص‬
‫حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش حُٔوظِلش ُإلىٓخؽ حالؿظٔخػ‪ٝ ٢‬حَُهخرش حالؿظٔخػ‪٤‬ش ‪٣ ٞٛٝ.‬ئًي إٔ حُؼو‪ٞ‬رش ٓـخٍ ‪ٌ٣‬خى ‪ٓ ٌٕٞ٣‬و‪ٜٜ‬خ ُِزلغ‬
‫حُٔوخٍٕ ‪ًٔ .‬خ طٔض ٓ٘خه٘ظ‪ ٚ‬كا‪ ٢‬حُؤاْ حُظاخُ‪ ،٢‬طٔظِاي حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬اخص حُٔظلايس أػِا‪ٓ ٠‬ؼايٍ ٌُِٔ‪٤‬اش حألٓاِلش حُ٘خٍ‪٣‬اش ‪ٝ‬أػِا‪٠‬‬
‫ٓؼيٍ ُوظَ حألِٓلش حُ٘خٍ‪٣‬ش ٌَُ ‪100,000‬كَى‪.‬‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ُي‪ٜ٣‬خ أ‪٠٣‬خ أػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ؼيٍ ُِلزْ ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ ،‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ً 2002‬خٕ ‪٘ٛ‬خى أًؼاَ ٓاٖ ‪٤ِٓ 8,5‬ا‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫ٓـ‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ أٗلخء حُؼخُْ ‪،‬ط‪ٞ‬ؿي أػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ؼيالص حُلازْ كا‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬اخص حُٔظلايس (كا‪ٞ‬حُ‪ٌُ700 ٢‬اَ‪ 100,000‬كاَى)‬
‫‪ٝ‬كاا‪ٍٓٝ ٢‬اا‪٤‬خ (كاا‪ٞ‬حُ‪ٌُ665 ٢‬ااَ ‪ 100,000‬كااَى) كاا‪ ٢‬كاا‪ ٖ٤‬إٔ أُٔخٗ‪٤‬ااخ ًااخٕ ُااي‪ٜ٣‬خ كواا‪ٌُ 95 ٢‬ااَ ‪ٝ100,000‬حٌُِٔٔااش‬
‫حُٔظليس ‪125‬حًَ ‪. 100,000‬ك‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٖ٤‬إٔ حُز‪٤‬خٗخص حُٔيٍؿش ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حُؤْ ‪ٝ‬حُؤْ حُظخُ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ٢‬إٔ طايػْ حُلـاش حُوخثِاش‬
‫رؤٕ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ ٢ٛ‬حُي‪ُٝ‬ش حألًؼَ ػ٘لخ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼخُْ‪ ،‬كبٕ حُو‪٤٠‬ش أًؼَ طؼو‪٤‬يح رٌؼ‪.َ٤‬‬
‫‪٘ٛ‬ااخى أٍرؼااش أ‪ٛ‬اايحف ٓوز‪ُٞ‬ااش ر٘ااٌَ ػااخّ ُظزَ‪٣‬ااَ كاازْ حألكااَحى حُ ُٔاايحٗ‪ ٖ٤‬رـااَحثْ‪ :‬حُو‪ٜ‬ااخ‪ٝ ٙ‬حُااَىع ‪ٝ‬اػااخىس حُظؤ‪٤ٛ‬ااَ‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُؼـِ‪" َ٤٘٣.‬حُو‪ٜ‬خ‪ "ٙ‬اُ‪ٔٓ ٠‬خٍٓش ٓؼخهزاش كاَى ألٗا‪ ٚ‬حٍطٌاذ ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬اش ‪ٝ‬رخُظاخُ‪٣ ٢‬ـاذ إٔ ‪٣‬ؼاخٗ‪" .٢‬حُاَىع" ‪ٌٔ٣‬اٖ‬
‫طؤ‪ ٚٔ٤‬اُ‪ٍ ٠‬ىع ػخّ ‪ٍ ٝ‬ىع ٓليى‪.‬‬

‫‪20‬‬
 An example of a nation where primary law enforcement is dominated by local law
enforcement agencies is Canada. While each of Canada’s ten prov-inces makes laws that
prescribe standards for such matters as the governance, recruitment, and training of police
officers, municipalities are responsible for urban policing. There are approximately 300
police organizations in Canada. In addition, Canada has several national police organizations,
including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). The RCMP provides policing ser-
vices under contract to eight of the ten provinces and support for the local police departments.
In addition, the RCMP is responsible for enforcement of federal statutes (Das & Palmiotto,
2006, vol. 1, p. 158).
Punishments

The earliest forms of state -imposed sanctions generally included social con-trol by means of
ordering financial compensation. For example, in the Mid-dle Ages, offenders were ordered
to pay a certain amount of money to the victim or his or her family. The motivation for the
use of financial compensa-tion was to reduce the likelihood of blood feuds between families.
Often the amount of money paid depended more on the status of the victim rather than on the
harm done to him or her.
Imprisonment or physical restraint as a form of punishment did not appear until relatively
late in history. Despite its late appearance, confine-ment is now very popular worldwide. In
2002, there were approximately 8.5 million people in confinement.
According to Pakes (2004), differences in sentencing practices among countries tell us
something about various jurisdictions’ visions of social inclusion and social control. He
contends that punishment is an area almost made for comparative research. As discussed in
the next section, the United States has the highest rate of firearms ownership and the highest
rate of firearms killings per 100,000 people. The United States also has the highest rate of
confinement. For example, in 2002 there were more than 8.5 million people in prison
worldwide. The highest incarceration rates existed in the United States (about 700 per
100,000 individuals) and in Russia (about 665 per 100,000), while Germany had only about
95 per 100,000 and the United Kingdom had 125 per 100,000. While the data listed in this
section and the next could support an argument that the United States is the most violent
country in the world, the issue is far more complex.
There are four generally accepted goals used to justify confinement of individuals convicted
of crimes: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation. ―Retribution‖ refers to
the practice of punishing an individ-ual because he or she committed a crime and therefore
should suffer. ―Deter-rence‖ may be subdivided into general deterrence and specific
deterrence .

20
‫‪ٜٓ َ٤٘٣‬طِق "حَُىع حُؼخّ" اُ‪ٓ ٠‬ؼخهزش حُلَى ٖٓ أؿَ ٓ٘غ ح‪٥‬هَ‪ ٖٓ ٖ٣‬حٍطٌخد أكؼخٍ ٓٔخػِش‪ٜٓ َ٤٘٣ .‬طِق‬
‫"حَُىع حُٔليى" اُ‪ ٠‬ط‪ٞ‬ػ ‪٤‬ش حُلَى ٖٓ أؿَ ٓ٘غ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُلَى ٖٓ حٍطٌخد ؿَحثْ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔٔظوزَ‪ .‬طظ‪" ٖٔ٠‬اػخىس حُظؤ‪"َ٤ٛ‬‬
‫حُٔل‪ ّٜٞ‬حٌُ‪٣ ١‬لظخؿ‪ ٚ‬حُـخٗ‪٘٣ٝ ٢‬زـ‪ ٢‬إٔ ‪٣‬ظِو‪ ٠‬حُؼالؽ أ‪ ٝ‬حُظؤى‪٣‬ذ‪ٜٓ َ٤٘٣ .‬طِق "حُؼـِ" اُ‪ ٠‬كٌَس أٗ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ٔ٘٤‬خ ‪ٌٕٞ٣‬‬
‫حُلَى ٓو‪٤‬يح ‪ ،‬كبٗ ‪ ٚ‬ال ‪ٔ٣‬ظط‪٤‬غ حٍطٌخد ؿَحثْ أهَ‪ٟ ٟ‬ي ػخٓش حُ٘خّ‪ .‬حٌُِٔ٘ش ك‪ ٢‬حُزلغ ػٖ حُ٘ظَ‪٣‬خص حُظ‪٢‬‬
‫طٔظويٓ‪ٜ‬خ حُزِيحٕ حُٔوظِلش ‪ ٢ٛ‬أٗ٘خ ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حألك‪٤‬خٕ ال ٗيٍى ٓخ ‪ ٢ٛ‬حُ٘ظَ‪٣‬ش حُظ‪ٔ٣ ٢‬ظويٓ‪ٜ‬خ هخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُلٌْ ػ٘يٓخ‬
‫‪٣‬لٌْ ػِ‪ٗ ٠‬و‪ٓ ٚ‬خ رخُٔـٖ‪ .‬ػخَٓ آهَ ٓؼوي ‪ ٞٛ‬إٔ رؼ‪ ٞ‬أ‪ٛ‬يحف ا‪ٛ‬يحٍ حألكٌخّ ٓظ٘خك‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ر‪ٔ٘٤‬خ ٗظيحٍّ ٓوظِق حُزِيحٕ ‪٘٘ٓ ،‬خهٖ أ‪ٛ‬يحك‪ٜ‬خ حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش رب‪ٛ‬يحٍ حُلٌْ ‪ُ .‬ألٓزخد حًٌُٔ‪ٍٞ‬س أػال‪ٓ ، ٙ‬ظظْ ٓ٘خه٘ش‬
‫أ‪ٛ‬يحف ا‪ٛ‬يحٍ حألكٌخّ حُٔٔظويٓش ك‪ ٢‬رِيحٕ ٓليىس رؼزخٍحص ػخٓش‪ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪٣ ،‬زي‪ ٝ‬إٔ حُ‪ٜ‬يف حألًؼَ‬
‫ٗ‪ٞ٤‬ػخ إل‪ٛ‬يحٍ حُلٌْ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ك‪ ٢‬حُؼوي حأل‪ ٖٓ ٍٝ‬حُوَٕ حُلخى‪ٝ ١‬حُؼَ٘‪ ٞٛ ٖ٣‬حُؼـِ‪.‬‬

‫اىعْف اىَقبسُ‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬أرَ‪ ، 2007 َ٣‬هظَ ‪١‬خُذ ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼ‪ٜ‬ي كَؿ‪٤٘٤‬خ ُِظٌ٘‪ُٞٞ‬ؿ‪٤‬خ ‪ٗ 32‬و‪ٜ‬خ رخَُ‪ٛ‬خ‪ ٙ‬ػْ هظَ ٗلٔ‪ .ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿ‪24 ٕٞ٠‬‬
‫ٓخػش ٖٓ ؿَحثْ حُوظَ ‪ ،‬حُٗظوي ٍث‪ ْ٤‬حُ‪ٍُٞ‬حء حألٓظَحُ‪ ٢‬ؿ‪ٛ ٕٞ‬خ‪ ٍٝ‬ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُٔ‪٤‬طَس ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔالف ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص‬
‫حُٔظليس ‪ ًًَٝ‬إٔ "ػوخكش حُٔالف ِٓز‪٤‬ش ُِـخ‪٣‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس" (ر‪٤‬ـِ‪ .)43 .ٙ ، 2007 ، ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٖ٤‬إٔ حُي‪ٍٝ‬‬
‫حألهَ‪ ٟ‬هي ٗ‪ٜ‬يص ؿَحثْ هظَ ؿٔخػ‪٣ ،٢‬زي‪ ٝ‬إٔ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ُي‪ٜ٣‬خ أًؼَ ٖٓ ك‪ٜ‬ظ‪ٜ‬خ حُ٘ٔز‪٤‬ش‪٘ٛ .‬خى ٗظَ‪٣‬ش ٗخثؼش‬
‫ك‪ٓ ٍٞ‬زذ ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى ػيى ًز‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬ؿَحثْ حُؼ٘ق ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس طِو‪ ٢‬رخُِ‪ ّٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حكظوخٍ‪ٛ‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬حُٔ‪٤‬طَس ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫حألِٓلش‪ .‬أٗخٍص ر‪٤‬ـِ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬ىٍحٓظ‪ٜ‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬إٔ ٗٔزش حألكَحى حٌُ‪ٔ٣ ٖ٣‬ظٌِ‪ ٕٞ‬أِٓلش ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ ٢ٛ‬حُ٘ٔزش‬
‫حُٔج‪٣ٞ‬ش حُؼخُ‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬أ‪ ١‬ى‪ُٝ‬ش ‪٘ٛ‬خػ‪٤‬ش‪ًًَٝ .‬ص إٔ ‪٘ٛ‬خى ‪ٓ 90‬الكخ ٗخٍ‪٣‬خ ٌَُ ‪ٔٔٗ 100000‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪،‬‬
‫ٓوخٍٗش رـ ‪ 32‬كو‪ 100000 ٌَُ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬كَٗٔخ‪ٝ .‬أٗخٍص أ‪٠٣‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬إٔ ‪٘ٛ‬خى ‪ 10.08‬كخُش ‪ٝ‬كخس ٓ٘‪٣ٞ‬ش رخألِٓلش حُ٘خٍ‪٣‬ش‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ٌَُ ‪ 100000‬كَى ‪ٓ ،‬وخٍٗش رـ ‪ 4.93‬ك‪ ٢‬كَٗٔخ‪ .‬أٗخٍص ىٍحٓظ‪ٜ‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬إٔ ٓؼيٍ حُ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬خص‬
‫حُٔ٘‪ ١ٞ‬رخألِٓلش حُ٘خٍ‪٣‬ش ٌَُ ‪ 100000‬ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح ‪ٓ ،‬غ ٓظطِزخص حُظَه‪ ٚ٤‬حُ‪ٜ‬خٍٓش ‪ 0.31 ٞٛ ،‬كو‪ٝ .٢‬هِ‪ٚ‬‬
‫ر‪٤‬ـِ‪ ٢‬أ‪٠٣‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬إٔ ٓؼيالص حُؼ٘ق ‪ ٢ٛ‬حألػِ‪ ٠‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔـظٔؼخص حُٔظ٘وِش ك‪٤‬غ ‪ٜ٣‬ؼذ طَٓ‪٤‬ن ؿٌ‪ٍٛٝ‬خ ‪ٝ‬طٌ٘‪َ٤‬‬
‫ٍ‪ٝ‬حر‪ ٢‬ىحثٔش‪.‬‬
‫ٍىخز‬
‫‪٘ٛٝ‬خى كخؿش ٓظِح‪٣‬يس ُيٍحٓش ٗظْ حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬رِيحٕ أهَ‪ ٟ‬رٔزذ طِح‪٣‬ي حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش حُؼخرَس ُِلي‪ٝ‬ى‪.‬‬

‫‪21‬‬
―General deterrence‖ refers to punishing an individual in order to prevent others
from committing similar acts. ―Specific deterrence‖ refers to pun-ishing an
individual in order to prevent that individual from committing crimes in the future.
―Rehabilitation‖ involves the concept that the offender needs and should receive
treatment or correction. ―Incapacitation‖ refers to the notion that while an individual
is confined, he or she can not commit other crimes against the general public. The
problem in researching which theories are being used by the various countries is that
most of the time we are unaware of what theory the sentencing judge uses when he
or she sen-tences a person to imprisonment. Another complicating factor is that
some of the sentencing goals are mutually exclusive.
As we examine the various countries, we will discuss their particular sen-tencing
goals. For the reasons stated above, the sentencing goals used in specific countries
will be discussed in general terms. For example, it appears that the most popular
sentencing goal in the United States in the 2000s is incapacitation.
Comparative Violence

In April 2007, a student at the Virginia Institute of Technology gunned down 32

people and then killed himself. Within 24 hours of the murders, Aus-tralian Prime
Minister John Howell criticized the gun control laws in the United States and stated
that the ―gun culture is such a negative in the United States‖ (Begley, 2007, p. 43).
While other nations have experienced mass mur-ders, it appears that the United
States has had more than its proportionate share. A popular theory about why the
United States has a high number of violent crimes blames its lack of gun control.
Begley noted in her study that the percentage of individuals owning guns in the
United States is the high-est of any industrialized country. She stated that there are
90 firearms per 100,000 population in the United States, compared to only 32 per
100,000 in France. She also noted that there were 10.08 annual deaths by firearms in
the United States per 100,000 individuals, compared to 4.93 in France. Her study
indicated that the annual gun death rate per 100,000 in England, with its strict
licensing requirements, is only 0.31. Begley also concluded that rates of violence are
highest in mobile societies where it is hard to put down roots and form enduring
connections.
Summary

There is an increased need to study the criminal justice systems of other countries
because of the increase in transnational crime.

21
 ‫‪٣‬ؼظزَ حُظؼ‪ٜ‬ذ حُؼَه‪ ٢‬ػخثوخ أٓخّ حُظؼَف ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗظٔش حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُزِيحٕ حألهَ‪.ٟ‬‬
‫‪٣‬ظْ طٌ٘‪ٗ َ٤‬ظخّ حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُزِي ‪ٝ‬طٌ٘‪ ٖٓ ِٚ٤‬هالٍ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؿ‪ ٚ‬حُوخٗ‪ُِ ٢ٗٞ‬ؼيحُش‪.‬‬
‫ًخٕ حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪ُ ٢‬يٍحٓش حُوخٗ‪٤ٟ٘ٔ ٕٞ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬طط‪ ٍٞ‬حُظوخُ‪٤‬ي حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش حُـَر‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؿخٕ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬خٕ حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬خٕ ُِؼخُْ حُـَر‪ ٢‬حُلي‪٣‬غ ‪ٔٛ‬خ ٗٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪.‬‬
‫ًخٕ حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٕ أ‪ ٖٓ ٍٝ‬حػظزَ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِٔخ ‪ ٖٓ ٌْٜ٘ٔ٣‬هالُ‪ ٚ‬حُ٘ظَ اُ‪ ٠‬حُؼخُْ ‪ ،‬رٌَ ٗؼ‪ٞ‬ر‪ٔٓٝ ٚ‬ظٌِخط‪ٝ ْٜ‬ػالهخط‪ْٜ‬‬
‫حُٔظيحهِش‪.‬‬
‫طْ ط٘ظ‪ ْ٤‬أ‪ٍٝٝ‬رخ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼ‪ ٍٜٞ‬حُ‪ٓٞ‬ط‪ ٠‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ٢‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حٌُ٘ٔ‪ . ٢‬هالٍ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُلظَس ‪ ،‬طط‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُظـخٍ‪ ١‬ألٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حٌُ٘ٔ‪ٌٗٞ٣ ُْ ٢‬خ َٓٗ‪ ٖ٤‬رٔخ ‪ٌ٣‬ل‪ُِ ٢‬ظؼخَٓ ٓغ ٓظطِزخص حُظـخٍس‪.‬‬
‫رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ُْ ، ٢‬طٌٖ أكٌخّ حُٔلخًْ ِِٓٓش اال ك‪ ٢‬حألٓزخد حُظ‪ٛ ٢‬يٍص ك‪ٜ٤‬خ‪٣ .‬ؼظٔي ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ًٞٔٗ ٠‬ؽ حُظلو‪٤‬ن حُو‪٠‬خث‪ .٢‬ك‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٖ٤‬أٗ‪َٓ ٚ‬طز‪ ٢‬رٌَ٘ ػخّ رخُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪ ، ٢‬اال أٗ‪ ٚ‬ال ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬اٍؿخػ‪ٚ‬‬
‫اُ‪ٜٓ ٠‬يٍ ‪ٝ‬حكي‪.‬‬
‫طْ طط‪ًٞٔٗ َ٣ٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح ‪ٓ ْ٠٣ٝ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُٔزخىة ‪ٝ‬ه‪ٞ‬حػي حُؼَٔ حُٔٔظٔيس ٖٓ حألػَحف‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُؼخىحص حُظوِ‪٤‬ي‪٣‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ًٞٔٗ ٞٛ‬ؽ ػيحث‪ًٞٔٗ(.٢‬ؽ حُو‪ٜٓٞ‬ش)‪.‬‬
‫رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حإلٓالٓ‪ ، ٢‬كبٕ حَُ٘‪٣‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ٓ ٢ٛ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٗخِٓش ٖٓ حُ‪ٞ‬حؿزخص حُي‪٤٘٣‬ش‪ .‬اٗ‪ٓ ٚ‬ؼخٍ ُِلٌَ‬
‫حإلٓالٓ‪ .٢‬حُ‪ٜ‬يف حألٓخٓ‪٣َُِ٘ ٢‬ؼش حإلٓالٓ‪٤‬ش ‪٘ٓ ٞٛ‬غ حَُ٘‪.‬‬
‫ُِ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حالٗظَحً‪ ٢‬حٌُالٓ‪ ٢ٌ٤‬ػالػش أؿَح‪ :ٝ‬ط‪ٞ‬ك‪ َ٤‬حألٖٓ حُو‪ٝ ، ٢ٓٞ‬ط٘ظ‪ ْ٤‬حالهظ‪ٜ‬خى ٖٓ هالٍ حُٔزخىة‬
‫حالٗظَحً‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬طؼو‪٤‬ق ػخٓش حٌُٔخٕ ‪ًٌُٝ‬ي ٓ٘ظ‪ ٢ٌٜ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخٗ‪.ٕٞ‬‬
‫طٔ‪ َ٤‬أٗظٔش اٗلخً حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬آخ إٔ ط‪ ٖٔ٤ٜ‬ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ حَُ٘‪١‬ش حُ‪٤٘١ٞ‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬ط‪ ٖٔ٤ٜ‬ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ حُ‪ًٞ‬خالص حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬

‫‪22‬‬
Ethnocentrism is a bar to learning about other countries’ criminal jus-tice systems.
A country’s criminal justice system is formed and shaped by its legal model of
justice.
The historical approach to the study of law was implicit in the develop-ment of the
Western legal tradition.
The two major legal models of the modern Western world are the civil law and
common law models.
The Romans were the first to consider law as a science by means of which they
could look at the world, with all its people and property and their intermingling
relationships.
Europe in the Middle Ages was regulated by Roman law and church canon law.
During this period, commercial law developed because Roman and canon law were
not flexible enough to handle the demands of trade.
Under civil law, judgments of courts are not binding except in the causes in which
they are rendered. The civil law model is based on an inquisi-torial model. While it
is commonly tied to Roman law, it cannot be traced to a single source.
The common law model developed in England and comprises the body of principles
and rules of action derived from traditional usages and customs.
The common law model is an adversarial model.
Under the Islamic model, the sacred law of Islam is an all-embracing body of
religious duties. It is the epitome of Islamic thought. The primary objective of
Islamic law is to prevent evil.
The classic socialist model has three purposes: to provide for national security, to
regulate economics by socialist principles, and to educate the general population as
well as lawbreakers about the law.
Law enforcement systems tend to be either dominated by the national police or
dominated by local agencies.

22
 ‫أسئيخ اىَشاخعخ‬
‫‪ُٔ.1‬خًح ‪٣‬ؼظزَ حُٔئُل‪ ٕٞ‬إٔ حُيٍحٓش حُٔوخٍٗش ُِؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ‪ ٢ٛ‬ىٍحٓش أًخى‪٤ٔ٣‬ش ُظَط‪٤‬زخص حُؼيحُش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ُٔوظِق‬
‫حُي‪ٍٝ‬؟‬
‫‪.2‬حَٗف ٓؼ٘‪ًِٔ ٠‬ش "حُلو‪”."ٚ‬‬
‫‪.3‬حَٗف ً‪٤‬ق ‪٣‬وظِق ٗ‪ٜ‬ؾ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٟٞ‬ؼ‪ ٢‬ػٖ ٗ‪ٜ‬ؾ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪.٢‬‬
‫‪ُٔ.4‬خًح ًًَ هخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ أ‪٤ُٝ‬لَ ‪٘٣ٝ‬يٍ ‪ ,ُِٔٞٛ‬حالرٖ‪ ،‬إٔ ك‪٤‬خس حُوخٗ‪ ُْ ٕٞ‬طٌٖ حُٔ٘طن‪ ٌُٖٝ ،‬حُوزَس؟‬
‫‪ٓ.5‬خ ‪ ٢ٛ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ظ‪٤‬لش حألٓخٓ‪٤‬ش ُ٘ظخّ حُٔلخًْ ك‪ ٢‬حُزالى؟‬
‫‪ٓ.6‬خ ‪ ٢ٛ‬حالهظالكخص حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ٔٗٝ ٢‬خًؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ؟‬
‫‪٤ً.7‬ق ‪٣‬وظِق ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حالٗظَحً‪ ٢‬ػٖ حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حإلٓالٓ‪.٢‬‬

‫‪23‬‬
QUESTIONS IN REVIEW

1. Why do the authors consider that the comparative study of criminal justice is an
academic study of criminal justice arrangements of various nations?
2. Explain the meaning of the word ―jurisprudence.‖
3. Explain how the positive law approach differs from the natural law approach.
4. Why did Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., state that the life of
law has not been logic, but experience?
5. What is the primary function of a nation’s court system?
6. What are the chief differences between the civil law and common law models?
7.How do the socialist model and the Islamic model of law differ?

23
 ‫اىقبّىُ اىعبً‬
‫َّىرج‪ :‬اىَحبمٌ‬
‫اىَصطيحبد اىشئٍسٍخ‬
‫اىَحبًٍ اىَعٍِ‪ٓ :‬لخّ ‪٣‬ؼ‪ ٚ٘٤‬هخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔلخًٔش ُظٔؼ‪ َ٤‬حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬حُٔؼ‪.ُٞ‬‬
‫تىخٍه االتهبً‪ :‬ؿِٔش حُٔلٌٔش حأل‪٤ُٝ‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُٔلخًْ حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬الث‪٤‬ش ك‪٤‬غ ‪٣‬ظْ اهطخٍ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬رخُظ‪ٝ ْٜ‬كو‪ٞ‬ه‪.ٚ‬‬
‫اىَأٍىس‪ٟ :‬خر‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔلٌٔش ٌِٓق ر‪ٞ‬حؿذ كلع حُٔالّ ‪ٝ‬كزْ حُٔـ٘خء ‪ٝ‬أٗ٘طش أهَ‪ ٖٓ ٟ‬هزَ هخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔلخًٔش‪.‬‬
‫اىتذوٌِ‪ :‬ػِٔ‪٤‬ش ؿٔغ ‪ٝ‬طَط‪٤‬ذ حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼخص حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼ‪٤‬ش ُألٓش ك‪ٓ ٢‬ي‪ٗٝ‬ش ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ٞٓ ٖ٤‬كيس‪.‬‬
‫مبتت اىَحنَخ‪ٞٓ :‬ظق ك‪ ٢‬حُٔلٌٔش ٓٔئ‪ ٍٝ‬ػٖ حالكظلخظ رخُٔـالص حٌُٔظ‪ٞ‬رش ُِٔلٌٔش‪.‬‬
‫اىَذعى عيٍه‪ :‬حُ٘و‪ ٚ‬حٌُ‪ٍ ١‬كؼض ‪ٟ‬ي‪ ٙ‬ىػ‪ ٟٞ‬ؿ٘خث‪٤‬ش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬يٗ‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫اىفٍذساىٍخ اىَزدوخخ‪ :‬رخإلٗخٍس اُ‪ ٠‬أٗظٔش حُٔلخًْ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ‪ٓ ،‬ئٓٔش ًَ ٖٓ أٗظٔش ٓلخًْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬ش ‪ٗٝ‬ظخّ حُٔلخًْ‬
‫حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش ‪ٓ ،‬غ ًَ ٗظخّ ُ‪ ٚ‬حُِٔطش حُ٘‪ٜ‬خث‪٤‬ش ك‪٘ٓ ٢‬خ‪١‬ن ٓوظخٍس ؛ طٔظويّ أ‪٠٣‬خ ُ‪ٛٞ‬ق ٓل‪ٗ ّٜٞ‬ظخٓ‪ُِٔ ٖ٤‬لخًْ‬
‫حٌُخِٓش حُٔظؼخ‪٘٣‬ش‪.‬‬
‫اىَعيىٍبد‪ٝ :‬ػ‪٤‬وش هخٗ ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش طٌَ٘ حط‪ٜ‬خٓخ ٍٓٔ‪٤‬خ رٔ‪ٞ‬ء حُِٔ‪ٞ‬ى حُـ٘خث‪ٟ ٢‬ي كَى ؛ طٔظويّ رٌَ٘ ػخّ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔلخًْ حُيٗ‪٤‬خ‬
‫ريال ٖٓ الثلش حالط‪ٜ‬خّ‪.‬‬
‫الئحخ االتهبً‪ٝ :‬ػ‪٤‬وش ٍٓٔ‪٤‬ش ‪ٛ‬خىٍس ػٖ ‪٤ٛ‬جش ٓلِل‪ً ٖ٤‬زَ‪ ٟ‬طظ‪ٗ ْٜ‬و‪ٜ‬خ رخٍطٌخد ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش‪.‬‬
‫اىدْح‪ :‬ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ‪ٛ‬ـَ‪.ٟ‬‬
‫اىَذعً اىعبً‪ :‬حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬حٌُ‪ٔ٣ ١‬ؼَ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬حُلٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش ك‪ٓ ٢‬لخًٔش ؿ٘خث‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫اىَحبًٍ اىَعٍِ‪ٓ :‬لخّ هخ‪ ٙ‬طْ حُظؼخهي ٓؼ‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬هزَ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪.ٚ٤‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ اىدْبئً اىَىضىعً‪ًُ :‬ي حُـِء ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حٌُ‪٘٘٣ ١‬ت ‪٣ٝ‬ؼَّف ‪٣ٝ‬ؼِٖ حألكؼخٍ حُظ‪ ٢‬طٌَ٘ ؿَحثْ ‪٣ٝ‬ليى‬
‫حُؼو‪ٞ‬رخص ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ‪.‬‬

‫‪24‬‬
Common Law
Model: The Courts
Key Terms
Appointed counsel: Counsel appointed by the trial judge to represent an indigent
defendant.
Arraignment: The initial court hearing in federal and state courts where a defendant
is advised of the charges and his or her rights.
Bailiff: An officer of the court who is assigned the duty of peacekeeping, prisoner
custody, and other activities by the trial judge.
Codification: The process of collecting and arranging the legislative enact-ments of
a nation into one unified code of laws.
Court clerk: An officer of the court who is responsible for maintaining the written
records of the court.
Defendant: The person against whom a criminal or civil action is brought.
Dual federalism: In reference to U.S. court systems, the institution of both state
court systems and a federal court system, with each system having final authority in
selected areas; also used to describe the concept of two coexist-ing complete court
systems.
Information: A legal document that constitutes a formal accusation of criminal
misconduct against an individual; generally used in inferior courts instead of an
indictment.
Indictment: Formal document issued by a grand jury charging a person with a
crime.
Misdemeanor: A minor crime.
Prosecuting attorney: The attorney who represents the state or federal gov-ernment
in a criminal trial.
Retained counsel: Private counsel who has been hired by a defendant.
Substantive criminal law: That portion of the law that creates, defines, and declares
what acts constitute crimes and establishes punishments for those crimes.

24
 ‫ٍقذٍخ‬
‫‪٣‬ـٔي حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ه‪ٜ‬ش طط‪ ٍٞ‬حألٓش ػزَ هَ‪ ٕٝ‬ػي‪٣‬يس‪ٝ ،‬ال ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬حُظؼخَٓ ٓؼ‪ًٔ ٚ‬خ ُ‪ً ٞ‬خٕ ‪٣‬لظ‪ ١ٞ‬كو‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُزي‪٤ٜ٣‬خص‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُ٘ظخثؾ حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪٤‬ش ٓؼَ ًظخد حَُ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬خص‪ ٖٓ .‬أؿَ ٓؼَكش ٓخ ‪ ٞٛ‬ػِ‪٣ ، ٚ٤‬ـذ ػِ‪٘٤‬خ إٔ ٗٔظ٘‪ َ٤‬رخُظ٘خ‪ٝ‬د حُظخٍ‪٣‬ن‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُ٘ظ َ‪٣‬خص حُوخثٔش ُِظَ٘‪٣‬غ‪ ٌُٖٝ .‬حُؼَٔ حألًؼَ ‪ٛ‬ؼ‪ٞ‬رش ٓ‪ُ ٌٕٞ٤‬ل‪٣ِٓ ْٜ‬ؾ ٖٓ حالػ٘‪ ٖ٤‬اُ‪٘ٓ ٠‬ظـخص ؿي‪٣‬يس ك‪ًَ ٢‬‬
‫َٓكِش‪( .‬هخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش أ‪٤ُٝ‬لَ ‪٘٣ٝ‬يٍ ‪ ، ُِٔٞٛ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪)6 .ٙ ، 1881 ،‬‬
‫حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬حأل‪ ٍٝ‬حٌُ‪ٗ ١‬يٍٓ‪ًٞٔٗ ٞٛ ٚ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪ٌٛ .‬ح حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ ُ‪ ْ٤‬حألهيّ ‪ٓ ٌُٚ٘ٝ ،‬ؤُ‪ٞ‬كخ" ُٔؼظْ حُوَحء‬
‫ٓؼظْ حُوَحء ‪ ،‬ك‪ ٢‬حُل‪ ٖ٤ِٜ‬حُؼخٗ‪ٝ ٢‬حُؼخُغ ‪ٞٓ ،‬ف ٗٔظٌ٘ق ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ًٔخ ‪ٞٓ ٞٛ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى كخُ‪٤‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص‬
‫حُٔظليس ‪ٝ‬حٌُِٔٔش حُٔظليس‪ًٔٝ .‬خ ُ‪ٞ‬كع ك‪ ٢‬حُل‪ َٜ‬حأل‪ ، ٍٝ‬كبٕ ػزخٍس "حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ُٜ "٢ٗٞ‬خ ٓؼ٘‪ ٠‬أ‪ٓٝ‬غ ٖٓ‬
‫"حُ٘ظخّ حُوخٗ‪"."٢ ٗٞ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ ،‬طٔظويّ ًَ ٖٓ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ٝ‬رَ‪٣‬طخٗ‪٤‬خ حُؼظٔ‪ًٞٔٗ ٠‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪،‬‬
‫ٌُٖ ٗظٔ‪ٜٔ‬خ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ٓوظِلش اُ‪ ٠‬كي ًز‪ .َ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُل‪ َٜ‬حُؼخٗ‪ٞٓ ،٢‬ف ٗيٍّ حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٢ٗٞ‬رٌَ٘ ػخّ ػْ ٗ٘خهٖ‬
‫حالهظالكخص ر‪ ٖ٤‬أٗظٔش حُٔلخًْ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُزَ‪٣‬طخٗ‪٤‬ش‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُل‪ َٜ‬حُؼخُغ‪ٞٓ ,‬ف ٗٔظٌ٘ق حالهظالف ر‪ ٖ٤‬أٗظٔش‬
‫حَُ٘‪١‬ش ‪ٝ‬حإل‪ٛ‬الك‪٤‬خص ك‪ ٢‬حُزِي‪ٗٝ ٖ٣‬ظطَم اُ‪٘ٓ ٠‬خه٘ش حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ُي‪ ٍٝ‬آهَ‪ ، ٟ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُل‪ ٍٜٞ‬حُالكوش ‪٤ٓ ،‬ظْ‬
‫ٓوخٍٗش ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ رخُ٘ٔخًؽ حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش حألٍرؼش حألهَ‪.ٟ‬‬
‫ُؼيس هَ‪ً ، ٕٝ‬خٕ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ إلٗـِظَح ‪٣‬ظؤُق ٖٓ ٗظخّ ا‪ٛ‬الكخص هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ‪ً .‬خٕ ٌَُ ػالؽ اؿَحء هخ‪ٙ‬‬
‫ر‪٣ .ٚ‬ل‪ َ٠‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حُٔ‪ٞ‬حرن ًؤٓخّ ُألكٌخّ‪ٝ .‬رخُظخُ‪٣ ، ٢‬ظْ ر٘خإ‪ ٙ‬طـَ‪٣‬ز‪٤‬خ ‪ ،‬أ‪٣ ٝ‬ظْ اٗ٘خإ‪ٜٗ ٖٓ ٙ‬ؾ ًَ كخُش ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫كيس‪ .‬ؿخء طلي‪٣‬غ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ٓزٌَح ٗٔز‪٤‬خ ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح ػ٘ي ٓوخٍٗظ‪ ٚ‬رظلي‪٣‬غ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيٗ‪ ٢‬حأل‪ٍٝ‬ر‪.٢‬‬
‫ًٔخ أٗخٍ ٍ‪ .ّ .‬كخٕ ًخ‪٤٘٣‬ـ‪ ، 1988( ْ٤‬حُ‪ٜ‬للخص ‪ ، )37-36‬كبٕ ٗ٘خ‪ ١‬حُو‪٠‬خس ‪ٝ‬حإلؿَحءحص حُٔوظِلش حُظ‪٢‬‬
‫طؼخِٓ‪ٞ‬ح ٓؼ‪ٜ‬خ ٌِٗض ًالً ٓظٔخٌٓخ ‪ٝ‬طْ حٓظ‪٤‬ؼخر‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٛٝٝ‬ل‪ٜ‬خ ػِ‪ٌٛ ٠‬ح حُ٘ل‪ٜ٣ .ٞ‬ق كخٕ ًخ‪٤٘٣‬ـ‪ ْ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُـي‪٣‬ي (ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُوَٕ حُلخى‪ ١‬ػَ٘) رؤٗ‪ٓٝ ٢٘١ٝ ٚ‬وِ‪ُِِٔ ٚ‬ي‪ً .‬خٕ حُِٔي ‪ٝ‬ه‪٠‬خط‪ ٚ‬حًَُِٔ‪٣ ٕٞ٣‬ؼظزَ‪ ٕٝ‬كخِٓ‪ ٢‬حُ٘ظخّ رؤًِٔ‪، ٚ‬‬
‫‪ًٝ‬خٕ ططز‪٤‬و‪ ٚ‬ػِ‪ٔٓ ٠‬ظ‪ ٟٞ‬حُزالى‪.‬‬
‫رؼي حُلظق حُ٘‪ٍٓٞ‬خٗي‪ ١‬ػخّ ‪ً ، 1066‬خٗض اٗـِظَح ك‪ ٢‬حألٓخّ "ٗؼز‪ " ٖ٤‬ىحهَ ٗؼز‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ى‪ُٝ‬ش ‪ٝ‬حكيس ‪ٝ‬هي‬
‫طْ ك‪ َٜ‬حُزِي‪ ٖٓ ٖ٣‬هزَ هِ‪٤‬ؾ ‪ٝ‬حٓغ ‪ً،‬خٗض حُي‪ُٝ‬ظخٕ ‪ٔٛ‬خ حُلَٗٔ‪٤‬ش (حُلَٗٔ‪ٝ )ٕٞ٤‬حألٗـِ‪٤ٌ٤‬ش (حألكَحى حإلٗـِ‪ِ٤‬‬
‫حأل‪ً .)ٕٞ٤ِٛ‬خٕ حُلَٗٔ‪ ٕٞ٤‬أكَحىح ٖٓ أ‪ َٛ‬أ‪ٍٝ‬ر‪٣ٝ ، ٢‬ظليػ‪ ٕٞ‬حُلَٗٔ‪٤‬ش ‪٣ٝ ،‬لٌٔ‪ ٕٞ‬حُزالى ‪٤ٔ٣ٝ‬طَ‪ ٕٝ‬اُ‪ ٠‬كي‬
‫ًز‪ َ٤‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حٌُ٘‪ٔ٤‬ش‪ًٔ .‬خ ٓ‪٤‬طَ‪ٝ‬ح ػِ‪ ٠‬حُؼَ‪ٝ‬س ‪ٝ‬حكظلظ‪ٞ‬ح رخألٍ‪ ٝ‬ك‪ٍٓٞٗ ْٜ٘١ٝ ٖٓ ًَ ٢‬خٗيح ‪ٝ‬اٗـِظَح‪ً .‬خٕ ُي‪ٟ‬‬
‫حُلَٗٔ‪ ٕٞ٤‬حُوِ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حالكظَحّ ُِو‪ ْ٤‬حُظوِ‪٤‬ي‪٣‬ش ُِ٘ؼذ حإلٗـِ‪ً .١ِ٤‬خٕ حألكَحى حإلٗـِ‪ ١ِ٤‬رٌَ٘ أٓخٓ‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حُلالك‪ٖ٤‬‬
‫حٌُ‪٘ٓ ٖ٣‬ؼ‪ٞ‬ح ٖٓ حُٔ٘خ‪ٛ‬ذ حَُك‪٤‬ؼش ‪ٝ‬ػخى‪ٝ‬ح ػٔ‪ٓٞ‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬ك‪٤‬خس ٍُحػ‪٤‬ش ٓظ‪ٞ‬ح‪ٟ‬ؼش‪.‬‬

‫‪25‬‬
Introduction
The law embodies the story of a nation’s development through many centuries, and it
cannot be dealt with as if it contained only the axioms and corollaries of a book of
mathematics. In order to know what it is, we must alternately consult history and existing
theories of legislation. But the most difficult labor will be to understand the combination of
the two into new products at every stage. (U.S. Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell
Holmes, The Common Law, 1881, p. 6)
The first legal model that we examine is the common law model. This model is not the
oldest, but it is the one with which most readers of this text will be familiar. In chapters 2
and 3, we will explore the common law model as currently existing in the United States
and the United Kingdom. As noted in chapter 1, the phrase ―legal model‖ has a broader
meaning than ―legal sys-tem.‖ For example, both the United States and Great Britain use
the common law model, but their legal systems are vastly different. In chapter 2, we will
examine the legal model in general and then discuss the differences between the U.S. and
British court systems. In chapter 3, we will explore the differ-ences between police systems
and corrections in the two countries and con-clude with a discussion of other common law
countries. In later chapters, the common law model will be compared with the other four
legal models.
For centuries, the common law of England consisted of a system of legal remedies. Each
remedy had its own procedure. Common law prefers prec-edent as the basis for judgments.
Thus, it is built empirically, or established from a case-to-case approach. The
modernization of common law came relatively early in England when compared with the
modernization of civil law on the Continent. As R. C. Van Caenegem (1988, pp. 36–37)
noted, the activity of the justices and the various actions with which they dealt formed a
coherent whole and were grasped and described as such. Van Caenegem describes the new
law (in the eleventh century) as national and loyal to the king. The king and his central
justices were considered to be the bearers of the whole system, and its application was
nationwide.
Following the Norman Conquest of 1066, England was essentially two ―nations‖ within
one. And the two nations were separated by a wide gulf. The two nations were the Franci
(French) and the Anglici (native English persons). The French were individuals of
Continental origin, spoke French, and ruled the country and largely controlled the church.
They also controlled the wealth and held land in both their native Normandy and England.
The Franci had little respect for the traditional values of the English people. Eng-lish
individuals were mainly peasants who were barred from high office and generally relegated
to a humble life of farming.

25
‫طط‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ رخػظزخٍ‪ ٙ‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حألٍح‪ ٢ٟ‬حإلهطخػ‪ ٢‬رٌَ٘ أٓخٓ‪ .٢‬ك‪ٞ٘ٓ ٢‬حط‪ ٚ‬حأل‪ ، ٠ُٝ‬طْ طٌ٘‪ َ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‬
‫‪ٝ‬طؼَ‪٣‬ل‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬هزَ حُـِحس حُلَٗٔ‪ً .ٖ٤٤‬خٗض حُِـش حَُٓٔ‪٤‬ش ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ ٢ٛ‬حُلَٗٔ‪٤‬ش كظ‪ ٠‬حُوَٕ حُٔخرغ ػَ٘‪ٌٖ٣ ُْ .‬‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ٜ٣‬ظْ ًؼ‪َ٤‬ح رخُلالك‪ ٖ٤‬كظ‪ ٠‬حُوَٕ حُؼخُغ ػَ٘‪ .‬هالٍ ًُي حُوَٕ ‪ ،‬حٗيٓـض حُي‪ُٝ‬ظخٕ ك‪ ٢‬أٓش ‪ٝ‬حكيس‪.‬‬
‫‪ ًٌَ٣‬كخٕ ًخ‪٤٘٣‬ـ‪ )1988( ْ٤‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬هالٍ حُوَٕ حُؼخُغ ػَ٘ أ‪ٛ‬زق حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حٌُ‪ٍ ١‬ر‪ ٢‬حألكَحٍ ٖٓ أ‪ ١‬أ‪َٛ‬‬
‫اٗـِ‪٣ِ٤‬خ كوخ ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪َٓ َ٤‬طز‪ ٢‬رخُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حأل‪ٍٝ‬ر‪٣ٝ ، ٢‬ئًي إٔ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ٓخػي ػِ‪ ٠‬هِن ٗؼ‪ ٍٞ‬رخألٓش ‪ٝ‬حُؼظٔش ك‪٢‬‬
‫أ‪ٝ‬حهَ حُؼ‪ ٍٜٞ‬حُ‪ٓٞ‬ط‪ ٠‬ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح ‪ٝ‬ؿؼَ حُ٘خّ ‪٣‬يًٍ‪ ٕٞ‬طٔ‪ٓ ، ِْٛ٤‬وخٍٗش رخُي‪ ٍٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٍس‪.‬‬
‫‪َ٘ٗٝ‬ص هَحٍحص ٓوظخٍس ٖٓ حُٔلخًْ ك‪ً ٢‬ظذ ٓ٘‪٣ٞ‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬حػظزَص طِي حُوَحٍحص رٔؼخرش ط‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٜ٤‬خص ُِو‪٠‬خس ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُٔوزِش‪٣ٝ .‬ظِو‪ ٠‬حألكَحى حٌُ‪٣ ٖ٣‬ظيٍر‪ٜ٤ُ ٕٞ‬زل‪ٞ‬ح ٓلخٓ‪ ٖ٤‬طيٍ‪٣‬ز‪ ْٜ‬ك‪ ٢‬حٍُِ٘ حُظخرؼش ُِٔلٌٔش‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حٍُِ٘ ‪،‬‬
‫طؼِٔ‪ٞ‬ح كَكظ‪ًٔ ْٜ‬خ كؼَ حُلَك‪ ٕٞ٤‬ح‪٥‬هَ‪ ٕٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؼ‪ ٍٜٞ‬حُ‪ٓٞ‬ط‪ ، ٠‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حط‪ٜ‬خٍ ٓغ ًزخٍ حُٔلخٓ‪ٝ ٖ٤‬حُو‪٠‬خس‪ .‬ػَٔ‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حإلٗـِ‪ ١ِ٤‬هالٍ طِي حُلوزش ك‪ ٢‬ا‪١‬خٍ حإلهطخع‪.‬‬
‫هْشي اىثبًّ‬
‫هخّ ‪َ٤ً ١َ٘ٛ‬طٔخٗظَ (‪ ، )1189-1133‬ى‪ٝ‬م ٗ‪ٍٓٞ‬خٗي‪ٝ ١‬الكوخ ِٓي اٗـِظَح (كٌْ ٖٓ ‪ 1154‬اُ‪ ، )1189 ٠‬رظ‪٤ٓٞ‬غ‬
‫حُٔـخالص حألٗـِ‪ ٞ‬كَٗٔ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬طو‪٣ٞ‬ش حإلىحٍس حٌُِٔ‪٤‬ش ‪ ،‬رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُٔلخًْ ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح‪ ١َ٘ٛ ٍٞ١ .‬أٌٗخال ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش‬
‫ؿي‪٣‬يس ‪ٝ‬ػُِ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪ًٔ .‬خ الكع كخٕ ًخ‪٤٘٣‬ـ‪٣ ُْ ، )38 .ٙ ، 1988( ْ٤‬ظْ طط‪ َ٣ٞ‬أ‪ ١‬ػ٘خ‪ َٛ‬أٓخٓ‪٤‬ش ُِوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُؼخّ هالٍ ػ‪ٜ‬ي ‪ ٌُٚ٘ ، ١َ٘ٛ‬هٍَ حُؼ٘خ‪ َٛ‬حُظ‪٤ٓ ٢‬ظْ ط‪ٜ٘٤ٔ٠‬خ ًـِء ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪٤ًٝ‬ق طظ٘خٓذ حُؼ٘خ‪َٛ‬‬
‫ٓؼخ‪ .‬رٌَ٘ ػخّ ‪ ،‬ؿؼَ حُ٘ظخّ ‪٣‬ؼَٔ‪.‬‬
‫هالٍ ػ‪ٜ‬ي ‪ً ، ١َ٘ٛ‬خٕ ٗؼذ اٗـِظَح ‪ٍٓٞٗٝ‬خٗيح ًخٕ ‪٣‬ظٔظغ رل‪٤‬خس كٌَ‪٣‬ش ‪ٓٝ‬زخىٍس‪ .‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ إٔ حُوِ‪ْٜ٘ٓ َ٤‬‬
‫ك‪ِٜٞ‬ح ػِ‪ ٠‬طؼِ‪ٗ ْ٤‬ظخٓ‪ ،٢‬اال أٗ‪ٍ ٚ‬رٔخ ًخٕ ُي‪ ٟ‬حٌُؼ‪ٓ ْٜ٘ٓ َ٤‬ؼَكش ٓطل‪٤‬ش رخُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪.‬‬
‫كون حُوخٗ‪ٍٝ ٕٞ‬ؿخٍ حُي‪ٝ ٖ٣‬حُؼِٔخٗ‪ ٕٞ٤‬ىٍؿش ػخُ‪٤‬ش ٖٓ حالكظَحك‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ٍ .ٕٞ‬رٔخ ًخٕ ‪ ١َ٘ٛ‬أؿ٘‪ ٠‬كخًْ ك‪٢‬‬
‫ًُي حُ‪ٞ‬هض ‪ًٝ ،‬خٕ اىحٍط‪ ٚ‬حألًؼَ ًلخءس‪ٝ .‬كوخ ُلخٕ ًخ‪٤٘٣‬ـ‪ً ، )39 ٙ( ْ٤‬خٗض ح‪٤ُ٥‬ش حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬أٗ٘ؤ‪ٛ‬خ ػِ‪ٗ ٠‬طخم‬
‫ُْ ‪ٔ٣‬زن ُ‪ٓ ٚ‬ؼ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬هزَ‪ .‬كون ٗظخّ ‪ُِ ١َ٘ٛ‬ؼيحُش أٍرخكخ ُِِٔي‪ .‬هالٍ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُلظَس أ‪ٛ‬زلض اٗـِظَح ؿِ‪َ٣‬س ك‪ ٢‬رلَ‬
‫ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٣ .٢‬ؼظزَ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ٗز‪ ٚ‬حإلهطخػ‪ٗٝ ٢‬ز‪ ٚ‬حُلي‪٣‬غ ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح كخُش ٗخًس ك‪ ٢‬طخٍ‪٣‬ن حُل‪٠‬خٍس‬
‫حُـَر‪٤‬ش (كخٕ ًخ‪٤٘٣‬ـ‪.)41-40 ٙ ، 1988 ، ْ٤‬‬

‫ٍبخْب مبستب‬
‫ىهَ ك‪ِٗ ٢‬حع حُِٔي ؿ‪ِٓ ٕٞ‬ي اٗـِظَح (كٌْ ٖٓ ‪ 1199‬اُ‪ٓ )1215 ٠‬غ حٌُ٘‪ٔ٤‬ش حٌُخػ‪٤ٌ٤ُٞ‬ش حَُ‪ٓٝ‬خٗ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬حطلي‬
‫حُزخٍ‪ٗٝ‬خص(ُوذ ٗز‪ َ٤‬حٍٓظوَح‪ ٢١‬ك‪ ٢‬حألٗظٔش حٌُِٔ‪٤‬ش حإلهطخػ‪٤‬ش) ‪ٟ‬ي‪ٝ ٙ‬أؿزَ‪ ٙٝ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُظ‪ٞ‬ه‪٤‬غ ػِ‪ ٠‬حطلخه‪٤‬ش‬

‫‪26‬‬
The common law developed as essentially feudal land law. In its forma-tive years, common
law was shaped and defined by the French invaders. The formal language of common law
was French until the seventeenth century. Common law had little concern for the peasants
until the thirteenth century. During that century, the two nations fused into one nation. Van
Caenegem (1988) states that it was during the thirteenth century that the common law that
bound together freemen of any descent became truly English and dis-tinct from Continental
law. He contends that common law helped to create a sense of nationhood and greatness in
late medieval England and made people aware of their distinctness, as compared with the
nations on the Continent.
Selected court decisions were published in Year Books, and those deci-sions were
considered to be directives for judges in future cases. Individuals training to be lawyers
received their training in the Inns of Court. At the Inns, they learned their craft as other
medieval craftsmen did, in contact with senior lawyers and judges. English law during that
era worked within the framework of feudalism.
Henry II
Henry Curtmantle (1133–1189), the duke of Normandy and later the king of England (r.
1154–1189), expanded the Anglo-French domains and strength-ened the royal
administration, including the courts in England. Henry developed new judicial forms and
solidified common law. As noted by Van Caenegem (1988, p. 38), no essential elements of
common law were developed during Henry’s reign, but he decided which elements were to
be included as part of the common law and how the elements were to fit together. In
general, he made the system work.
During Henry’s reign, the people of England and Normandy were intel-lectually alive and
enterprising. Although few had formal legal education, probably many had a passing
acquaintance with the common law. The jus-tices, clerics, and laymen attained a high
degree of professionalism in the law. Henry was probably the wealthiest ruler of that time,
and his adminis-tration was the most efficient. According to Van Caenegem (p. 39), the
judi-cial machinery he set up was on a scale never seen before. Henry’s system of justice
yielded profits for the king. It was during this period that England became an island in a
sea of Roman law. England’s semi-feudal, semi-mod-ern common law is considered an
anomaly in the history of Western civiliza-tion (Van Caenegem, 1988, pp. 40–41).
The Magna Carta
King John of England (r. 1199–1215) quarreled with the Roman Catho-lic Church, and the
barons united against him and forced him to sign the

26
‫ٓخؿ٘خ ًخٍطخ ػخّ ‪ .1215‬ريأص ٓ٘خًَ ؿ‪ ٕٞ‬رلويحٕ ٗ‪ٍٓٞ‬خٗيح‪ .‬ػْ ٌَٗ حثظالكخ ٖٓ حُلٌخّ ك‪ ٢‬أُٔخٗ‪٤‬خ ُٔٔخػيط‪ٟ ٚ‬ي‬
‫حُِٔي حُلَٗٔ‪ً .٢‬خٗض ؿ‪ٜٞ‬ى ؿ‪ٔ٣ُِٜ ٕٞ‬ش حُِٔي حُلَٗٔ‪ٌِٓ ٢‬لش ُِـخ‪٣‬ش ‪ًٝ ،‬خٗض حُ‪َ٠‬حثذ حُظ‪ ٢‬ؿٔؼ‪ٜ‬خ ُيكغ ػٖٔ‬
‫حُلِٔش ال طلظ‪ ٠‬ر٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ًز‪َ٤‬س‪ًٔ .‬خ كَ‪ ٝ‬ؿ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬حؿزخص حُٔ‪َ٤‬حع ػِ‪ ٠‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُزخٍ‪ٗٝ‬خص‪ٔٓ ،‬خ ُحى ٖٓ ٓ٘خًِ‪.ٚ‬‬
‫رلِ‪ٍ ٍٞ‬ر‪٤‬غ ػخّ ‪ ، 1215‬حٗ‪ ْ٠‬حُزخٍ‪ٗٝ‬خص ُالكظـخؽ ػِ‪ ٠‬آخءس ؿ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬طـخ‪ُِ ِٚٛ‬وخٗ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬حُؼَف‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬ػ‪٤‬وش ُِِٔي طؼَف رخْٓ ٓوخالص حُ٘زالء ‪ٝ ،‬حُظ‪ ٢‬طْ ػِ‪ ٠‬أٓخٓ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٟٝ‬غ حُٔخؿ٘خ ًخٍطخ‪ٓ .‬خؿ٘خ ًخٍطخ ‪ٝ ٢ٛ‬ػ‪٤‬وش‬
‫ؿ‪ َ٤‬ىٍحٓ‪٤‬ش‪ .‬اٗ‪ٜ‬خ ِٓ‪٤‬جش رٔ٘خًَ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حإلهطخػ‪ٝ ٢‬حُؼَف حُظ‪ ٢ٛ ٢‬ؿَ‪٣‬زش اُ‪ ٠‬كي ًز‪ َ٤‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘ؼذ حإلٗـِ‪١ِ٤‬‬
‫ٗ‪ٞ‬حف ًؼ‪َ٤‬س‪ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ٌٓ ٌٖ٣ ُْ ،‬ظ‪ٞ‬رخ كو‪ ٖٓ ٢‬أؿَ حُٔ‪ِٜ‬لش حُزخٍ‪٤ٗٝ‬ش‬
‫ِ‬ ‫حُلي‪٣‬غ‪ٓٝ .‬غ ًُي ‪ ،‬ك‪ٍ ٢ٜ‬حثؼش ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُزلظش ‪ً ٌُٚ٘ٝ‬خٕ ‪ٜ٣‬يف اُ‪ ٠‬ط‪ٞ‬ك‪ َ٤‬حُلٔخ‪٣‬ش ُـٔ‪٤‬غ حألكَحٍ‪ً .‬خٗض ٓلخ‪ُٝ‬ش ُظوي‪ٟٔ ْ٣‬خٗخص ‪ٟ‬ي ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُ٘‪ٞ‬ع ٖٓ‬
‫حُظـخ‪ َٛ‬حُظؼٔل‪ُ ٢‬لو‪ٞ‬م اهطخػ‪٤‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬هي ؿؼِ‪ٜ‬خ ػالػش ِٓ‪ٞ‬ى ٓخرو‪ٓ ٖ٤‬ؤُ‪ٞ‬كش‪.‬‬
‫رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُز٘‪ٞ‬ى ٓ٘ظوش ٖٓ حُظ٘خُالص حُظ‪ ٢‬هيٓ‪ٜ‬خ حُِٔي رخُلؼَ ك‪ ٢‬حُـ‪ٜٞ‬ى حُٔزٌ‪ُٝ‬ش ُظؤ‪ ْ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ‪ٟ‬ش‪ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪َ٤‬‬
‫حُٔؼخٍ ‪ً ،‬خٕ أ‪ َٛ‬حُز٘ي ‪ ، 39‬حٌُ‪ِ ٣ ١‬ؼي رخُلٌْ ٖٓ هزَ حألهَحٕ أ‪ ٝ‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حألٍ‪ُ ٝ‬ـٔ‪٤‬غ حألكَحٍ ‪ ،‬ك‪٢‬‬
‫ٍٓخُش أٍِٓ‪ٜ‬خ حُزخرخ اٗ‪٘ٓٞ‬ض حُؼخُغ اُ‪ ٠‬حُِٔي‪ٓٝ .‬غ ًُي ‪ ٌٖ٣ ُْ ،‬حُزخٍ‪ٗٝ‬خص ‪٣‬لخ‪ ُٕٞٝ‬طلٌ‪٤‬ي حُلٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش حٌُِٔ‪٤‬ش ؛ ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬حهغ ‪ ،‬طْ طؼِ‪ ِ٣‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حإل‪ٛ‬الكخص حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ػ‪ٜ‬ي ‪ ١َ٘ٛ‬حُؼخٗ‪ًٔ .٢‬خ أٗ‪ٔ٣ ُْ ْٜ‬ؼ‪ٞ‬ح اُ‪ ٠‬حُظَٔى حَُ٘ػ‪ ٢‬؛‬
‫ريال ٖٓ ًُي ‪ ،‬كخ‪ُٞٝ‬ح حُظؤًي ٖٓ إٔ حُِٔي ًخٕ طلض حُوخٗ‪ ْ٤ُٝ ٕٞ‬ك‪ٞ‬ه‪ ٖٓ .ٚ‬حُ٘خك‪٤‬ش حُل‪٣ٍٞ‬ش ‪ً ،‬خٗض حُٔخؿ٘خ ًخٍطخ‬
‫كخِٗش ‪ ،‬ألٗ‪ٜ‬خ ُْ طٌٖ أًؼَ ٖٓ َٓكِش ك‪ٓ ٢‬لخ‪ٟٝ‬خص ؿ‪ َ٤‬كؼخُش ُٔ٘غ حُلَد حأل‪٤ِٛ‬ش‪ .‬طْ اػلخء ‪ٞ٣‬ك٘خ ٖٓ هزَ حُزخرخ‬
‫ٖٓ حُظِحٓخط‪ ٚ‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿز‪ٜ‬خ‪ٓٝ .‬غ ًُي ‪ ،‬طٔض اػخىس ا‪ٛ‬يحٍ حُ‪ٞ‬ػ‪٤‬وش ٓغ رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُظـ‪َ٤٤‬حص ك‪ ٢‬ػ‪ٜ‬ي ٗـَ ؿ‪ ، ٕٞ‬رٔ‪ٞ‬حكوش‬
‫رخر‪٣ٞ‬ش ‪ٌٌٛٝ ،‬ح أ‪ٛ‬زلض ‪ ،‬ك‪ٔٗ ٢‬وظ‪ٜ‬خ ُؼخّ ‪ ، 1225‬ؿِءح ٖٓ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُيحثْ‪ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ي‪ ٟ‬حُوَ‪ ٕٝ‬حُؤٔش حُظخُ‪٤‬ش ‪،‬‬
‫‪ٍٞ١‬ص اٗـِظَح ٗظخٓ‪ٜ‬خ حٌُِٔ‪ ٢‬حُٔلي‪ٝ‬ى ‪ٓ ،‬غ حٗظوخٍ ِٓطش حُلٌْ ٖٓ حُظخؽ اُ‪ ٠‬حُزَُٔخٕ‪.‬‬
‫اىسٍش إدواسد مىك‬
‫ًخٕ حُٔ‪ َ٤‬اى‪ٝ‬حٍى ً‪ٞ‬ى (‪ )1634-1552‬أكي أرَُ حُلو‪ٜ‬خء ك‪ ٢‬طخٍ‪٣‬ن حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ (‪٘٣‬طن حٓٔ‪ًٞ" ٚ‬ى")‪ .‬طْ حٗظوخد‬
‫ً‪ٞ‬ى ُِزَُٔخٕ ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ٝ 1589‬طَه‪ٜ٤ُ ٠‬زق أ‪ٓ ٍٝ‬ظليػخ" رخْٓ ٓـِْ حُؼٔ‪ ّٞ‬ػْ ٍث‪ٓ ْ٤‬ـِْ حُؼٔ‪ ،ّٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ‬
‫‪ 1606‬أ‪ٛ‬زق ٍث‪ ْ٤‬ه‪٠‬خس ٓـِْ حُِٔي‪ .‬طْ ك‪ٜ٘ٓ ٖٓ ِٜٚ‬ذ ٍث‪ ْ٤‬حُو‪٠‬خس ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪( 1616‬ر‪.)1956 ، ٖ٣ٞ‬‬

‫ًخٕ ً‪ٞ‬ى ‪ َ٤ٔ٣‬اُ‪ ٠‬إٔ ‪ٓ ٌٕٞ٣‬ظؼـَكخ ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٛ َ٤‬ز‪ ٍٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُلٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش ‪ ٌٖ٣ ُْٝ ،‬ىحثٔخ ٓ٘طو‪٤‬خ‪ٓٝ .‬غ ًُي ‪ً ،‬خٗض‬
‫ٓؼَكظ‪ ٚ‬رخُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ال ٓؼ‪ُٜ َ٤‬خ ًخٕ ٓ‪ٞ‬حًذ‪ٝ .‬هي حًط‪ًٞ ْٜ‬ى رخُظالػذ رخُٔ‪ٞ‬حرن ‪ٝ‬حٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ ُيػْ ٍأ‪ ٚ٣‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُؼخّ‪ .‬ر‪ ٖ٤‬ػخٓ‪ 1615 ٝ 1600 ٢‬أ‪ٛ‬يٍ أكي ػَ٘ ٓـِيح ٖٓ طوخٍ‪َٙ٣‬‬

‫‪27‬‬
Magna Carta in 1215. John’s problems had started with the loss of Normandy. He then
formed a coalition of rulers in Germany and the Low Countries to assist him against the
French king. John’s efforts to defeat the French king were very costly, and the taxes he
raised to pay for the campaign were very unpopular. John also levied inheritance duties on
some barons, adding to his troubles. By the spring of 1215, the barons joined in protest
against John’s abuse and disregard of law and custom.
On June 15, 1215, the rebellious barons met John at Runnymede on the Thames. The king
was presented with a document known as the Articles of the Barons, on the basis of which
the Magna Carta was drawn up. The Magna Carta is an undramatic document. It is filled
with problems of feudal law and custom that are largely alien to modern English people.
However, it is remarkable in many ways. For instance, it was not written purely in the
baronial interest but aimed to provide protection for all freemen. It was an attempt to
provide guarantees against the sort of arbitrary disregard of feu-dal rights that three
previous kings had made familiar.
Some clauses derived from concessions already offered by the king in efforts to divide the
opposition. For example, Clause 39, which promises judgment by peers or by the law of
the land to all freemen, had its origin in a letter sent by Pope Innocent III to the king. The
barons, however, were not attempting to dismantle royal government; in fact, many of the
legal reforms of Henry II’s day were reinforced. Nor did they seek to legitimate rebellion;
rather, they tried to ensure that the king was beneath rather than above the law. In
immediate terms the Magna Carta was a failure, for it was no more than a stage in
ineffective negotiations to prevent civil war. John was released by the pope from his
obligations under it. The document was, however, reis-sued with some changes under
John’s son, with papal approval, and so it became, in its 1225 version, a part of the
permanent law. For the next five centuries, England developed its system of limited
monarchy, with govern-ment power shifting from the crown to Parliament.
Sir Edward Coke
Sir Edward Coke (1552–1634) was one of the most eminent jurists in the his-tory of
common law (his name is pronounced ―cook‖). Coke was elected to Parliament in 1589
and rose to become first solicitor general and then speaker of the House of Commons. In
1606 he became the chief justice of the King’s Bench. He was dismissed as chief justice in
1616 (Bowen, 1956).
Coke was inclined to be overbearing and impatient both at the bar and on the bench and he
was not always logical. His knowledge of law however, was unequaled. He was an expert on
the Year Books. Coke has been accused of manipulating precedents and using them to
support his view of the com-mon law. Between 1600 and 1615 Coke issued eleven volumes
of his Reports

27
‫‪ِِٔٓ ٢ٛٝ‬ش ٖٓ حُظؼِ‪٤‬وخص حُظل‪٤ِ٤ٜ‬ش ك‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ ،‬ك‪٤‬غ هخّ رظ٘ظ‪ٓ ْ٤‬زخىة حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حإلٗـِ‪ ٖٓ ١ِ٤‬هالٍ ٍر‪٢‬‬
‫حُوَحٍحص ‪ٝ‬حُظؼِ‪٤‬ن ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ‪ .‬طْ َٗ٘ ٓـِي‪ ٖ٣‬ا‪ٟ‬خك‪ ٖٓ ٖ٤٤‬حُظوخٍ‪ َ٣‬رؼي ‪ٝ‬كخط‪.ٚ‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ ، 1626‬ىػخ ط٘خٍُِ حأل‪ ٍٝ‬حُزَُٔخٕ اُ‪ ٠‬ؿزخ‪٣‬ش حُ‪َ٠‬حثذ‪ً .‬خٕ ٓظ‪١ٍٞ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬كَد ‪ًٝ‬خٕ رلخؿش ٓخٓش ُِٔخٍ‪،‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬رلِ‪ًُ ٍٞ‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض ‪ً ،‬خٕ الري ٖٓ حطوخً اؿَحء رَُٔخٗ‪ُ ٢‬لَ‪ ٝ‬حُ‪َ٠‬حثذ‪ٍ .‬ك‪ ٞ‬حُزَُٔخٕ حُو‪٤‬خّ رٌُي ‪ٝ ،‬كَ‪ٝ‬‬
‫ط٘خٍُِ هَ‪ٟ‬خ هَٔ‪٣‬خ ػِ‪ ٠‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُلَٓخٕ‪ .‬طْ ٓـٖ أ‪ُٝ‬جي حٌُ‪ٍ ٖ٣‬ك‪ٞ٠‬ح ٓيحى حُوَ‪ .ٝ‬طٔض ٓلخًٔش حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ‬
‫حُلَٓخٕ ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 1627‬ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤٠‬ش ٓ٘‪ٍٜٞ‬س طؼَف رخْٓ ه‪٤٠‬ش حُلَٓخٕ حُؤٔش‪ .‬هَٔ حُلَٓخٕ ه‪٤٠‬ظ‪ٝ ْٜ‬ظِ‪ٞ‬ح ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُٔـٖ‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ ، 1628‬أ‪ِ١‬ن ط٘خٍُِ َٓحك‪ٝ ْٜ‬ىػخ حُزَُٔخٕ اُ‪ ٠‬حالٗؼوخى‪ .‬ػ٘يٓخ حؿظٔغ حُزَُٔخٕ ‪ً ،‬خٗض‬
‫حُٔ٘خػَ ه‪٣ٞ‬ش ‪ٟ‬ي ط٘خٍُِ‪ .‬أػ‪٤‬ي حٗظوخد ً‪ٞ‬ى‪ ،‬حٌُ‪ً ١‬خٕ ‪٣‬زِؾ ٖٓ حُؼَٔ ‪ 76‬ػخٓخ ‪ُ ،‬ؼ‪٣ٞ٠‬ش حُزَُٔخٕ‪ٝ .‬هيّ ٗيحء‬
‫كٔخٓ‪٤‬خ ‪ ،‬هخثال ‪:‬إ كو‪ٞ‬م حإلٗـِ‪ ِ٤‬هي طؼَ‪ٟ‬ض ُ‪ٜ‬ـٔخص ػي‪٣‬يس ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ٘‪ٞ‬حص حُوِ‪ِ٤‬ش حُٔخ‪٤ٟ‬ش‪ٛ .‬خؽ حُزَُٔخٕ‬
‫ػَ‪٠٣‬ش حُلو‪ٞ‬م ‪ ،‬حُظ‪ٓ ٢‬ؼض اُ‪ ٠‬حالػظَحف رؤٍرؼش ٓزخىة‪ :‬ال ‪َٟ‬حثذ ى‪ٞٓ ٕٝ‬حكوش حُزَُٔخٕ ‪ٝ ،‬ال ٓـٖ ري‪ٕٝ‬‬
‫ٓزذ ‪ٝ ،‬ال إل‪ٞ٣‬حء حُـ٘‪ٞ‬ى ٓغ حُٔ‪ٟٞٞ‬ػخص ‪ٝ ،‬ال ُألكٌخّ حُؼَك‪٤‬ش ك‪ٝ ٢‬هض حُِْٔ‪ .‬هزَ ط٘خٍُِ حالُظٔخّ ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫ٓ‪.ٞ٠‬‬
‫اىسٍش وٌيٍبً ثالمستىُ‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُٔخرغ ػَ٘ ‪ً ،‬خٕ حُظظِْ حُٔظٌٍَ ‪ٟ‬ي حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ ٞٛ‬ػيّ حُ‪٤‬و‪ .ٖ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ ،‬رؼي إٔ ٗٔخ رٔزذ‬
‫طَحًْ حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ‪ ،‬طْ ىك٘‪ ٚ‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬جخص حُٔـِيحص ٖٓ طوخٍ‪ َ٣‬حُٔلٌٔش‪ً .‬خٗض ٓوظ‪َٜ‬حص أ‪ِٓ ٝ‬و‪ٜ‬خص حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ؿ‪َ٤‬‬
‫ٍٓٔ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬ؿخُزخ ؿ‪ٞٓ َ٤‬ػ‪ٞ‬هش‪ ٌٖ٣ ُْ .‬أ‪ ١‬ط٘ظ‪ٔٓ ٢ٍٔٓ ْ٤‬ئ‪ٝ‬ال ػٖ طـٔ‪٤‬غ حالهظ‪ٜ‬خٍحص أ‪ ٝ‬حُِٔو‪ٜ‬خص‪ .‬رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪٠‬‬
‫ًُي ‪ً ،‬خٗض أػٔخٍ حُزَُٔخٕ ؿ‪٘ٓ َ٤‬ظٔش ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٓ َ٤‬و٘٘ش‪ .‬ر‪ ٖ٤‬ػخٓ‪ َ٘ٗ ، 1769 ٝ 1765 ٢‬حُٔ‪٤ِ٣ٝ َ٤‬خّ رالًٔظ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫(‪ً )1780-1723‬ظخرخط‪ ٚ‬حُؼخٓش ك‪ ٍٞ‬ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬اٗـِظَح‪ .‬طْ هز‪ُٜٞ‬خ ًز‪٤‬خٗخص ‪ٛ‬ل‪٤‬لش ػٖ كخُش حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬هض‪.‬‬

‫ًخٕ ‪٤ِ٣ٝ‬خّ رالًٔظ‪ ٕٞ‬حالرٖ حَُحرغ رؼي ‪ٝ‬كخط‪ُ ٚ‬ظ٘خٍُِ رالى ٓظ‪ ، ٕٞ‬طخؿَ حُلَ‪ ١ً َ٣‬حُ‪ٓٞ‬خثَ حُٔؼظيُش‪ .‬ط‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ض‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُيط‪ ٚ‬ػ٘يٓخ ًخٕ ‪٤ِ٣ٝ‬خّ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼخٗ‪٤‬ش ػَ٘س ٖٓ ػَٔ‪ ٙ‬كو‪ٝ ، ٢‬طِو‪ ٠‬طؼِ‪ ٚٔ٤‬ػِ‪٣ ٠‬ي ػٔ‪ ٚ‬ط‪ٓٞ‬خّ ر‪٤‬ـِ ‪ ،‬ؿَحف ُ٘يٕ‪.‬‬
‫ًخٕ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼخٓ٘ش ػَ٘س ٖٓ ػَٔ‪ ٙ‬كو‪ ٢‬ػ٘يٓخ طوَؽ ٖٓ ؿخٓؼش أًٔل‪ٍٞ‬ى ‪ٝ‬ىهَ حُٔؼزي حأل‪ ، ٢ٓٝ‬أكي ٍَِٗ حُٔلٌٔش ‪،‬‬
‫ُيٍحٓش حُوخٗ‪ .ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 1746‬أ‪ٛ‬زق ٓلخٓ‪٤‬خ‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ٍ ، 1770‬ك‪ ٞ‬رالًٔظ‪ٜ٘ٓ ٕٞ‬ذ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ٌُ٘‪ ٚ‬هزَ‬
‫َ‪ُْ ٌُٚ٘ ٝ‬‬
‫ِ‬ ‫ٓ٘‪ٜ‬ذ هخ‪ٓ ٢ٟ‬لٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف حُؼخٓش‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ٘‪ٞ‬حص حُؼَ٘ ٖٓ كظَس كٌٔ‪ ، ٚ‬أىحٍ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬رٌَ٘ َٓ‬
‫‪٣‬لون أ‪ ١‬طٔ‪ ِ٤٤‬هخ‪ .ٙ‬ك‪ٜٗ ٢‬خ‪٣‬ش ‪ 1770‬طي‪ٍٞٛ‬ص ‪ٛ‬لظ‪ ٚ‬؛ ط‪ٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬كزَح‪.1780 َ٣‬‬

‫ُظو‪ ْ٤٤‬طؤػ‪ َ٤‬رالًٔظ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حُ‪ ، ّٞ٤‬أؿَ‪ ٟ‬حُٔئُل‪ ٕٞ‬رلؼخ ٓل‪ٓٞ‬زخ ُوَحٍحص حُٔلخًْ حُ‪ٜ‬خىٍس ػٖ‬
‫ٓلخًْ حالٓظج٘خف حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬الث‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ي‪ ٟ‬هْٔ ٓ٘‪ٞ‬حص (‪ .)2007-2003‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬خ ‪٣‬وَد‬
‫ٖٓ ‪ 600‬ه‪٤٠‬ش ك‪ٓ ٢‬لخًْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص ‪ ،‬طْ حالٓظ٘‪ٜ‬خى رظؼِ‪٤‬وخص رالًٔظ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬هَحٍحص حُٔلٌٔش‪.‬‬

‫‪28‬‬
a series of detailed commentaries on common law, in which he systematized the
principles of English law by relating and commenting on decisions. Two additional
volumes of the Reports were published posthumously.
In 1626, Charles I called on Parliament to levy taxes. He was involved in a war and
was desperate for money, and by that time, parliamentary action was required to levy
taxes. Parliament refused to do so, and Charles imposed a forced loan on certain
knights. Those who refused to pay the loan were imprisoned. Several of the knights
were tried in 1627 in a famous case known as Case of the Five Knights. The knights
lost their case and remained in jail. In 1628, Charles released them and called for
Parliament to convene. When Parliament met, feelings were strong against Charles.
Coke, then aged 76, had been reelected to Parliament. He made an impassioned plea,
saying that the rights of Englishmen had suffered numerous attacks in the past few
years. The Parliament drafted the Petition of Right, which sought recognition of four
principles: no taxes without consent of Parliament, no imprisonment without cause,
no quartering of soldiers on subjects, and no martial law in peacetime. Charles
reluctantly accepted the petition.
Sir William Blackstone
In the seventeenth century, a frequent grievance against the common law was its
uncertainty. The common law, having grown by the accumulation of cases, was
buried in hundreds of volumes of court reports. Abridgments or summaries of the
law were unofficial and often unreliable. No official orga-nization had the
responsibility to compile abridgments or summaries. In addition, the acts of
Parliament were disorganized and not codified. Between 1765 and 1769, Sir William
Blackstone (1723–1780) published his Commen-taries on the Laws of England.
They were accepted as correct statements on the status of common law at that time.
William Blackstone was the fourth and posthumous son of Charles Black-stone, a
silk merchant of moderate means. His mother died when William was only twelve
years old, and he was educated by his uncle Thomas Biggs, a London surgeon. He
was only eighteen when he graduated from Oxford University and entered the
Middle Temple, one of the Inns of Court, to study law. In 1746 he had became a
barrister. In 1770, Blackstone refused the office of solicitor general but accepted that
of judge of the Court of Common Pleas. In the ten years of his judgeship he
administered the law satisfactorily but attained no special distinction. Toward the
end of the 1770s his health failed; he died in February 1780.
To assess the impact that Blackstone has had on today’s common law, the authors
conducted a computerized search of court decisions of federal and state appellate
courts in the United States over five years (2003–2007). In almost 600 cases in U.S.
and state courts, Blackstone’s commentaries were cited in the court decisions .

28
‫ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ ،‬حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ ، 2006‬ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤٠‬ش ى‪ٟ ٌٕٞٔ٣‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪، 126 ،‬‬
‫‪:ًًَ ، 2437‬‬
‫ًخٕ حإلًَح‪ ٙ‬ىكخػخ ٍحٓوخ ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪ .‬حٗظَ ‪ 4‬ىرِ‪ ٞ٤‬رالًٔظ‪ ، ٕٞ‬حُظؼِ‪٤‬وخص ك‪ ٍٞ‬ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬اٗـِظَح ‪.)1769( 30‬‬
‫ػ٘يٓخ ريأ حٌُ‪ٗٞ‬ـَّ ك‪ ٖٓ ٢‬ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬ؿ٘خث‪٤‬ش حطلخى‪٣‬ش ‪ً ،‬خٕ ٖٓ حُٔلظَ‪ ٝ‬إٔ طو‪٠‬غ طِي حُـَحثْ ُ‪ٌٜ‬ح حُيكخع‪ .‬ػال‪ٝ‬س‬
‫ػِ‪ًُ ٠‬ي ‪ً ،‬خٕ حٌُ‪ٗٞ‬ـَّ ‪ ١ٞ٘٣‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حألٍؿق ‪ٟٝ‬غ أػزخء حإلٗظخؽ ‪ٝ‬حإله٘خع ‪ًٔ ،‬خ ًخٗض ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ ،‬ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫ػخطن حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ .ٚ٤‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ إٔ حٌُ‪ٗٞ‬ـَّ ُكَ رخُظؤً‪٤‬ي ك‪ ٢‬طـ‪ٌٛ َ٤٤‬ح حُ٘ٔ‪ٟٝٝ ٢‬غ أكي حألػزخء أ‪ٜٔ٤ًِ ٝ‬خ‬
‫ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘‪٤‬خرش حُؼخٓش ‪ٞٓ ،‬حء رخُ٘ٔزش ُـٔ‪٤‬غ حُـَحثْ أ‪ ٝ‬ؿَحثْ حطلخى‪٣‬ش ٓوظخٍس‪ ،‬اال إٔ حٌُ‪ٗٞ‬ـَّ ُْ ‪٣‬لؼَ ًُي ‪ٌُٚ٘ٝ‬‬
‫حٓظَٔ ريال ٖٓ ًُي ك‪َٓ ٢‬حؿؼش حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬اٗ٘خء ؿَحثْ حطلخى‪٣‬ش ؿي‪٣‬يس ى‪ٓ ٕٝ‬ؼخُـش ه‪٤٠‬ش حإلًَح‪.ٙ‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ظَ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُظَ‪ٝ‬ف ‪ ،‬أػظوي إٔ حألػزخء طزو‪ًٔ ٠‬خ ًخٗض ػ٘يٓخ ريأ حٌُ‪ٗٞ‬ـَّ ك‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ ُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬ش ٓخٍ‪٣‬الٗي ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ ، 2007‬ك‪ٟ ٢ٌٔ٤٘ٔ٣ٝ ٢‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬ش ‪2007 ،‬‬
‫ىًظ‪ٍٞ‬حس ك‪ ٢‬حُطذ‪( 188 ْ٤ٌٔ٤ُ .‬ىًظ‪ٍٞ‬ح‪ ٙ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُطذ‪:ًًَ ، )2007 .‬‬
‫ٖٓ أؿَ كل‪ ٚ‬حُؼ٘‪ َٜ‬حُؼخّ ُِظؼَ‪ ٝ‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُالثن ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ رٌَ٘ ‪ٛ‬ل‪٤‬ق ‪ٌُُ ،‬ي ‪٣ ،‬ـذ ػِ‪٘٤‬خ رؼي ًُي‬
‫حٓظٌ٘خف حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حإلٗـِ‪ ١ِ٤‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ٝ 1776‬حٌُ‪ٌِٗ ١‬ض ك‪ ٚ٤‬ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش حُظؼَ‪ ٝ‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُالثن ُؿ٘لش‪.‬‬
‫ػِن حُٔ‪٤ِ٣ٝ َ٤‬خّ رالًٔظ‪ ٕٞ‬رٌَ٘ ػخّ‪ :‬حُـ٘ق ‪ ٢ٛ‬هَم ‪ٝ‬حٗظ‪ٜ‬خى ُِلو‪ٞ‬م ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬حؿزخص حُؼخٓش ‪ ،‬رٔزذ حُٔـظٔغ رؤًِٔ‪ٚ‬‬
‫‪ ،‬حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ؼظزَ ٓـظٔؼخ ‪ ،‬ر‪ٜ‬لظ‪ ٚ‬حالؿظٔخػ‪٤‬ش حإلؿٔخُ‪٤‬ش‪ٝ . . .‬رخُظخُ‪٘٣ ، ٢‬زـ‪ ٢‬طوي‪ َ٣‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُـَحثْ ‪ٝ‬كوخ ُألً‪ ٟ‬حٌُ‪١‬‬
‫طليػ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔـظٔغ حُٔيٗ‪ٗٝ :٢‬ظ‪٤‬ـش ٌُُي ‪ ،‬كبٕ حًَُحثَ حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش ‪ ،‬أ‪ ٝ‬هَم ٓـَى ‪ٝ‬حؿزخص ٓطِوش ‪ٝ ،‬حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ؼظزَ‬
‫حإلٗٔخٕ ِِٓٓخ رؤىحث‪ٜ‬خ ًلَى كو‪ٔ٤ُ ، ٢‬ض ‪ٝ ،‬ال ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬إٔ طٌ‪ٟٞٞٓ ، ٕٞ‬ػخ أل‪ ١‬هخٗ‪ٓ ٕٞ‬لِ‪ ٢‬؛ أ‪ ١‬أرؼي ٖٓ ٓؼخُ‪ْٜ‬‬
‫حَُ٘‪ ، َ٣‬أ‪ ٝ‬ح‪٥‬ػخٍ حُ‪٠‬خٍس حألهَ‪ ، ٟ‬هي ط‪ َ٠‬حُٔـظٔغ ‪ٝ ،‬رخُظخُ‪ ٢‬ط‪ٜ‬زق ٗ‪ٞ‬ػخ ٖٓ حُـَحثْ حُؼخٓش‪ٌٌٛٝ .‬ح كبٕ ًٍ‪ِ٣‬ش‬
‫حٌَُٔ ‪ ،‬اًح حٍطٌزض رٌَ٘ هخ‪ٝٝ ٙ‬ك‪٤‬ي ‪ ،‬طظـخ‪ ُٝ‬حُٔؼَكش ‪ٝ‬رخُطزغ رؼ‪٤‬يس ػٖ ٓظ٘خ‪ ٍٝ‬حُٔلخًْ حُزَ٘‪٣‬ش‪ ٌُٖٝ :‬اًح‬
‫حٍطٌزض ػِ٘خ ‪ ،‬ك‪ٞٓ ٢‬حؿ‪ٜ‬ش حُؼخُْ ‪ ،‬كبٕ ٓؼخُ‪ٜ‬خ حَُ٘‪٣ َ٣‬ـؼِ‪ٜ‬خ ػَ‪ٟ‬ش ُِظ‪ٞ‬ر‪٤‬ن حُٔئهض‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ . . .‬حُلَم حُ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ي ‪ ٞٛ‬أ ٕ ًَ ٖٓ حًَُحثَ حُؼخٓش ‪ٝ‬حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش طو‪٠‬غ ُالٗظوخّ ٖٓ حُؼيحُش حألري‪٣‬ش ؛ ‪ٝ‬حًَُحثَ حُؼخٓش‬
‫ػَ‪ٟ‬ش ُِؼو‪ٞ‬رخص حُٔئهظش ُِٔلخًْ حُزَ٘‪٣‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ٓلٌٔش ٓوخ‪١‬ؼش أَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ٘طوش حُـَر‪٤‬ش ٖٓ طٌٔخّ ‪ ،‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬خٍط‪-ِ٤٘٤‬‬
‫أؿ‪ٟ َٝ٣ٞ‬ي ؿ‪ِٗٞ‬حُ‪ 2005 ، ْ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‪( 2412 ْ٤ٌٔ٤ُ .‬ىرِ‪ ٞ٤‬ى‪ ١‬طٌْ‪:ًًَ ، )2005 .‬‬
‫‪ٜ٣‬ق رالًٔظ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬طؼِ‪٤‬وخط‪ٓ ٚ‬لخ‪ ْ٤ٛ‬حُ‪ٞ‬الء حُٔظ‪ٞ‬هغ ٖٓ حُٔ‪ٞ‬ح‪ٝ ٖ٤٘١‬حألؿخٗذ ‪ٝ‬حُلٔخ‪٣‬ش حُلٌ‪٤ٓٞ‬ش حُ‪ٞ‬حؿزش‪.‬‬
‫‪ٓٝ‬غ ًُي ‪ ِ٤ُٔ٣‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬الء ‪ ،‬حُ‪٣َٜ‬ق ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ ٢٘ٔ٠‬ػِ‪ ٠‬كي ٓ‪ٞ‬حء ‪ ،‬اُ‪ٞٗ ٠‬ػ‪ ٖ٤‬أ‪ ٝ‬حألٗ‪ٞ‬حع ‪ ،‬حكي‪ٔٛ‬خ ‪١‬ز‪٤‬ؼ‪، ٢‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬ح‪٥‬هَ ٓلِ‪ ٢‬؛ حأل‪ ٍٝ‬ىحثْ أ‪٠٣‬خ‪ٝ ،‬ح‪٥‬هَ ٓئهض‪ .‬حُ‪ٞ‬الء حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ٓ ٞٛ ٢‬ؼَ‬
‫ٓخ ‪ٝ ٞٛ‬حؿذ ٖٓ ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حَُؿخٍ حٌُ‪ُٝ ٖ٣‬ي‪ٝ‬ح ىحهَ ٓ‪٤‬خىس حُِٔي ك‪ٝ ٍٞ‬الىط‪. . . .ْٜ‬‬

‫‪29‬‬
For example, the U.S. Supreme Court in 2006, in the case of Dixon v. United States,
126 S. Ct. 2437, stated:
Duress was an established defense at common law. See 4 W. Blackstone, Com-
mentaries on the Laws of England 30 (1769). When Congress began to enact federal
criminal statutes, it presumptively intended for those offenses to be subject to this
defense. Moreover, Congress presumptively intended for the burdens of production
and persuasion to be placed, as they were at common law, on the defendant.
Although Congress is certainly free to alter this pattern and place one or both
burdens on the prosecution, either for all or selected fed-eral crimes, Congress has
not done so but instead has continued to revise the federal criminal laws and to
create new federal crimes without addressing the issue of duress. Under these
circumstances, I believe that the burdens remain where they were when Congress
began enacting federal criminal statutes.
The Maryland State Supreme Court in 2007, in Wisneski v. State, 2007
Md. LEXIS 188 (Md. 2007), stated:
In order to examine properly the public element of common law indecent exposure,
therefore, we then must explore English common law extant in 1776 in which the
offense of indecent exposure constituted a misdemeanor. Sir William Blackstone
commented generally: [M]isdemeanors are a breach and violation of the public
rights and duties, owing to the whole community, considered as a community, in its
social aggregate capacity. . . All crimes ought therefore to be estimated merely
according to the mischiefs which they produce in civil society: and, of consequence,
private vices, or the breach of mere absolute duties, which man is bound to perform
considered only as an individual, are not, cannot be, the object of any municipal law;
any farther than as by their evil example, or other pernicious effects, they may
prejudice the community, and thereby become a species of public crimes. Thus the
vice of drunkenness, if committed privately and alone, is beyond the knowledge and
of course beyond the reach of human tribunals: but if committed publicly, in the face
of the world, its evil example makes it liable to temporal censures.
. . . The only difference is, that both public and private vices are subject to the
vengeance of eternal justice; and public vices are liable to the temporal pun-ishments
of human tribunals.
A U.S. District Court in the Western District of Texas, in Martinez-
Aguero v. Gonzalez, 2005 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 2412 (W.D. Tex. 2005), stated:
In his Commentaries, Blackstone describes the concepts of allegiance expected from
and governmental protections due citizens and aliens.
Allegiance, both express and implied, is however distinguished by the law into two
sorts or species, the one natural, the other local; the former being also perpetual, the
latter temporary. Natural allegiance is such as is due from all men born within the
king’s dominions immediately upon their birth. . . .

29
‫‪ٝ‬رخُظخُ‪ ٢‬كبٕ حُ‪ٞ‬الء حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ ٞٛ ٢‬ى‪ ٖ٣‬حالٓظ٘خٕ ؛ حُظ‪ ٢‬ال ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬حُظ٘خٍُ ػ٘‪ ٚ‬أ‪ ٝ‬اُـخإ‪ ٙ‬أ‪ ٝ‬طـ‪ َٙ٤٤‬رؤ‪ ١‬طـ‪ َ٤٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬هض‬
‫أ‪ ٝ‬حٌُٔخٕ أ‪ ٝ‬حُظَف ‪ٝ ،‬ال رؤ‪٢ٗ ١‬ء ٓ‪ ٟٞ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬حكوش حُٔ‪ٞ‬كيس ُِ‪٤ٜ‬جش حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼ‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬الء حُٔلِ‪ًٔ ٢‬خ ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬طِ‪ٞ‬د ٖٓ أؿ٘ز‪ ,٢‬أ‪ ٝ‬ؿَ‪٣‬ذ ٓ‪ُٞٞ‬ى‪ُ ,‬لظَس ‪ِ٣ٞ١‬ش ٓغ حٓظَٔحٍ‪ ٙ‬ك‪ ٢‬ظَ ٓ‪٤‬خىس حُِٔي‬
‫‪ٝ‬كٔخ‪٣‬ظ‪٣ٝ :ٚ‬ظ‪ٞ‬هق ُلظش حٗظوخٍ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُـَ‪٣‬ذ ٖٓ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حٌُِٔٔش اُ‪ ٠‬أهَ‪ .ٟ‬حُ‪ٞ‬الء حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ ٞٛ ٢‬رخُظخُ‪ ٢‬ىحثْ‪ٝ ,‬حُٔلِ‪٢‬‬
‫ٓئهض كو‪ًُٝ :٢‬ي ُ‪ٌٜ‬ح حُٔزذ‪ ,‬حٗ‪ٓ ٚ‬ئْٓ رٌَ٘ ‪ٝ‬ح‪ٟ‬ق ػِ‪١ ٠‬ز‪٤‬ؼش حُلٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش; إٔ حُ‪ٞ‬الء ‪ ٞٛ‬حُي‪ ٖ٣‬حُٔٔظلن ٖٓ ‪ٌٛ‬ح‬
‫حُلخػَ‪ ,‬ر٘خء ػِ‪ ٠‬ػوي ‪ٓ ٢ٟ٘ٔ‬غ حألٓ‪ ,َ٤‬أٗ‪١ ٚ‬خُٔخ حكي‪ٔٛ‬خ ‪ٞ٣‬كَ حُلٔخ‪٣‬ش‪١ ,‬خُٔخ ح‪٥‬هَ ٓ‪٤‬لظوَ ٗلٔ‪ ٚ‬رؤٓخٗش‪... .‬‬
‫ٌُُي ‪ ،‬كبٕ حألٓ‪ َ٤‬ىحثٔخ ٓخ ‪ ٌٕٞ٣‬طلض حٍطزخ‪ ١‬ىحثْ ُلٔخ‪٣‬ش ‪ٞ١‬حثل‪ ٚ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪٤‬ش حُٔ‪ُٞ‬ي ‪ ،‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حأل‪ٝ‬هخص ‪ٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ‬
‫حُزِيحٕ ‪ٌُٜٝ ،‬ح حُٔزذ كبٕ ‪ٝ‬الث‪ ُٚ ْٜ‬ػخُٔ‪ٝ ٢‬ىحثْ ػِ‪ ٠‬كي ٓ‪ٞ‬حء‪ٗ ٖٓ ، ٌُٖٝ .‬خك‪٤‬ش أهَ‪ٗ ، ٟ‬ظَح ألٕ حألٓ‪ٞ٣ َ٤‬كَ‬
‫كٔخ‪٣‬ظ‪ُ ٚ‬ألؿ٘ز‪ ، ٢‬كو‪ ٢‬أػ٘خء اهخٓظ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٌٙٛ ٢‬حٌُِٔٔش ‪ ،‬كبٕ ‪ٝ‬الء حألؿ٘ز‪٣ ٢‬وظ‪( َٜ‬ك‪ٗ ٢‬وطش ُٓ٘‪٤‬ش) ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬يس اهخٓظ‪ٚ‬‬
‫‪( ٝ ، ٌٙٛ‬ك‪ٗ ٢‬وطش ٓلِ‪٤‬ش) ػِ‪٤ٓ ٠‬خىس حإلٓزَح‪٣ٍٞ١‬ش حُزَ‪٣‬طخٗ‪٤‬ش‪٤ُٝ 1[ .‬خّ رالى ٓظ‪ ، ٕٞ‬طؼِ‪٤‬وخص ػِ‪ ٠‬ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬اٗـِظَح‬
‫‪ٌٌٛٝ ، )1769( 59-357‬ح ‪ ،‬ال ‪ِ٣‬حٍ طؤػ‪ َ٤‬رالًٔظ‪ٞٓ ٕٞ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ىح ك‪ٓ ٢‬لخًْ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ‪ ،‬رؼي أًؼَ ٖٓ ‪ 300‬ػخّ ٖٓ‬
‫‪ٝ‬كخط‪ٍ .ٚ‬رٔخ ًخٕ حُلو‪ ٚ٤‬حألًؼَ ٗل‪ًٞ‬ح ك‪ ٢‬طخٍ‪٣‬ن حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪.‬‬
‫اىقبّىُ اىعبً فً اىىالٌبد اىَتحذح‬
‫ػ٘يٓخ ؿخء حُٔٔظ‪ ٕٞ٘١ٞ‬حإلٗـِ‪ ِ٤‬اُ‪ ٠‬أَٓ‪ٌ٣‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُوَٕ حُٔخرغ ػَ٘ ‪ ،‬ؿِز‪ٞ‬ح ٓؼ‪ ْٜ‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حإلٗـِ‪ .١ِ٤‬رخٓظؼ٘خء‬
‫رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُظؼي‪٣‬الص حُوِ‪ِ٤‬ش‪ ،‬أ‪ٛ‬زق حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حإلٗـِ‪ ٞٛ ١ِ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ُِٔٔظؼَٔحص‪ .‬أػ٘خء حُؼ‪ٍٞ‬س حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ‪ً ،‬خٕ‬
‫‪٘ٛ‬خى هيٍ ًز‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُؼيحء طـخ‪ ٙ‬حإلٗـِ‪ ِ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬أَٓ‪ٌ٣‬خ‪ .‬حٓظي ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُؼيحء اُ‪ٗ ٠‬ظخّ حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪ٝ .‬ر٘خء ػِ‪ًُ ٠‬ي ‪٘ٓ ،‬ض‬
‫ٓؼظْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُـي‪٣‬يس ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬ؿي‪٣‬يس طليى حألػٔخٍ حإلؿَحٓ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬طئْٓ حإلؿَحءحص حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش‪ٓٝ .‬غ ًُي ‪ ،‬طْ ٖٓ‬
‫حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬رٌَ٘ أٓخٓ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼ‪ ٢‬حٌُ‪ً ١‬خٕ ‪ُ٣‬ؼَف ٓخروخ رخُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حإلٗـِ‪.١ِ٤‬‬
‫حُ‪، ّٞ٤‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُـ٘خث‪ُِٞ ٢‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔ٘لَىس ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬ـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٌٓظ‪ٞ‬رش ٖٓ حُِ‪ٞ‬حثق حُظ‪ ٢ٛ ٢‬اُ‪ ٠‬كي ًز‪ٗ َ٤‬ظ‪٤‬ـش ُِؼَٔ‬
‫حُظَ٘‪٣‬ؼ‪٣ .٢‬ظْ طٔـ‪ ٌٙٛ َ٤‬حُِ‪ٞ‬حثق ك‪ ٢‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُٔـالص حَُٓٔ‪٤‬ش ىحهَ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص ‪ٝ‬ؿخُزخ ٓخ ‪٘٣‬خٍ اُ‪ٜ٤‬خ رخْٓ "هخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُؼو‪ٞ‬رخص‪ ".‬طوظِق حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش اُ‪ ٠‬كي ٓخ ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُي‪ ٍٝ‬ال ‪ٞ٣‬ؿي حػظٔخى ػِ‪ ٠‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‬
‫ُظلي‪٣‬ي ٓخ ‪ ٞٛ‬حُ‪ٜٞ‬حد ‪ٝ‬حُوطؤ‪ٝ .‬ط٘‪ ٚ‬حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬ػِ‪ٝ ٠‬ؿ‪ ٚ‬حُظلي‪٣‬ي ػِ‪ ًَ ٠‬كؼَ ‪ُ٣‬ؼظزَ ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُؼو‪ٞ‬رش حُظ‪ ٢‬هي‬
‫طلَ‪ ٝ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حٍطٌخد ٓؼَ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُلؼَ‪ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ ،‬هي ‪ ٚ٘٣‬حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬إٔ حُوظَ ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُؼٔي ‪ ٞٛ‬هظَ ؿ‪َ٤‬‬
‫َٓ٘‪ٝ‬ع‬

‫‪30‬‬
Natural allegiance is therefore a debt of gratitude; which cannot be forfeited,
cancelled, or altered, by any change of time, place, or circumstance, nor by anything
but the united concurrence of the legislature.

Local allegiance is such as is due from an alien, or stranger born, for so long time as
he continues within the King’s dominion and protection: and it ceases the instant
such stranger transfers himself from this Kingdom to another. Natural allegiance is
therefore perpetual, and local temporary only: and that for this rea-son, evidently
founded upon the nature of government; that allegiance is a debt due from the
subject, upon an implied contract with the prince, that so long as the one affords
protection, so long the other will demean himself faithfully. ... As therefore the
prince is always under a constant tie to protect his natural-born sub-jects, at all times
and in all countries, for this reason their allegiance due to him is equally universal
and permanent. But, on the other hand, as the prince affords his protection to an
alien, only during his residence in this realm, the allegiance of an alien is confined
(in point of time) to the duration of such his residence, and (in point of locality) to
the dominions of the British empire. [1 WILLIAM BLACK-STONE,
COMMENTARIES ON THE LAWS OF ENGLAND 357-59 (1769) Thus the
influence of Blackstone still exists in common law courts, more than 300 years after
his death. He was probably the most influential jurist in the history of common law.

Common Law in the United States

When English settlers came to America in the seventeenth century, they brought the
English common law with them. Except for few modifications, English common law
became the common law of the colonies. During the American Revolution, there
was a great deal of hostility toward the English in America. This hostility extended
to the common law system. Accordingly, most of the new states enacted new
statutes defining criminal acts and estab-lishing criminal procedures. The statutes,
however, basically enacted into statutory law what was formerly English common
law.
Today the criminal law of the individual states is a written set of regu-lations that is
largely the result of legislative action. These regulations are recorded in some
official record within the states and are often referred to as the ―penal code.‖
Criminal laws vary somewhat among the states. In some states there is no reliance
upon the common law to determine what is right and wrong. The statutes spell out
specifically each act that is made a crime and the punishment that may be inflicted
for the commission of such an act. For example, the code may state that
manslaughter is the unlawful killing

30
‫ُإلٗٔخٕ ى‪ ٕٝ‬كوي‪٣ٝ .‬ظزغ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُظؼَ‪٣‬ق ر‪٤‬خٕ رؤٕ حُ٘و‪ ٚ‬حُٔيحٕ رخُوظَ ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُؼٔي هي ‪ٔ٣‬ـٖ ُٔيس ال طظـخ‪ ُٝ‬أٍرغ‬
‫ٓ٘‪ٞ‬حص‪ .‬هي ط٘‪ ٚ‬ه‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حألهَ‪ ٟ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬إٔ" حُوظَ ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُؼٔي " ‪ُ٣‬ؼخهذ ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬رخُٔـٖ ال ‪٣‬ظـخ‪ ُٝ‬ػيىح ٓليىح‬
‫آهَ ٖٓ حُٔ٘‪ٞ‬حص ‪ ٌُٖٝ ،‬هي ال طُليى حألكؼخٍ حُظ‪ ٢‬طٌَ٘ حُوظَ ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُؼٔي‪٣ .‬ـذ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔلخًْ رؼي ًُي حُ٘ظَ ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ ُظلي‪٣‬ي طلٔ‪ َ٤‬حُوظَ ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُؼٔي‪.‬‬

‫أّظَخ اىَحبمٌ األٍشٌنٍخ اىٍىً‬

‫‪٘ٛ‬خى ٗ‪ٞ‬ػخٕ ٖٓ أٗظٔش حُٔلخًْ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‪-‬حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬الث‪٤‬ش‪ٔ٣ .‬ظويّ ٓ‪ٜ‬طِق "حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش حُِٔى‪ٝ‬ؿش"‬
‫ُ‪ٛٞ‬ق ٓل‪ ّٜٞ‬حػ٘‪ ٖٓ ٖ٤‬أٗظٔش حُٔلخًْ حٌُخِٓش‪٣ .‬ظْ حُ٘ظَك‪ ٢‬ؿخُز‪٤‬ش حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ك‪ٓ ٢‬لخًْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬ش‪٘ٛ .‬خى‬
‫رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص حُظ‪ ٢‬طويّ ىػخ‪ٓ ١ٝ‬لخًٔ‪ٜ‬خ حُ‪ٞ‬الث‪٤‬ش ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ؿ٘خث‪٤‬ش ًَ ػخّ أًؼَ ٓٔخ طَكغ ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ٓ٘‪٣ٞ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘ظخّ‬
‫حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬رؤًِٔ‪ ، ٚ‬رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي ٓوخ‪١‬ؼش ُ‪ ّٞ‬أٗـِ‪ً ، ّٞ‬خُ‪٤‬ل‪٤ٍٗٞ‬خ ؛ ٓوخ‪١‬ؼش ‪ٛ‬خٍ‪ ، ْ٣‬طٌٔخّ ؛ ‪ٓ ٝ‬وخ‪١‬ؼش ً‪ٞ‬ى ‪،‬‬
‫اُ‪.١ٞ٘٤‬‬

‫اىْظبً اىفٍذساىً‬
‫‪ٝ‬طؼط‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٜ‬الك‪ ٢‬حُِٔطش حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ُِ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ك‪ٓ ٢‬لٌٔش ػِ‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ‬حكيس ‪( . ...‬ىٓظ‪ ٍٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪. ،‬‬
‫(حُٔخىس حُؼخُؼش ‪ ،‬حُل‪)1 َٜ‬‬

‫حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ‪ ٢ٛ‬أػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لٌٔش ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘ظخّ حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ٝ .٢‬طظؤُق حُٔلٌٔش ٖٓ ٍث‪ ْ٤‬ه‪٠‬خس ‪ٝ‬ػٔخٗ‪٤‬ش ه‪٠‬خس‬
‫ٓؼخ‪٣ .ٖ٤ٗٝ‬ظْ طؼ‪ ٖ٤٤‬حُو‪٠‬خس ٖٓ هزَ حَُث‪" ْ٤‬رٔ٘‪ٍٞ‬س ‪ٞٓٝ‬حكوش" ٓـِْ حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬م حألَٓ‪ٝ ٢ٌ٣‬ال ‪٣‬ـ‪ ُٞ‬ػُِ‪ ْٜ‬اال ػٖ‬
‫‪٣َ١‬ن حُٔٔخءُش‪ .‬طوٍَ حُٔلٌٔش ىحثٔخ ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ًظِش ‪ٝ‬حكيس‪ .‬رخٓظؼ٘خء حُلخالص ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُؼخى‪٣‬ش ‪ ،‬طؼَٔ حُٔلٌٔش‬
‫ًٔلٌٔش حٓظج٘خف ‪ٝ‬طوٍَ ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ر٘خء ػِ‪ِٓ ٠‬و‪ٜ‬خص حُٔلخًٔش ‪ٓٝ ،‬ـالص حُٔلخًٔش ٖٓ حُٔلخًْ حالرظيحث‪٤‬ش ‪،‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬كـؾ حُٔلخٓ‪ .٢‬طؼَٔ حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ أ‪٠٣‬خ ًِٔطش اَٗحك‪٤‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔلخًْ حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش حألهَ‪.ٟ‬‬
‫ٍحنَخ االستئْبف األٍشٌنٍخ‬

‫‪٘٣‬ؤْ ٗظخّ حُٔلخًْ حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش ؿـَحك‪٤‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬حػ٘‪ ٢‬ػَ٘ ىحثَس ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش (رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي ٓوخ‪١‬ؼش ً‪ُٓٞٞ‬ز‪٤‬خ ‪ ،‬حُظ‪ُٜ ٢‬خ‬
‫ىحثَط‪ٜ‬خ حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش ‪ ٢ٛٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬يس حُظ‪٣ ُْ ٢‬ظْ طلي‪٣‬ي‪ٛ‬خ ٍهٔ‪٤‬خ)‪ .‬ط‪ٞ‬ؿي ٓلٌٔش حٓظج٘خف أَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ك‪ ًَ ٢‬ىحثَس ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ٓؼَ ه‪٠‬خس حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ ‪٣ ،‬ظْ طؼ‪ ٖ٤٤‬ه‪٠‬خس ٓلٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف ٖٓ هزَ حَُث‪" ْ٤‬رٔ٘‪ٍٞ‬س ‪ٞٓٝ‬حكوش" ٓـِْ حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬م‪.‬‬
‫طوظِق ٓلخًْ حالٓظج٘خف ك‪ ٢‬ػيى حُو‪٠‬خس حُٔؼ‪ٜ٘ٓ ٌَُ ٖ٤٘٤‬خ‪ .‬ط٘ظَ ٓلٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف ػخىس ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ك‪٤ٛ ٢‬جش ٖٓ‬
‫ػالػش أ‪ ٝ‬هٔٔش ه‪٠‬خس‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬كخالص ٗخىٍس ‪ ،‬كبٕ ٓلٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف ٓظوٍَ ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤٠‬ش أ‪ ٕٝ‬رخٗي ‪ ،‬أ‪ ١‬أٗ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٓ ،‬لٌٔش‬
‫ًخِٓش رل‪ ٍٞ٠‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُو‪٠‬خس ‪.‬‬

‫‪31‬‬
Of a human being without malice. This definition will be followed by a statement
that one convicted of manslaughter may be imprisoned for a period not to exceed
four years. The statutes of other states may provide that ―manslaugh-ter‖ is
punishable by imprisonment not to exceed some other prescribed number of years,
but may not define what acts constitute manslaughter. The courts must then look to
the common law to determine the interpretation of manslaughter.
U.S. Court Systems Today

There are two court systems in the United States—federal and state. The term ―dual
federalism‖ is used to describe the concept of two complete court sys-tems. The
majority of criminal cases are tried in state courts. There are some counties whose
state courts prosecute more criminal cases each year than are prosecuted annually in
the entire federal system, including Los Angeles County, California; Harris County,
Texas; and Cook County, Illinois.
Federal System
The judicial power of the United States shall be invested in one Supreme Court ... .
(U.S. Constitution, Art. III, sec. 1)
The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest court in the federal system. The court is
composed of one chief justice and eight associate justices. Justices are appointed by
the president with the ―advice and consent‖ of the U.S. Senate and may be removed
only by impeachment. The court always decides cases as one body. Except in
unusual situations, the court acts as an appellate court and decides cases based on
trial briefs, records of trial from the trial courts, and arguments of counsel. The
Supreme Court also acts as a supervising authority over other federal courts.
U.S. Court of Appeals
The federal court system is divided geographically into twelve judicial cir-cuits
(including the District of Columbia, which has its own circuit and is the only one not
numerically designated). A U.S. Court of Appeals is located in each judicial circuit.
Like Supreme Court justices, Court of Appeals justices are appointed by the
president with the ―advice and consent‖ of the Senate. The Courts of Appeals differ
in the number of justices appointed to each. A Court of Appeals normally hears
cases in a panel of three or five judges. In rare cases, a Court of Appeals will decide
a case en banc, that is, as a whole court with all justices present.

31
 ‫ٍحبمٌ اىَقبطعبد األٍشٌنٍخ‬
‫حُٔلٌٔش حالرظيحث‪٤‬ش حألٓخٓ‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘ظخّ حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢ٛ ٢‬حُٔلٌٔش حُـِث‪٤‬ش حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش (‪٘ٛ .)USBC‬خى ٓلٌٔش ٓلِ‪٤‬ش‬
‫‪ٝ‬حكيس ػِ‪ ٠‬حألهَ ك‪ٝ ًَ ٢‬ال‪٣‬ش ‪ٓٝ ،‬ؼظْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص ُي‪ٜ٣‬خ أًؼَ ٖٓ ٓلٌٔش ‪ٝ‬حكيس‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬طِي حُلخالص ‪٣ ،‬ظْ طؤ‪ ْ٤‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬ش‬
‫ؿـَحك‪٤‬خ اُ‪ٓ ٠‬وخ‪١‬ؼخص ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ك‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش‪ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ ،‬ط٘ؤْ ‪ٝ‬ال‪٣‬ش أ‪ٞ٣‬ح اُ‪٘ٓ ٠‬طوظ‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ظ‪ٔٗ ، ٖ٤‬خُ‪٤‬ش‬
‫‪ٝ‬ؿ٘‪ٞ‬ر‪٤‬ش‪ .‬ط‪ٞ‬ؿي ك‪ٝ ٢‬ال‪٣‬ش طٌٔخّ أٍرغ ٓوخ‪١‬ؼخص ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ك‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش‪ٓ :‬لٌٔش ٓوخ‪١‬ؼش حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ُِٔ٘طوش‬
‫حُـ٘‪ٞ‬ر‪٤‬ش ٖٓ طٌٔخّ ‪ٓٝ ،‬لٌٔش ٓوخ‪١‬ؼش حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ُِٔ٘طوش حَُ٘ه‪٤‬ش ٖٓ طٌٔخّ ‪ٓٝ ،‬لٌٔش ٓوخ‪١‬ؼش حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص‬
‫حُٔظليس ُِٔ٘طوش حُـَر‪٤‬ش ٖٓ طٌٔخّ ‪ٓٝ ،‬لٌٔش حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ُِٔ٘طوش حُ٘ٔخُ‪٤‬ش ٖٓ ‪ٝ‬ال‪٣‬ش طٌٔخّ‪.‬‬

‫‪٣‬ظْ طؼ‪ ٖ٤٤‬ه‪٠‬خس ٓلخًْ حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش ٖٓ هزَ حَُث‪" ْ٤‬رٔ٘‪ٍٞ‬س ‪ٞٓٝ‬حكوش" ٓـِْ حُ٘‪ٞ٤‬م‪٣ .‬ظْ طؼ‪ ٖ٤٤‬ه‪٠‬خس‬
‫هخ‪ًٔ ٝ‬لٌٔش ٓلِ‪٤‬ش‪ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪،‬‬
‫ِ‬ ‫حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص ٓي‪ ٟ‬حُل‪٤‬خس‪ .‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُي‪ٝ‬حثَ حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪٣ ،‬ـِْ أًؼَ ٖٓ‬
‫هخ‪ٜ٘ٓ ًَ ، ٝ‬خ‬
‫ِ‬ ‫ط‪ٓ ْ٠‬لٌٔش حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ُِٔ٘طوش حُـ٘‪ٞ‬ر‪٤‬ش ٖٓ ٗ‪ٍٞ٣ٞ٤‬ى (ٓي‪٘٣‬ش ٗ‪ٍٞ٣ٞ٤‬ى) أًؼَ ٖٓ ‪100‬‬
‫ط٘ؼوي ًٔلٌٔش ٓوخ‪١‬ؼش أَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ُِٔ٘طوش حُـ٘‪ٞ‬ر‪٤‬ش ٖٓ ٗ‪ٍٞ٣ٞ٤‬ى‪.‬‬

‫ك‪ ٢‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُلخالص حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش ‪ ٝ‬حُ٘خىٍس ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ،‬طـِْ ‪ُٝ‬حٍس حُيكخع حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش حؿِٔش ‪ٝ‬طوٍَ ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٤٠‬ش ًٔلٌٔش‬
‫ٓلِ‪٤‬ش "ٌٓ‪ٗٞ‬ش ٖٓ ػالػش ه‪٠‬خس"‪ .‬ر‪٤‬ي إٔ حُـخُز‪٤‬ش حُؼظٔ‪ ٖٓ ٠‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ‪َ٣‬أٓ‪ٜ‬خ هخ‪ٝ ٝ‬حكي‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش‬
‫حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ظْ حُ٘ظَ ك‪ٜ٤‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ‪ُِٔ ،‬ظ‪ ْٜ‬حُلن ك‪ٓ ٢‬لخًٔش أٓخّ ‪٤ٛ‬جش ٓلِل‪.ٖ٤‬‬

‫‪32‬‬
U.S. District Courts

The basic trial court in the federal system is the U.S. District Court (USDC). There
is at least one district court in each state, and most states have more than one. In
those cases, the state is divided geographically into federal judi-cial districts. For
example, Iowa is divided into two federal districts, northern and southern. In Texas
there are four federal judicial districts: U.S. District Court for the Southern District
of Texas, U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, U.S. District Court
for the Western District of Texas, and U.S. District Court for the Northern District of
Texas.

Federal district court judges are appointed by the president with ―advice and
consent‖ of the Senate. District judges are appointed for life. In most judicial
districts, more than one judge sits as the district court. For example, the U.S. District
Court for the Southern District of New York (New York City) has more than 100
judges, each sitting as the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York.

In special cases (and rarely), the USDC can sit and decide a case as a ―three-judge‖
district court. The vast majority of cases are, however, presided over by a single
judge. In all criminal cases heard in the USDC, the accused has a right to a jury trial.

32
 ‫قضبح اىىالٌبد اىَتحذح‬

‫‪ٝ‬حُو‪٠‬خس ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ؿِء ٖٓ حُ٘ظخّ حُو‪٠‬خث‪ ٢‬حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ٞٔ٤ُ ٌُْٜ٘ ٢‬ح ٓلخًْ ٓ٘ل‪ِٜ‬ش ‪٣‬طِذ ٖٓ حُو‪٠‬خس‬
‫حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٖ٤٤‬إٔ ‪ٌٞٗٞ٣‬ح ٓلخٓ‪٣ٝ ٖ٤‬ظْ طؼ‪ ٖٓ ْٜ٘٤٤‬هزَ ٍث‪ ْ٤‬حُيحثَس حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ُلظَس ٓليىس‪ُ٣ .‬لخًْ حُو‪٠‬خس حُـَحثْ‬
‫حُزٔ‪٤‬طش ‪٣ٝ‬ئى‪ٔٓ ٕٝ‬خثَ ٓخ هزَ حُٔلخًٔش ‪ٝٝ‬حؿزخص ٓٔخػِش‪٣ ٝ .‬ؼظزَ‪ٞٓ ٕٝ‬ظل‪ ٖ٤‬ه‪٠‬خث‪ٝ ، ٖ٤٤‬رخُظخُ‪ ٌْٜ٘ٔ٣ ٢‬ا‪ٛ‬يحٍ‬
‫أ‪ٝ‬حَٓ حالػظوخٍ‪.‬‬
‫اىَشبسمىُ فً اىقضبٌب‪-:‬‬

‫حُٔ٘خًٍ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُث‪ ٕٞ٤ٔ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ؿ٘خث‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ ْٛ‬حُوخ‪ٝ ٢ٟ‬حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ‪ٓٝ‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع ‪ًٝ‬خطذ‬
‫حُٔلٌٔش ‪ٝ‬حُٔل‪َٓٝ َ٠‬حَٓ حُٔلٌٔش‪ .‬ؿٔ‪٤‬ؼ‪٣ ْٜ‬ؼظزَ‪ٟ ٕٝ‬زخ‪ ١‬حُٔلٌٔش‪ .‬طوظِق اؿَحءحص حُٔلخًٔش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش هِ‪٤‬ال‪,‬‬
‫ٓ‪ٞ‬حء ًخٗض حُظ‪ٜٔ‬ش ؿ٘خ‪٣‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬ؿ٘لش‪ ,‬أ‪ٓ ٝ‬خ اًح ًخٗض حُٔلخًٔش ٓلخًٔش ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬لخًٔش أٓخّ ‪٤ٛ‬جش ٓلِل‪٣ٝ .ٖ٤‬لن‬
‫ُِٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬إٔ ‪٣‬لخًْ ٓلخًٔش ػخىُش أٓخّ هخ‪٤ٛٝ ٚ٣ِٗ ٝ‬جش ٓلِل‪ٜ٣ِٗ ٖ٤‬ش ‪ ،‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿ‪ ٖٓ ٞ‬حُ‪ٜ‬ي‪ٝ‬ء حُو‪٠‬خث‪.٢‬‬
‫ٗظخّ حُؼيحُش ‪ٗ ٞٛ‬ظخّ ٓوخ‪ٌٛٝ ّٝ‬ح ‪٣‬ؼ٘‪ ٢‬إٔ ُ‪ ٚ‬ؿخٗزخٕ ك‪ٓ ٢‬لخًٔش ؿ٘خث‪٤‬ش ‪ ٢ٛ ٌٙٛ‬حُ٘‪٤‬خرش حُؼخٓش ‪ٝ‬حُيكخع‪ُٔٔ٣ .‬ق ٌَُ‬
‫ٓ٘‪ٜ‬خ ر ظوي‪ ْ٣‬حألىُش رخأل‪ٛ‬خُش ػٖ ٗلٔ‪ٜ‬خ ٖٓ حُ٘خك‪٤‬ش حُ٘ظَ‪٣‬ش ‪٣ ،‬يهَ ًال حُـخٗز‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔلخًٔش ػِ‪ ٠‬هيّ حُٔٔخ‪ٝ‬حس‪،‬‬
‫‪ًٔ ٌُٖٝ‬خ أٗخٍ حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬رخ‪ٝ َٕٝ٣‬ح‪٣‬ض ٖٓ حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ‪ ،‬ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤٠‬ش حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ٟ‬ي ‪ٝ‬ح‪٣‬ي ‪388 ،‬‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ ، )1957( 218‬كبٕ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُ٘ظخّ ُ‪ٗ ْ٤‬ظخٓخ ه‪ٜٔ‬خ كو‪٤‬و‪٤‬خ ك‪٤‬غ ‪٣‬يهَ ًال حُـخٗز‪ ٖ٤‬حُٔلخًٔش ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫هيّ حُٔٔخ‪ٝ‬حس‪ٝ .‬هخٍ‪:‬‬
‫‪ٟ‬زخ‪ ١‬اٗلخً حُوخٗ‪ٓٝ( ٕٞ‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء) ِِٓٓ‪ ٕٞ‬ربىحٗش حٌُٔٗز‪ٝ ٖ٤‬حُظؤًي ٖٓ أٗ‪ ْٜ‬ال ‪٣‬ي‪ ٕٞ٘٣‬حألرَ‪٣‬خء‪٣ٝ .‬ـذ إٔ‬
‫‪ٌَٞٓ٣‬ح ؿ‪ٜٞ‬ى‪ُ ْٛ‬ـؼَ حُٔلخًٔش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش اؿَحء ٖٓ أؿَ حٌُ٘ق ػٖ حُلوخثن حُلو‪٤‬و‪٤‬ش حُٔل‪٤‬طش رخٍطٌخد حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش‪.‬‬
‫اُ‪ٌٛ ٠‬ح حُلي ‪ ،‬كبٕ ٓخ ‪ ٠ٔٔ٣‬ر٘ظخّ حُو‪ ْ٤ُ ْٜ‬ه‪ٜٔ‬خ ػِ‪ ٠‬حإل‪١‬الم‪ٝ :‬ال ‪٘٣‬زـ‪ ٢‬إٔ ‪ًٌُ ٌٕٞ٣‬ي‪ٓ ٌُٖ .‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع‬
‫ُ‪ُ ْ٤‬ي‪ ٚ٣‬حُظِحّ ٓٔخػَ رخُظؤًي ٖٓ حُلو‪٤‬وش أ‪ ٝ‬ػَ‪ٜٟ‬خ‪ٗ .‬ظخٓ٘خ ‪ٌِ٣‬ل‪ ٚ‬رٔ‪ٜٔ‬ش ٓوظِلش‪٣ .‬ـذ إٔ ‪ٜٓ ٌٕٞ٣‬ظٔخ رؼيّ اىحٗش‬
‫حألرَ‪٣‬خء ‪ ٌُٖٝ ،‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿ‪٤‬خد حإلهَحٍ حُط‪ٞ‬ػ‪ ٢‬رخٌُٗذ ‪ َٜٗ ،‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪٣ ٚ‬يحكغ ػٖ ٓ‪ٞٓ ًِٚٞ‬حء ًخٕ رَ‪٣‬جخ أ‪ٌٗٓ ٝ‬زخ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ِِٓٓش رظوي‪ ْ٣‬حألىُش‪ٓ .‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع رلخؿش اُ‪ ٠‬طوي‪ ْ٣‬أ‪٢ٗ ١‬ء ‪ ،‬كظ‪ً ُٞ ٠‬خٕ ‪٣‬ؼَف ٓخ ‪ ٢ٛ‬حُلو‪٤‬وش‪ٝ .‬ال‬
‫‪٣‬لظخؽ اُ‪ ٠‬طوي‪ ْ٣‬أ‪ٜٞٗ ١‬ى َُِ٘‪١‬ش ‪ ،‬أ‪ ٝ‬حٌُ٘ق ػٖ أ‪ ١‬أَٓحٍ ُٔ‪ ، ًِٚٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬طوي‪ ْ٣‬أ‪ٓ ١‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص أهَ‪ُٔٔ ٟ‬خػيس‬
‫حالىػخء ك‪َٓ ٢‬حكؼظ‪ .ٚ‬اًح ًخٕ ربٌٓخٗ‪ ٚ‬اٍرخى ٗخ‪ٛ‬ي‪ ,‬كظ‪ً ُٞ ٠‬خٕ ‪ٛ‬خىم‪ ,‬أ‪ ٝ‬ؿؼِ‪٣ ٚ‬ظ‪ َٜ‬ك‪ٟٝ ٢‬غ ؿ‪ٓ َ٤‬ئحص‪ ,‬ؿ‪َ٤‬‬
‫ٓظؤًي أ‪ ٝ‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬كخْٓ‪ٌٛ ,‬ح ٓ‪ٔٓ ٌٕٞ٤‬خٍ‪ ٙ‬حُطز‪٤‬ؼ‪ .٢‬رخُٔٔخف ُألرَ‪٣‬خء ر‪ٟٞ‬غ حُي‪ُٝ‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ىُ‪ِٜ٤‬خ ‪ُٟٞ ،‬غ كخُش حُي‪ُٝ‬ش‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬أٓ‪ٞ‬أ ‪ٍٞٛ‬س ٌٓٔ٘ش ‪ ،‬رـ‪ ٞ‬حُ٘ظَ ػٖ ٓخ ‪٣‬ؼظوي أ‪٣ ٝ‬ؼَف إٔ طٌ‪ ٕٞ‬حُلو‪٤‬وش‪ٔٓ .‬خ ال ٗي ك‪ ٚ٤‬إٔ ‪٘ٛ‬خى رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُو‪ٞ٤‬ى‬
‫حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ـذ ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع َٓحػخط‪ٜ‬خ ‪ ٌُٖٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬أؿِذ حألك‪٤‬خٕ ‪٣ ،‬و‪ٓ ّٞ‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع رخٓظـ‪ٞ‬حد ٗخ‪ٛ‬ي حالىػخء ‪،‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُظٌ٘‪٤‬ي ك‪ ٢‬أه‪ٞ‬حُ‪ ٚ‬اًح أٓظطخع‬

‫‪33‬‬
U.S. Magistrates
U.S. magistrates are part of the federal judicial system but are not consid-ered
as separate courts. The federal magistrates are required to be attorneys and are
appointed by the presiding judge of the judicial district for a specific term.
Magistrates try minor offenses and perform pretrial matters and simi-lar duties.
They are considered to be judicial officers and therefore can issue search and
arrest warrants.
Participants in a Criminal Case

The major participants in a United States criminal case are the judge, prose-
cuting attorney, defense counsel, clerk of the court, bailiff, and court reporter.
All are considered officers of the court. The criminal trial procedure varies
little, whether the charge is a felony or misdemeanor, or whether the trial is a
court trial or jury trial. The defendant is entitled to a fair trial before an
impartial judge and an honest jury, in an atmosphere of judicial calm.
The justice system is an adversary system, meaning that it has two sides. In a
criminal trial these are the prosecution and the defense. Each is permit-ted to
present evidence on its own behalf. Theoretically, both sides come into the trial
on an equal basis. But as Justice Byron White of the U.S. Supreme Court, in
United States v. Wade, 388 U.S. 218 (1957), pointed out, this system is not a
true adversary system with both sides entering the trial on an equal footing. He
stated:
Law enforcement officers (and prosecuting attorneys) have the obligation to
convict the guilty and to make sure they do not convict the innocent. They
must be dedicated to making the criminal trial a procedure for the ascer-
tainment of the true facts surrounding the commission of the crime. To this
extent, our so-called adversary system is not adversary at all: nor should it be.
But defense counsel has no comparable obligation to ascertain or pres-ent the
truth. Our system assigns him a different mission. He must be and is interested
in not convicting the innocent, but absent a voluntary plea of guilty, we also
insist that he defend his client whether he is innocent or guilty. The State has
the obligation to present the evidence. Defense counsel need present nothing,
even if he knows what the truth is. He need furnish no witnesses to the police,
reveal any confidences of his client, nor furnish any other informa-tion to help
the prosecution’s case. If he can confuse a witness, even a truthful one, or
make him appear at a disadvantage, unsure or indecisive, that will be his
normal course. Our interest in not convicting the innocent permits counsel to
put the State to its proof, to put the State’s case in the worst pos-sible light,
regardless of what he thinks or knows to be the truth. Undoubtedly there are
some limits which defense counsel must observe but more often than not,
defense counsel will cross-examine a prosecution witness, and impeach him if
he can
33
‫كظ‪ً ُٞ ٠‬خٕ ‪٣‬ؼظوي إٔ حُ٘خ‪ٛ‬ي ‪٣‬و‪ ٍٞ‬حُلو‪٤‬وش ‪ ،‬طٔخٓخ ًٔخ ٓ‪٤‬لخ‪ ٍٝ‬طيٓ‪ َ٤‬حُ٘خ‪ٛ‬ي حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ؼظوي أٗ‪ٌٌ٣ ٚ‬د‪ .‬ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح‬
‫حُ‪ٜ‬يى ‪ًٝ ،‬ـِء ٖٓ ٗظخٓ٘خ حُؼيحث‪ ٢‬حُٔؼيٍ ‪ًٝ‬ـِء ٖٓ حُ‪ٞ‬حؿذ حُٔلَ‪ ٝٝ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع حألًؼَ َٗكخ‬
‫‪ ،‬كبٗ٘خ ٗئ‪٣‬ي أ‪ٗ ٝ‬طِذ ِٓ‪ًٞ‬خ ال ػالهش ُ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ً ٢‬ؼ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُلخالص رخُزلغ ػٖ حُلو‪٤‬وش‪،‬إ ‪ٝ‬ؿي‪.‬‬

‫قبضً اىَحبمَخ‬
‫ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ حٓظويحّ ٓ‪ٜ‬طِل‪" ٢‬حُوخ‪" ٝ "٢ٟ‬حُٔلٌٔش" رخُظزخىٍ ‪ ،‬اال أٗ‪٣ ٚ‬ـذ طٔ‪ِٔٛ٤٤‬خ‪٣ٝ .‬ظَأّ‬
‫حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬اؿَحءحص حُٔلخًٔش ‪ٔ٣ٝ‬خٍّ حُ‪ٞ‬حؿزخص ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٜ‬الك‪٤‬خص حُظ‪٣ ٢‬لَ‪ٜٟ‬خ حُوخٗ‪ٝ .ٕٞ‬حُٔلٌٔش ‪ ٢ٛ‬اؿَحء‬
‫هخ‪ِ٣ .ٝ‬ؼذ حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬ى‪ٍٝ‬ح ٓ‪ٜٔ‬خ ُِـخ‪٣‬ش هزَ ‪ٝ‬أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش‪٘ٛ .‬خى هيٍ ًز‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُ‪ٜ‬الك‪٤‬ش‬ ‫ِ‬ ‫ه‪٠‬خث‪٣ ٢‬ظَأٓ‪ٜ‬خ‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُِٔطش ‪ٝ ،‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُوَحٍحص طو‪٠‬غ كو‪ُ ٢‬ظوي‪ َ٣‬حُوخ‪ٝ .٢ٟ‬رٔخ إٔ حألكؼخٍ حُٔـَىس ٖٓ حُٔزخىة ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬إٔ‬
‫طئػَ طؤػ‪َ٤‬ح هط‪َ٤‬ح ػِ‪ ٠‬اهخٓش حُؼيٍ ‪ ،‬كبٕ ط‪َٜ‬كخص حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬طو‪٠‬غ َُِٔحؿؼش ٖٓ هزَ ٓلخًْ حالٓظج٘خف‪.‬‬
‫‪ٌٛ‬ح ‪٣‬ظـ٘ذ أ‪ ١‬آخءس حٓظويحّ ُِ‪ٜ‬الك‪٤‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬حُِٔطش ٖٓ هزَ حُوخ‪ُ .٢ٟ‬لٖٔ حُلع‪ٓ ,‬ؼظٔ‪ ٖٓ ْٜ‬حألكَحى‬
‫حَُ٘كخء حٌُ‪ٔ٣ ٖ٣‬ؼ‪ُِ ٕٞ‬و‪٤‬خّ رؼَٔ ‪٣‬ظْٔ رخُ٘لخك‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬

‫ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص ‪٣ ،‬ظْ حٗظوخد ه‪٠‬خس حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ أ‪ ٝ‬حُٔلٌٔش حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش ‪ ،‬أ‪ٓ ٝ‬خ ‪٣‬ؼخىُ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ ٖٓ ،‬هزَ ٌٓخٕ‬
‫حُٔ٘طوش حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ويٓ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ٜ٤‬خ‪ .‬حُٔلخًْ حُؼِ‪٤‬خ أ‪ ٝ‬حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش ‪ ٢ٛ‬حُٔلخًْ حالرظيحث‪٤‬ش حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص‬
‫حُٔوظِلش‪ًٔ .‬خ ‪ ٞٛ‬حُلخٍ رخُ٘ٔزش ُو‪٠‬خس حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ أ‪ ٝ‬حُٔلٌٔش حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش‪٣ ،‬ظْ حٗظوخد ه‪٠‬خس حُٔلخًْ حألىٗ‪٠‬‬
‫ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص‪٣ .‬ظْ حٗظوخر‪ ٖٓ ْٜ‬هزَ ٌٓخٕ حُٔ٘طوش حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ويٓ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ٜ٤‬خ ‪ ٌُٖٝ ،‬هي طٌ‪ٌٙٛ ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُٔ٘طوش ؿِءح كو‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش‪ .‬طوظِق حُٔئ‪ٛ‬الص ُ‪ٌٜ‬ح حُٔ٘‪ٜ‬ذ حهظالكخ ًز‪َ٤‬ح ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُي‪ .ٍٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ‬
‫حُٔ٘خ‪١‬ن حَُ‪٣‬ل‪٤‬ش حُ٘خث‪ ٤‬ش ‪ ،‬ال ‪ٞ٣‬ؿي ٓخ ‪ٌ٣‬ل‪ ٖٓ ٢‬أػٔخٍ حُٔلٌٔش ُظزَ‪ٝ َ٣‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى هخ‪ ٝ‬ري‪ٝ‬حّ ًخَٓ ‪ٌُُ ،‬ي هي‬
‫‪ ٌٕٞ٣‬حُوخ‪ٓ ٢ٟ‬لخٓ‪٤‬خ ٓٔخٍٓخ ٓلِ‪٤‬خ ٓ٘ظوزخ ُِؼَٔ ًوخ‪ ٝ‬ػ٘يٓخ طٌ‪ ٕٞ‬أػٔخٍ حُٔلٌٔش ٓطِ‪ٞ‬رش‪.‬‬

‫ُي‪ ٟ‬هخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔلخًٔش ‪ٝ‬حؿزخص ػي‪٣‬يس هزَ حُٔلخًٔش‪ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ُ٣ ،‬طِذ ٖٓ حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬ػوي ؿِٔخص‬
‫حالط‪ٜ‬خّ ‪ ٝ‬ؿِٔخص حٓظٔخع أ‪٤ُٝ‬ش‪ .‬ك‪ ٌٙٛ ٢‬حُـِٔخص‪٤ٓ ,‬ظْ اهطخٍ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬رخُظ‪٤ٓ ,ْٜ‬ظْ اىهخٍ َٓحكؼظ‪،ٚ‬‬
‫‪ ٌٖٔ٣ٝ‬طوي‪ ْ٣‬حُطِزخص‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُـ٘خ‪٣‬خص أ‪ ٝ‬حُلخالص حُظ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ٢‬ك‪ٜ٤‬خ كزْ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪٤ٓ ، ٚ٤‬ظْ طؼ‪ٓ ٖ٤٤‬لخّ‬
‫ُِٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬حُٔلظخؽ‪ .‬رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ًُ ٠‬ي ‪٣ ،‬ـذ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬ا‪ٛ‬يحٍ أكٌخّ (هَحٍحص) ر٘ؤٕ حالُظٔخٓخص‬
‫حُٔويٓش ٖٓ حالىػخء أ‪ ٝ‬حُيكخع‪ٝ .‬طَ٘ٔ حالهظَحكخص حُ٘ٔ‪ًٞ‬ؿ‪٤‬ش حالهظَحكخص إلهلخء حألىُش ‪ ٖٓ ،‬أؿَ‬
‫حالٓظَٔحٍ‪٣‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬حَُك‪ُ ٞ‬ؼيّ طِو‪ٓ ٢‬لخًٔش َٓ‪٣‬ؼش‪.‬‬

‫أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش ‪٣ ،‬ظلَٔ حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔٔئ‪٤ُٝ‬ش حألٓخٓ‪٤‬ش ػٖ ‪ٟٔ‬خٕ طلو‪٤‬ن حُؼيحُش‪ .‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُوخ‪ ْ٤ُ ٢ٟ‬كو‪٢‬‬
‫كٔخ‪٣‬ش ٓ‪ٜ‬خُق حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٌُٖٝ ٚ٤‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ُلٔخ‪٣‬ش ٓ‪ٜ‬خُق حُـٔ‪ٟٔٝ ، ٍٜٞ‬خٕ اىحٗش حٌُٔٗذ‪َ٣ٝ .‬حهذ حُوخ‪٢ٟ‬‬
‫ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حإلؿَحءحص أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش ‪٣ٝ‬لي ٖٓ طوي‪ ْ٣‬حألىُش ‪ٝ‬حُلـؾ حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ويٓ‪ٜ‬خ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔٔخثَ حُٔخى‪٣‬ش‬
‫ًحص حُ‪ِٜ‬ش رـ‪٤‬ش حُظلون حَُٔ‪٣‬غ ‪ٝ‬حُلؼخٍ‪.‬‬

‫‪34‬‬
even if he thinks the witness is telling the truth, just as he will attempt to
destroy a witness who he thinks is lying. In this respect, as part of our modified
adversary system and as part of the duty imposed on the most honorable
defense counsel, we countenance or require conduct which in many instances
has little, if any, relation to the search for truth.
Trial Judge
Although the terms ―judge‖ and ―the court‖ are used interchangeably, they
should be distinguished. The judge presides over the trial proceedings and
exercises those duties and power imposed by law. The court is a judicial pro-
ceeding presided over by a judge. The judge plays a very important role both
before and during the trial. There is a great deal of power and authority, and
many decisions are solely at the judge’s discretion. Since unscrupulous acts
could seriously affect the administration of justice, the judge’s actions are sub-
ject to review by appellate courts. This avoids any abuse of power or authority
by the judge. Fortunately, most are honest individuals who endeavor to do a
conscientious job.
In most states the judges of the superior or district court, or its equiva-lent, are
elected by the people of the judicial district where they serve. The superior or
district courts are the major trial courts in the various states. As in the case of
state superior or district court judges, lower court judges are elected in most
states. They are elected by the people of the judicial district where they serve,
but this district may be only a portion of a county. The qualifications for this
position vary greatly among states. In many outlying rural areas there is not
enough court business to justify a full-time judge, so the judge may be a local
practicing attorney elected to act as the judge when court business is required.
The trial judge has many duties prior to the trial. For example, the judge is
required to hold arraignments and preliminary hearings. At these hear-ings, the
defendant will be advised of the charges, his or her plea will be entered, and
motions may be presented. In felony cases or cases in which the defendant
could be confined, an indigent defendant will have counsel appointed. In
addition, the judge must make rulings (decisions) on motions presented by
either the prosecution or defense. Typical motions include motions to suppress
evidence, for continuances, and to dismiss for failure to receive a speedy trial.
During the trial, the judge has the primary responsibility for seeing that justice is
carried out. The judge has a duty not only to protect the interests of the defendant
but also to protect the interests of the public, ensuring that the guilty are
convicted. The judge controls all proceedings during the trial and limits the
introduction of evidence and arguments of counsel to relevant and material
matters with a view to the expeditious and effective ascertainment
34
‫ٖٓ حُلو‪٤‬وش‪٣ .‬ـذ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُظلٌْ ك‪ِٞٓ ٢‬ى حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ٝ ٚ٤‬حُٔظلَؿ‪ ;ٖ٤‬طلي‪٣‬ي ًلخءس حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى ‪ٓٝ‬وز‪٤ُٞ‬ش‬
‫حألىُش ؛ ‪ٝ‬حُزض ك‪ ٢‬حالػظَح‪ٟ‬خص حُٔويٓش ػِ‪ ٠‬حألٓجِش حُظ‪٣ ٢‬طَك‪ٜ‬خ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٕٞ‬؛ ‪ٝ‬ارؼخى حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى ػٖ حُٔ‪٠‬خ‪٣‬وش‬
‫أػ٘خء حالٓظـ‪ٞ‬حد ؛ ‪ٝ‬طلٔ‪ َ٤‬حُو‪ٞ‬حٗ‪ ٖ٤‬حُٔظؼِوش رخُو‪٤٠‬ش حُٔؼ‪٘٤‬ش ُ‪٤ٜ‬جش حُٔلِل‪ ٖ٤‬؛ ‪ٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش‬
‫‪٣ ،‬ظ٘خ‪ ٍٝ‬حُظوَ‪ ُٕٝ َ٣‬حألىُش حُٔويٓش ‪ٜٓٝ‬يحه‪٤‬ش حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪٣ ،‬لٌْ حُوخ‪٢ٟ‬‬
‫ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬رؼي اىحٗظ‪ .ٚ‬اًح ًخٗض حُٔلخًٔش ٓلخًٔش ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪ٜ٣ ،‬يٍ حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬كٌٔخ رخٌُٗذ أ‪ ٝ‬حُزَحءس‪.‬‬
‫ٓ‪٤‬ظْ طؼيحى حُ‪ٞ‬حؿزخص حإل‪ٟ‬خك‪٤‬ش أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش ٓغ طويّ ٓ٘خه٘ش حُٔلخًٔش (ٍ‪ٝ‬رَٓ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬آهَ‪.)2006 ,.ٕٝ‬‬

‫اىَذعى عيٍه‬
‫‪َٓ ٖٔ٠٣ٝ‬طٌذ حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش كو‪ٞ‬هخ ٓؼ‪٘٤‬ش‪٣ .‬ظْ حُظلٌْ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ ؿ‪ٞ‬حٗذ حإلؿَحءحص حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ٖٓ هزَ ىٓظ‪ٍٞ‬‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ٝ ،‬طلي‪٣‬يح ك‪ٝ ٢‬ػ‪٤‬وش حُلو‪ٞ‬م (حُظؼي‪٣‬الص حُؼَ٘س حأل‪٤ِٛ‬ش ُِيٓظ‪ ٌٙٛ .)ٍٞ‬حُلٔخ‪٣‬ش حُيٓظ‪٣ٍٞ‬ش‬
‫حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٤‬ش حُٔظؼِوش رخُلو‪ٞ‬م حُلَى‪٣‬ش ‪ ،‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظٔ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ِِٓٓ ،‬ش ُٔلخًْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص‪.‬‬

‫‪ٝ‬طَطز‪ ٌٙٛ ٢‬حُلو‪ٞ‬م رخُـخٗ‪ ٢‬ك‪َٓ ٢‬كِش ٓزٌَس ٖٓ حإلؿَحءحص حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬هي ‪٣‬ئى‪ ١‬حٗظ‪ٜ‬خً‪ٜ‬خ اُ‪ٍ ٠‬ك‪ٞ‬‬
‫حُو‪٤٠‬ش‪ .‬كؼِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ ،‬اًح حػظَف َٓطٌذ حُـخٗ‪ ٢‬رـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش حُوظَ حُؼٔي ‪ٝ ،‬طْ حُل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حػظَحف‬
‫‪ ٌَ٘٣‬حٗظ‪ٜ‬خًخ ُلو‪ٞ‬ه‪ ٚ‬حُيٓظ‪٣ٍٞ‬ش ‪٣ ،‬ـ‪ ُٞ‬هٔؼ‪ .ٚ‬اًح ًخٕ حالػظَحف ‪ ٞٛ‬حَُحر‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ي حٌُ‪َ٣ ١‬ر‪ ٢‬حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ٚ٤‬‬
‫رخُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ‪ ،‬كوي ‪٣‬ظؼ‪ٍ ٖ٤‬ك‪ ٞ‬حُو‪٤٠‬ش‪ .‬ػ٘يٓخ طليع ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حألٗ‪ٞ‬حع ٖٓ حُل‪ٞ‬حىع ‪ ٖٓ ،‬حُ‪ٜ‬ؼذ ؿيح ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫حُ‪٠‬ل‪٤‬ش ك‪ٓ ْٜ‬زذ ا‪١‬الم َٓحف حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬ػ٘يٓخ ‪٘ٛ ٌٕٞ٣‬خى حػظَحف‪.‬‬

‫اىَذعً اىعبً‬
‫إ حُ‪ٞ‬حؿذ حألٓخٓ‪ُِٔ ٢‬يػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘ظخّ حألَٓ‪ ْ٤ُ ٢ٌ٣‬حإلىحٗش ‪ ٌُٖٝ ،‬طؼِ‪ ِ٣‬حُؼيحُش‪ٍٝ( .‬رَٓ‪، ٕٞ‬‬
‫‪)2003‬‬

‫‪ُ٣‬ؼَف ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء رؤٓٔخء ٓوظِلش‪ٓ .‬ؼَ‪ٝ‬ف ك‪ ٢‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حألٓخًٖ رخْٓ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ‪٣ٝ ،‬وظ‪" َٜ‬ى‪ .‬أ" ‪،‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬ك‪٘ٓ ٢‬خ‪١‬ن أهَ‪ ٟ‬رخْٓ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘ظخّ حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ، ٢‬حُِوذ ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‪ٝ .‬ى‪"ٍٝ‬‬
‫حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظق حُؼٔ‪ " ٢ٓٞ‬حٌُ‪ُ٣ ١‬ؼَف ر‪ ٚ‬حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ كي‪٣‬غ ٗٔز‪٤‬خ‪ُٞ٘ٔ .‬حص ػي‪٣‬يس ًخٗض ٓٔئ‪٤ُٝ‬ش حُ‪٠‬لخ‪٣‬خ أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫أهخٍر‪ُِٔ ْٜ‬لخًٔش ػ٘ي حٍطٌخد حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش‪ .‬طْ ط‪ٞ‬ظ‪٤‬ق حُٔلخٓ‪ ٖٓ ٖ٤‬هزَ ‪ٛ‬ئالء حألٗوخ‪ُِٔٔ ٙ‬خػيس ك‪٢‬‬
‫حالىػخء ‪ٓ .‬غ َٓ‪ ٍٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬هض ‪ً ،‬خٕ ٖٓ حُٔٔظلٖٔ إٔ ‪٘ٛ ٌٕٞ٣‬خى ٓيع ػخّ ٓظلَؽ ألٕ حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش حٍطٌزض رخُلؼَ‬
‫‪ٟ‬ي حُٔـظٔغ ‪ٝ ،‬طْ اٗ٘خء ٌٓظذ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ‪.‬‬

‫ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص ‪ ٌٕٞ٣ ،‬حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ٓٔئ‪ٝ‬ال ٓ٘ظوزخ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ٘خ‪١‬ن حُل‪٣َ٠‬ش حٌُز‪َ٤‬س ‪٣ ،‬ؼي‬
‫‪ٌٛ‬ح ٓ٘‪ٜ‬زخ ٓطِ‪ٞ‬رخ ‪ ،‬ألٗ‪٣ ٚ‬ظٔظغ ر٘ل‪ً ًٞ‬ز‪.َ٤‬‬

‫‪35‬‬
of the truth. The judge must control the conduct of the defendant and the
spectators; determine the competency of witnesses and the admissibility of
evidence; rule on objections made to questions asked by the attorneys; pro-tect
witnesses from harassment during cross-examination; interpret for the jury the
laws involved in the particular case; and in some jurisdictions, com-ment on
the weight of the evidence presented and the credibility of witnesses. In many
jurisdictions, the judge sentences the defendant after conviction. If the trial is a
court trial, the judge renders a verdict of guilt or innocence. Additional duties
during the trial will be enumerated as the discussion of the trial progresses
(Roberson et al., 2006).
Defendant
The perpetrator of a crime is guaranteed certain rights. Many aspects of
criminal procedure are controlled by the U.S. Constitution, specifically in the
Bill of Rights (the original ten amendments to the Constitution). These federal
constitutional protections concerning individual rights are, for the most part,
binding on state courts.
These rights attach to the perpetrator early in the criminal procedure process,
and violation of them may result in the case being dismissed. For example, if
the perpetrator confesses to the crime of murder, and that con-fession is
obtained in violation of his or her constitutional rights, it may be suppressed. If
the confession is the only link connecting the defendant to the crime, the case
may have to be dismissed. When these types of incidents occur, it is very
difficult for the victim to understand why the defendant goes free when there
has been a confession.
Prosecuting Attorney
The primary duty of a prosecutor in the U.S. system is not to convict, but to
promote justice. (Roberson, 2003)
The prosecuting attorney is known by a variety of names. In some places he or
she is known as the district attorney, abbreviated ―D.A.,‖ and in other areas as
the county attorney. In the federal system, the title is United States attorney.
The ―public official‖ role of the prosecuting attorney is comparatively recent.
For many years it was the responsibility of victims or their relatives to prose-
cute when a crime was committed. Attorneys were employed by these persons
to assist in the prosecution. As time passed, it was deemed advisable to have a
full-time public prosecutor because the offense was actually committed against
society, and the office of the prosecuting attorney was established.
In most states the prosecuting attorney is an elected official of the county. In
large urban areas it is a sought-after position, as it holds prestige
35
‫‪٣‬ظوخ‪ٍ ٠ٟ‬حطزخ" ؿ‪٤‬يح ‪ُٝ‬ي‪ ٟ‬حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ػيى ٖٓ حُ٘‪ٞ‬حد ُِٔٔخػيس‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حألٓخًٖ هي ال ‪٘ٛ ٌٕٞ٣‬خى‬
‫ٓ‪ٞ‬ظل‪ٝ ، ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص هِ‪ِ٤‬ش حالٓظوَحٍ ‪ ،‬هي ‪ ٌٕٞ٣‬حُٔ٘‪ٜ‬ذ ٓـَى ‪ٝ‬ظ‪٤‬لش ري‪ٝ‬حّ ؿِث‪ .٢‬ػ٘يٓخ ال ‪ٌٕٞ٣‬‬
‫ٓ٘وَ‪١‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُظؼخَٓ ٓغ حُ‪ٞ‬حؿزخص حَُٓٔ‪٤‬ش ‪ ،‬هي ‪ُٔ ٌٕٞ٣‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء ك‪ ٌٙٛ ٢‬حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص ٓٔخٍٓش هخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش‬
‫هخ‪ٛ‬ش‪ٔٓ .‬لض ر‪٠‬غ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص ُِؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص رظٌ٘‪ٓ" َ٤‬وخ‪١‬ؼش ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش" ‪ٝ‬ط‪ٞ‬ظ‪٤‬ق ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حىػخء‬
‫‪ٝ‬حكي ُِظؼخَٓ ٓغ حُٔ‪ٜ‬خّ‪.‬‬

‫‪٣‬ظٔظغ ٓلخٓ‪ ٞ‬حالىػخء رويٍ ًز‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُِٔطش ‪ ،‬رـ‪ ٞ‬حُ٘ظَ ػٖ حُويٍحص حُ٘و‪٤ٜ‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬حهظ‪ٜ‬خ‪ ٙ‬حُويٓش‪.‬‬
‫اٗ‪ٓ ْٜ‬ظ‪ ٕٜٞٔ‬رٔٔئ‪٤ُٝ‬خص هط‪َ٤‬س طـخ‪ ٙ‬حُـٔ‪ٓ ، ٍٜٞ‬طخُز‪ ٖ٤‬رخُِ٘ح‪ٛ‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُلٔخّ ‪ٝ‬حُؼَٔ ‪ٝ‬كن ٓخ ‪٣‬وظ‪ٚ٤٠‬‬
‫حُ‪ َ٤ٔ٠‬ك‪ ٢‬اهخٓش حُؼيٍ‪ًٔ .‬خ ًًَص حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ك‪ ٢‬هَحٍ ؿيػ‪( ٕٞ‬ؿيػ‪ ٞٛ ٕٞ‬أكي ُػٔخء‬
‫حُؼزَحٗ‪ ٖ٤٤‬حُٔؼَ‪ٝ‬ك‪ ٖ٤‬د "ه‪٠‬خس آَحث‪ ، )"َ٤‬كبٕ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء " ‪٣‬ؼظزَ‪ ٕٝ‬ك‪ٌٓ ًَ ٢‬خٕ ‪ٖ٤٣ٍَٟٝ‬‬
‫ُلٔخ‪٣‬ش حُٔ‪ِٜ‬لش حُؼخٓش ك‪ٓ ٢‬ـظٔغ ٓ٘ظْ‪٣".‬و‪ ّٞ‬حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ربؿَحءحص أٓخّ حُو‪٠‬خس إلُوخء حُوز‪ ٞ‬ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫حألٗوخ‪ ٙ‬حُٔظ‪ ٖ٤ٜٔ‬رخٍطٌخد ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ػخٓش أ‪ ٝ‬حُٔ٘ظز‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬حٍطٌخر‪ُٜ ْٜ‬خ رٌَ٘ ٓؼو‪ .ٍٞ‬رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ ٠‬حُؼَٔ‬
‫ًٔيػ‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ ،‬كبٗ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُلخالص ‪ٔ٣‬ؼَ حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُٔٔخثَ حُٔيٗ‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫‪٣‬يهَ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء حُ‪ٍٜٞ‬س حإلؿَحث‪٤‬ش ُِؼيحُش ك‪ٝ ٢‬هض ٓزٌَ ٖٓ ػِٔ‪٤‬ش حالىػخء‪٣ .‬ظْ اؿَحء ػيى ًز‪ٖٓ َ٤‬‬
‫حالػظوخالص ٖٓ هزَ ‪ٟ‬زخ‪ ١‬اٗلخً حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ر٘خء ػِ‪ ٠‬هَحٍ‪ ْٛ‬رؤٕ ‪٘ٛ‬خى ٓززخ ٓؼو‪ٞ‬ال‪.‬‬

‫‪36‬‬
and pays well, and the prosecuting attorney has a number of deputies for
assistance. In many places there may be no staff, and in sparsely settled
counties, the position may be only a part-time job. When not engaged in
handling offi-cial duties, the prosecuting attorney in such counties may have a
private law practice. A few states have permitted several counties to form a
―judicial dis-trict‖ and employ a single prosecuting attorney to handle the
duties.

Prosecuting attorneys have a great deal of power, irrespective of personal

capabilities or jurisdiction of service. They are charged with grave respon-
sibilities to the public, demanding integrity, zeal, and conscientious effort in
the administration of justice. As stated by the U.S. Supreme Court in the
Gideon decision, prosecuting attorneys ―are everywhere deemed essential to
protect the public’s interest in an orderly society.‖ The public prosecutor insti-
tutes proceedings before magistrates for the arrest of persons charged with or
reasonably suspected of committing a public offense. In addition to acting as
prosecutor, in most instances he represents the county on all civil matters.

The prosecuting attorney enters the justice procedural picture early in the
prosecutive process. A great number of arrests are made by law enforce-ment
officers on their own determination that there is reasonable cause to

36
‫ُالػظوخى رؤٕ ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ٓخ هي حٍطٌزض‪ٓ .‬خ ُْ ‪٣‬ظْ حإلكَحؽ ػٖ حُـخٗ‪ ٢‬حُِٔػ‪ ٖٓ ّٞ‬هزَ ‪ًٝ‬خُش حالػظوخٍ ى‪ ٕٝ‬حطوخً‬
‫ِٓ‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حإلؿَحءحص‪٣ ,‬ـذ حٓظ٘خٍس ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء ُظلي‪٣‬ي ٓخ اًح ًخٕ ٓ‪٤‬ظْ حطوخً اؿَحءحص ٓوخ‪ٟ‬خس ‪ٟ‬ي‬
‫حُ٘و‪ ٚ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ه‪ٞ‬ف‪٣ .‬و‪ٓ ّٞ‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء رظو‪ ُٕٝ ْ٤٤‬حألىُش ‪ٟ‬ي حُٔظ‪١ٝ ْٜ‬ز‪٤‬ؼش حُظ‪ٜٔ‬ش ك‪ ٢‬طلي‪٣‬ي هَحٍ‬
‫حُٔوخ‪ٟ‬خس‪ .‬اًح هٍَ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ػيّ حُٔوخ‪ٟ‬خس ‪ ،‬كٔ‪٤‬ظْ ا‪١‬الم َٓحف حُٔظ‪ .ْٜ‬اًح طوٍَ أٗ‪٣ ٚ‬ـذ حطوخً اؿَحء‬
‫ط٘ل‪ ، ١ٌ٤‬كٔ‪٤‬ظْ اػيحى ٌٗ‪ ٖٓ ٟٞ‬هزَ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء ‪ٝ‬طوي‪ٜٔ٣‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬حُٔلٌٔش حُٔوظ‪ٜ‬ش‪ .‬ػْ ‪٣‬ظْ طوي‪ ْ٣‬حُٔظ‪ْٜ‬‬
‫أٓخّ هخ‪ِٓ ٝ‬ظِّ ُِٔؼ‪ ٍٞ‬حأل‪ ,٢ُٝ‬أ‪ ٝ‬ط‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ ٚ٤‬حالط‪ٜ‬خّ‪ًٔ ,‬خ ‪٘ٓ ٞٛ‬خٍ اُ‪ ٚ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش‪ .‬ك‪ً ٢‬ؼ‪َ٤‬‬
‫ٖٓ حألك‪٤‬خٕ طـَ‪ًٝ ١‬خالص اٗلخً حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬طلو‪٤‬وخ ك‪ ٢‬حالٗظ‪ٜ‬خًخص حُِٔػ‪ٓٞ‬ش هزَ حطوخً حالػظوخٍ‪ٝ .‬ك‪ٌٙٛ ٢‬‬
‫حُلخالص ‪ٔ٣ ،‬ظ٘خٍ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء ػخىس ُظلي‪٣‬ي ٓخ اًح ًخٗض ‪٘ٛ‬خى أىُش ًخك‪٤‬ش ‪ٟ‬ي حُٔظ‪ُ ْٜ‬ظزَ‪ َ٣‬اؿَحءحص‬
‫حُٔوخ‪ٟ‬خس ‪ٓٝ ،‬خ اًح ًخٕ ‪٘٣‬زـ‪ ٢‬طوي‪ٝ ، ٌٟٞٗ ْ٣‬حُل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أَٓ رخُوز‪ .ٞ‬هي ‪٣‬ل‪ٓ َ٠‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء طوي‪ْ٣‬‬
‫حُظ‪ٜٔ‬ش اُ‪٤ٛ ٠‬جش حُٔلِل‪ ٖ٤‬حٌُزَ‪ُ ٟ‬ظلي‪٣‬ي ٓخ اًح ًخٕ ‪٘٣‬زـ‪ ٢‬حطوخً اؿَحء ٓوخ‪ٟ‬خس ‪ ،‬أ‪ٓ ٝ‬خ اًح ًخٕ ‪٘٣‬زـ‪ِ١ ٢‬ذ‬
‫الثلش حط‪ٜ‬خّ َٓ‪٣‬ش‪٣ٝ .‬ظزغ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حإلؿَحء ك‪ ٢‬ط‪ ْٜ‬ؿ٘خ‪٣‬ش ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُي‪ .ٍٝ‬اًح ًخٗض حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬طْ حالػظوخٍ‬
‫رٔزز‪ٜ‬خ ؿ٘لش أهَ هط‪ٍٞ‬س ‪ ،‬كوي ‪٣‬ظَى هَحٍ حُٔوخ‪ٟ‬خس ُظوي‪ًٝ َ٣‬خُش اٗلخً حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔؼ٘‪٤‬ش‪ .‬كظ‪ ٠‬اػيحى حٌُ٘‪ٟٞ‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُٔالكوش حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش هي ‪٣‬ظْ حُظؼخَٓ ٓؼ‪ٜ‬خ ٖٓ هزَ حُ‪٠‬خر‪ٝ ، ٢‬هي ال ‪٣‬ظ‪ َٜ‬حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ كظ‪٠‬‬
‫ك‪ٌٓ ٢‬خٕ حُلخىع ٓخ ُْ ط٘٘ؤ ٌِٓ٘ش هخ‪ٛ‬ش‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُـ٘ق حألًؼَ هط‪ٍٞ‬س ‪ٝ‬رظ‪ ْٜ‬ؿ٘خث‪٤‬ش‪٘٤ٓ ,‬خٍى ٓلخٓ‪٢‬‬
‫حالىػخء ٖٓ ‪ٝ‬هض حالػظوخٍ كظ‪ ٠‬حالٓظج٘خف‪.‬‬
‫اًح ًخٗض حُظ‪ٜٔ‬ش هط‪َ٤‬س ‪ٝ‬هٍَ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء حُٔلخًٔش ‪ ،‬ك‪ٜ٘‬خى حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُوَحٍحص ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬حؿزخص حُظ‪٢‬‬
‫‪٣‬ـذ حُو‪٤‬خّ ر‪ٜ‬خ‪ .‬حُوَحٍ حأل‪ ٞٛ ٍٝ‬طلي‪٣‬ي حُظ‪ٜٔ‬ش‪ ,‬أ‪ ٝ‬حُظ‪ ,ْٜ‬حُظ‪ٓ ٢‬ظيػٔ‪ٜ‬خ حألىُش رل‪٤‬غ ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬طوي‪ ْ٣‬حَُٔحكؼش‬
‫حالط‪ٜ‬خٓ‪٤‬ش حُٔ٘خٓزش‪٣ .‬ـذ ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء إٔ ‪٣‬وٍَ ٓخ اًح ًخٗض حُظ‪ ,ْٜ‬ػ٘يٓخ أًؼَ ٖٓ ‪ٝ‬حكي‪٤ٓ ,‬ظْ‬
‫ك‪ِٜٜ‬خ اُ‪ٓ ٠‬لخًٔخص ٓوظِلش أ‪ ٝ‬ىٓـ‪ٜ‬خ ك‪ٓ ٢‬لخًٔش ‪ٝ‬حكيس‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪ ،‬اًح ًخٗض‬
‫حُظ‪ٜٔ‬ش ؿ٘خ‪٣‬ش ‪ ،‬ك‪٤‬ـذ طلي‪٣‬ي ٓخ اًح ًخٕ ٓ‪٤‬ظْ طوي‪ ْ٣‬حُلوخثن ك‪ ٢‬ؿِٔش حٓظٔخع أ‪٤ُٝ‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬اُ‪٤ٛ ٠‬جش ٓلِل‪ٖ٤‬‬
‫ًزَ‪٣ .ٟ‬ـذ اػيحى حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص أ‪ ٝ‬الثلش حالط‪ٜ‬خّ حػظٔخىح ػِ‪ٞٗ ٠‬ع ؿِٔش حالٓظٔخع حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ظْ اؿَحإ‪ٛ‬خ‪ .‬ػ٘ي‬
‫حالهظ‪٠‬خء ‪٣ ،‬ـذ هز‪ ٍٞ‬حالُظٔخٓخص حُظ‪٣ ٢‬طِز‪ٜ‬خ حُيكخع ٓلَ ِٗحع‪ .‬ك‪ٝ ٢‬هض حُٔلخًٔش ‪٘ٛ ،‬خى ٓٔئ‪٤ُٝ‬ش‬
‫أهَ‪ ٟ‬طظٔؼَ ك‪ ٢‬طوي‪ ْ٣‬أىُش ًخك‪٤‬ش إلػزخص اىحٗش حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬رٔخ ال ‪٣‬يع ٓـخال ُِ٘ي‪٣ .‬ـذ ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لخٓ‪٢‬‬
‫حالىػخء أ‪٠٣‬خ حُٔٔخػيس ك‪ ٢‬حهظ‪٤‬خٍ ‪٤ٛ‬جش حُٔلِل‪ٝ ، ٖ٤‬طلي‪٣‬ي حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى حٌُ‪٣ ٖ٣‬ـذ حٓظيػخإ‪ٍٝ ، ْٛ‬ىع حألىُش‬
‫حُٔخى‪٣‬ش حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ـذ طوي‪ٜٔ٣‬خ‪ ٖٓ ْ٤ُ .‬حُ‪ ١ٍَٝ٠‬حٓظيػخء ًَ ٗو‪ُ ٚ‬ي‪ ٚ٣‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُٔؼَكش رخُ‪ٞ‬هخثغ ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُو‪٤٠‬ش ‪ًٔ ،‬خ أٗ‪ ٖٓ ْ٤ُ ٚ‬حُ‪ ١ٍَٝ٠‬طوي‪ ْ٣‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حألىُش حُٔخى‪٣‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬ؿٔؼ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٟ‬زخ‪ ١‬اٗلخً حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬أػ٘خء‬
‫حُظلو‪٤‬ن أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش‪٣ .‬ـذ ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء طوي‪ٓ ْ٣‬خ ‪ٌ٣‬ل‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى ‪ٝ‬حألىُش حُٔخى‪٣‬ش ُ‪ٔ٠‬خٕ‬
‫ٓلخًٔش ػخىُش ُِٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ٚ٤‬‬

‫‪37‬‬
believe a crime has been committed. Unless the alleged offender is released by the
arresting agency without further action being taken, the prosecut-ing attorney must
be consulted to determine whether prosecutive action will be taken against the
arrested person. The prosecuting attorney evaluates the weight of evidence against
the accused and the nature of the charge in mak-ing the decision whether to
prosecute. If the prosecuting attorney decides against prosecution, the accused will
be released. If it is decided that pros-ecutive action should be taken, a complaint
will be prepared by the prosecut-ing attorney and filed with the appropriate court.
The accused is then taken before a committing magistrate for the initial appearance,
or arraignment, as it is referred to in some jurisdictions. Often law enforcement
agencies con-duct an investigation of alleged violations before making an arrest. In
these instances the prosecuting attorney is usually consulted to determine whether
there is sufficient evidence against the accused to justify prosecutive action, if a
complaint should be filed, and a warrant of arrest obtained. The prosecut-ing
attorney may prefer to present the charge to the grand jury to determine whether
prosecutive action should be taken, or whether a secret indictment should be sought.
This procedure is followed in felony charges in most states. If the crime for which
the arrest was made is a less serious misdemeanor, the prosecutive decision may be
left to the discretion of the law enforcement agency involved. Even the preparation
of the complaint and the prosecution during the trial may be handled by the officer,
and the prosecuting attorney may not even appear on the scene unless some special
problem arises. In the more serious misdemeanor cases and on felony charges, the
prosecuting attorney will be involved from the time of arrest through the appeal.
If the charge is a serious one and the prosecuting attorney decides to pros-ecute,
there are many decisions and duties to perform. The first decision is to determine
what charge, or charges, the evidence will support so that the appropriate
accusatory pleading may be filed. The prosecuting attorney must decide whether the
charges, when more than one, are to be separated into different trials or
consolidated into one. In some jurisdictions, if the charge is a felony, it must be
decided whether the facts are to be presented in a prelimi-nary hearing or to a grand
jury. The information or the indictment must be prepared depending on the type of
hearing conducted. Where appropriate, the granting of motions requested by the
defense must be disputed. At the time of the trial another responsibility is to present
enough evidence to prove the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. The
prosecuting attorney must also assist in the selection of the jury, decide what
witnesses to call, and deter-mine what physical evidence should be introduced. It is
not necessary that every person who has some knowledge of the facts in the case be
called, nor is it necessary that all physical evidence collected by the law
enforcement officers during an investigation be presented during a trial. The
prosecuting attorney must present enough witnesses and physical evidence to
ensure the defendant a fair trial

37
‫‪ٝ‬ال ‪٣‬ـ‪ ُٚ ُٞ‬كـذ أ‪ ١‬ىُ‪ٗ ٖ ٓ َ٤‬ؤٗ‪ ٚ‬إٔ ‪ٓ ٌٕٞ٣‬ل‪٤‬يح ُِٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ .ٚ٤‬اًح هيّ حُيكخع ٗ‪ٜٞ‬ىح ٗ‪٤‬خرش ػ٘‪٣ ,ٚ‬ـذ‬
‫ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء حٓظـ‪ٞ‬حر‪ٝ .ْٜ‬طوغ ٓٔئ‪٤ُٝ‬خص طوي‪ ْ٣‬ط‪٤ٛٞ‬خص اُ‪ ٠‬حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬ر٘ؤٕ ٗيس حُؼو‪ٞ‬رش ‪ٔٓٝ‬خػيس‬
‫حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ُِي‪ُٝ‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حالٓظج٘خف أ‪٠٣‬خ ػِ‪ ٠‬ػخطن حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ‪.‬‬

‫تفعٍو اىقبّىُ ‪ :‬قضٍخ وُ هى ىً(‪ ٞٛ‬ػخُْ طخ‪ٞ٣‬حٗ‪ ٢‬أَٓ‪ً ٢ٌ٣‬خٕ ‪٣‬ؼَٔ ك‪ ٢‬ؿخٓؼش ًخُ‪٤‬ل‪٤ٍٗٞ‬خ ك‪ٓ ٢‬وظزَ ُ‪ّٞ‬‬
‫أالٓ‪ ّٞ‬حُ‪ ٢٘١ٞ‬ك‪)ٌٞ٤ٌٔٓ ٞ٤ٗ ٢‬‬
‫طْ طوي‪ ْ٣‬اكخىس ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬حُظخُ‪٤‬ش ُيػْ ‪ِ١‬ذ ُِل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪ًٌَٓ ٠‬س طلظ‪ُ ٖ٤‬ظلظ‪ٞٛ ٕٝ ٍِ٘ٓ ٖ٤‬‬
‫ُ‪ .٢‬طْ طوي‪ ْ٣‬حُطِذ ك‪ 9 ٢‬أرَ‪ .1999 َ٣‬طْ ط‪٤ٜ٘‬ق حإلكخىس حُوط‪٤‬ش ػ٘ي طوي‪ٜٔ٣‬خ َٓح (ر‪٤‬خٗخص ٓو‪٤‬يس) ‪ٝ‬طْ ٍكغ‬
‫حَُٔ‪٣‬ش ػ٘‪ٜ‬خ رؼي ػخّ ٓغ كٌك‪ٜ‬خ ًٔخ ‪ٟٞٓ ٞٛ‬ق‪.‬‬
‫إفبدح خطٍخ‬
‫أٗخ ‪ٓ ،‬خ‪ ٌَ٣‬ىرِ‪ ، ١ُٞ ٞ٤‬أؿَ‪ ١‬حُ‪ ٖ٤ٔ٤‬حُيٓظ‪٣ٍٞ‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘ل‪ ٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬حؿذ ‪ ،‬أٗ‪ٜ‬ي ‪ٝ‬أه‪:ٍٞ‬‬
‫(‪ ) 1‬أٗخ ‪ٓ ،‬خ‪ َ٤ًٝ ، ١ُٞ.ٝ ٌَ٣‬هخ‪ٌُٔ ٙ‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ُٝ ، ٢‬حٍس حُؼيٍ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ‪ ،‬طْ طؼ‪ ٚ٘٤٤‬ك‪٢‬‬
‫هْٔ أُزخًًَ‪(٢‬أًزَ ٓيٕ ‪ٝ‬ال‪٣‬ش ٗ‪ ، )ٌٞ٤ٌٔٓٞ٤‬حُٔ٘ي‪ٝ‬د حُٔخٓ‪ًُٞ ٢‬خُش ٓخٗظخ ‪ًٝ ،‬خٕ ‪٤ًٝ‬ال هخ‪ٛ‬خ ُٔيس ‪12‬‬
‫ػخٓخ طوَ‪٣‬زخ‪ .‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حُ‪ٞ‬حٍىس ك‪ ٌٙٛ ٢‬حإلكخىس ‪ٗ ٢ٛ‬ظ‪٤‬ـش ُظلو‪٤‬و‪ ٢‬حُوخ‪ ٙ‬أ‪ ٝ‬طْ ارالؿ‪ ٢‬ر‪ٜ‬خ ٖٓ هزَ ح‪٥‬هَ‪ٖ٣‬‬
‫حُٔ٘خًٍ‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حُظلو‪٤‬ن‪ ٖٓ .‬ر‪ٛ ٖ٤‬ئالء حألكَحى ح‪٥‬هَ‪ َ٤ًٝ ٖ٣‬هخ‪ ٙ‬اَٗحك‪ٌُٔ ٢‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص‬
‫حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ٓ ٢‬ظو‪ ٜٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬طلو‪٤‬وخص ٌٓخكلش حُظـْٔ ك‪ٔ٤‬خ ‪٣‬ظؼِن رـٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش (ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ٖ٤ٜ‬‬
‫حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش)‪ً .‬خٕ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُٔلون ػٔ‪٤‬ال هخ‪ٛ‬خ ُٔيس ‪ 19‬ػخٓخ ؛ ُوي ػَٔ ك‪ ٢‬طلو‪٤‬وخص ٌٓخكلش حُظـْٔ ألًؼَ ٖٓ‬
‫ػَ٘ ٓ٘‪ٞ‬حص ٖٓ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔ٘‪ٞ‬حص ‪ٝ ،‬أَٗف ٖٓ طلو‪٤‬وخص ٌٓخكلش حُظـْٔ ك‪ٓ ٢‬وَ ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪٢‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ي‪ ٟ‬حُٔ٘‪ٞ‬حص حُؤْ حُٔخ‪٤ٟ‬ش‪.‬‬
‫(‪ ) 2‬أػظوي أٗ‪ٞ٣ ٚ‬ؿي ٓزذ ٓلظَٔ إل‪ٛ‬يحٍ أَٓ طلظ‪ُٔ ٖ٤‬وَ اهخٓش ُ‪( ٞٛ ٖ٣ٝ ٢‬حُٔؼَ‪ٝ‬ف ك‪ٔ٤‬خ رؼي رخْٓ ُ‪، )٢‬‬
‫‪ٗ80‬خٍع رَِٗ‪ٗٞ‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬ح‪٣‬ض ٍ‪ٝ‬ى ‪ُِ ، 87544 ، ٌٞ٤ٌٔٓ ٞ٤ٗ ،‬ل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أىُش ػِ‪ ٠‬حٗظ‪ٜ‬خًخص حُؼ٘‪ٞ‬حٕ‪، 18‬‬
‫هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ ،‬حُؤْ ‪( 1924‬اُحُش حُ‪ٞ‬ػخثن أ‪ ٝ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬حى حَُٔ‪٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬حالكظلخظ ر‪ٜ‬خ ى‪ ٕٝ‬إً) ‪ ،‬حُؼ٘‪ٞ‬حٕ‬
‫‪ 18‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ ،‬حُؤْ ‪( 793‬ؿٔغ أ‪ٗ ٝ‬وَ أ‪ ٝ‬كويحٕ ٓؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حُيكخع) ‪ٝ ،‬حُؼ٘‪ٞ‬حٕ ‪ 18‬هخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ ،‬حُؤْ ‪( 1001‬ر‪٤‬خٗخص ًخًرش)‪َ٣ٝ .‬ى أٓخّ حػظوخى‪ ١‬أىٗخ‪.ٙ‬‬

‫(‪ ، ٢ُ )3‬حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ؼ‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ٗ 80 ٢‬خٍع رَِٗ‪ٗٞ‬ش (حُٔ‪ٞٛٞ‬ف رخٌُخَٓ ك‪ ٢‬حُِٔلن أ) ‪ ٞٛ ،‬ػخُْ ى‪٘٣‬خٓ‪٤ٌ٤‬خص‬
‫ٓخث‪٤‬ش‪٣ٍ/‬خ‪٤ٟ‬خص طْ طؼ‪ٓ ٚ٘٤٤‬خروخ ك‪ ٢‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ ٖٓ ٓوظزَ ُ‪ ّٞ‬أالٓ‪ ّٞ‬حُ‪( ٢٘١ٞ‬الَٗ) ‪ ،‬حٌُ‪ ١‬طي‪َٙ٣‬‬
‫‪ُٝ‬حٍس حُطخهش (‪ُٝ‬حٍس حُطخهش)‪ٞٓ ٞٛ ٢ُ .‬ح‪ ٖ١‬أَٓ‪ٓ ٢ٌ٣‬ظـْ٘ ‪ُٝ‬ي ك‪ 21 ٢‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪ ، 1939‬ك‪ٗ ٢‬خٗظ‪، ٞ‬‬
‫طخ‪ٞ٣‬حٕ‪ِ٤ٓ .‬ل‪٤‬خ ُ‪ُٝ ، ٢‬ؿظ‪ ٢ٛ ، ٚ‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ٓ‪ٞ‬ح‪٘١‬ش أَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ٓظـ٘ٔش ‪ُٝ‬يص ك‪ 6 ٢‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪ ، 1943‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬وخ‪١‬ؼش‬
‫‪ٗٞٛ‬خٕ ‪ ،‬حُ‪ .ٖ٤ٜ‬ػِٔض ٓ‪ِ٤‬ل‪٤‬خ ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬وظزَ ُ‪ ّٞ‬أالٓ‪ ّٞ‬حُ‪ٞٗ ٖٓ ٢٘١ٞ‬كٔزَ ‪ 1980‬اُ‪، 1995 ٞ٤ٗٞ٣ ٠‬‬
‫ك‪٤‬غ ًخٕ آهَ ٓ٘‪ٜ‬ذ ٗـِ‪ " ٞٛ ٚ‬ك٘‪ًٔ ٢‬ز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ‪".‬ك‪ِٜ‬ض ػِ‪ ٠‬ط‪٣َٜ‬ق َٓ‪ُِ ١‬ـخ‪٣‬ش ٖٓ ‪ٓ 12‬خٍّ ‪1991‬‬
‫‪ ،‬كظ‪ٓ ٠‬ـخىٍط‪ٜ‬خ الَٗ ك‪.1995 ٞ٤ٗٞ٣ 9 ٢‬‬

‫‪38‬‬
and may not withhold any evidence that would be advantageous to the defendant. If
the defense presents witnesses in its behalf, the prosecut-ing attorney must cross-
examine them. The responsibilities of making recom-mendations to the judge on the
severity of the sentence and assisting the state attorney general with appeals also fall
to the prosecuting attorney.

Law in Action: The Case of Wen Ho Lee

The following FBI affidavit was filed in support of an application for a search warrant
to search the home of Wen Ho Lee. The application was filed on April 9, 1999. The
affidavit when filed was classified Secret (Restricted Data) and was declassified a year
later with deletions as indicated.
AFFIDAVIT
I, MICHAEL W. LOWE, being duly sworn, depose and say:
(1) I, MICHAEL W. LOWE, am a Special Agent of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI), United States Department of Justice, assigned to the Albuquerque
Division, Santa Fe Resident Agency, and have been a Special Agent for
approximately 12 years. The information set forth in this affida-vit is the result of my
own investigation or has been communicated to me by others involved in this
investigation. Among these other individuals is a Supervisory Special Agent of the
FBI who specializes in counterintelligence investigations regarding the People’s
Republic of China (PRC). This investi-gator has been a Special Agent for 19 years; he
has worked on counterintelli-gence investigations for over ten of these years, and has
supervised from FBI headquarters PRC counterintelligence investigations for the past
five years.
(2) I believe that probable cause exists to issue a search warrant for the
residence of LEE WEN HO (hereafter known as LEE), 80 Barcelona Ave-nue, White
Rock, New Mexico, 87544, for evidence of violations of Title 18, United States Code,
Section 1924 (Unauthorized Removal and Retention of Classified Documents or
Materials), Title 18 United States Code, Section 793 (Gathering, Transmitting or
Losing Defense Information), and Title 18 United States Code, Section 1001 (False
Statements). The basis for my belief is set forth below.
LEE, who lives at 80 Barcelona Avenue (described fully in Attachment A), is a hydro-
dynamicist/mathematician who was formerly assigned to the X-Division of Los
Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), which is managed by the Department of Energy
(DOE). LEE is a naturalized United States citi-zen born on December 21, 1939, in
Nantow, Taiwan. Sylvia Lee, his wife, is also a naturalized United States citizen born
December 6, 1943, in Hunan Province, China. Sylvia Lee worked at the Los Alamos
National Laboratory from November 1980 to June 1995, where the last position held
was ―Com-puter Technician.‖ She had a Top Secret clearance from March 12, 1991,
until her departure from LANL on June 9, 1995

38
‫(‪ )4‬أ‪ٟٝ‬ق هز‪ٌٓ َ٤‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬حُٔ‪ٞٛٞ‬ف ك‪ ٢‬حُلوَس (‪ )1‬إٔ ػِٔ‪٤‬خص حٓظوزخٍحص ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش‬
‫حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش طٔظ‪ٜ‬يف ىحثٔخ طوَ‪٣‬زخ حُ‪ ١ًٝ ٖ٤٤٘٤ٜ‬حأل‪ ٍٞٛ‬حُؼَه‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٍؽ ٓغ آٌخٗ‪٤‬ش حُ‪ٍٞٛٞ‬‬
‫اُ‪ ٠‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حالٓظوزخٍحط‪٤‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬طٔؼ‪ ٠‬اُ‪ٜ٤‬خ ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش‪ .‬حُٔلَ اُ‪ ٠‬حُ‪ ٞٛ ٖ٤ٜ‬ؿِء ال‬
‫‪٣‬ظـِأ ٖٓ ‪٘ٛ‬خػش ؿٔغ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حالٓظوزخٍحط‪٤‬ش حُ‪٤٘٤ٜ‬ش ‪ ،‬هخ‪ٛ‬ش‪-‬الٍُ‪ ٢‬ػ٘يٓخ ‪٣‬ظؼِن حألَٓ حُ‪٤٘٤ٜ‬ش‬
‫حُؼَه‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُوخٍؽ‪ َ٤٘٣ .‬طلِ‪ٌٓ َ٤‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ُِ ٢‬ظلو‪٤‬وخص حُ‪٤٘٤ٜ‬ش حُٔخروش ٌُٔخكلش حُظـْٔ‬
‫اُ‪ ٠‬إٔ ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش طٔظويّ حُٔلَ اُ‪ ٠‬حُ‪ِ٤ًٓٞ ٖ٤ٜ‬ش ُظو‪ٜٓ ْ٤٤‬خىٍ ‪ًٝٝ‬الء حُٔوخرَحص‬
‫حُٔلظِٔ‪ ٖ٤‬ػٖ ًؼذ ‪ٝ‬طو‪ِ٤ًٓٞ ، ْٜٔ٤٤‬ش إلهخٓش ‪ٝ‬طؼِ‪ ِ٣‬حَُ‪ٝ‬حر‪ ٢‬حُؼوخك‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُؼَه‪٤‬ش ٓغ حُ‪ًٔٝ ، ٖ٤ٜ‬الً آٖٓ‬
‫ُظـ٘‪٤‬ي ػٔالء حُٔوخرَحص حَُحٓو‪ٜٓٝ ٖ٤‬خٓ‪ٝ ْٜ‬حٓظوال‪.ْٜٛ‬‬

‫(‪ )5‬حٓظ٘خىح ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حُظ‪ ٢‬هيٓظ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ُٝ‬حٍس حُطخهش ‪ ،‬ريأ ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬طلو‪٤‬وخ ك‪٢ُ ٢‬‬
‫‪ِ٤ٓٝ‬ل‪٤‬خ ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ٓ 30 ٢‬خ‪ً٘ .1996 ٞ٣‬لض َٓحؿؼش ُٔـالص ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬إٔ ُ‪ً ٢‬خٕ ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُٔخرن ٓ‪ٟٞٞ‬ع طلو‪٤‬ن أؿَط‪ًٝ ٚ‬خُش حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬حألؿ٘ز‪٤‬ش ‪ٟ‬ي ٌٓخكلش حُظـْٔ هالٍ حُلظَس‬
‫‪ 1984-1982‬طوَ‪٣‬زخ ‪ ،‬ػ٘يٓخ ًخٕ ػِ‪ ٠‬حط‪ٜ‬خٍ رؼٔ‪ٓ َ٤‬وخرَحص ٓ٘ظز‪ ٚ‬ر‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫طْ ٓٔخع ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪َٓ ٢‬حهزش اٌُظَ‪٤ٗٝ‬ش ٓئُلش ٖٓ حُٔلٌٔش طظ‪ َٜ‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ظق ٓخرن ك‪ٓ ٢‬وظزَ ُ‪ٍٞ‬حْٗ ُ‪٤‬لَٓ‪ٍٞ‬‬
‫حُ‪ ٢٘١ٞ‬حٌُ‪ً ١‬خٕ ‪٘٣‬ظز‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤‬خٓ‪ ٚ‬رظَٔ‪ٓ َ٣‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حألِٓلش حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش اُ‪ ٠‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش‪ .‬ك‪٢‬‬
‫‪ 3‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪ ، 1982‬حػظَ‪ٟ‬ض حُٔلٌٔش حَُٔحهزش حُ‪ٜ‬خطل‪٤‬ش ُِٔ‪ٞ‬ظق ٌٓخُٔش ٖٓ ُ‪ .٢‬هيّ ُ‪ٗ ٢‬لٔ‪ٝ ,ٚ‬أ‪ٟٝ‬ق‬
‫أٗ‪ً ٚ‬خٕ ٓ‪ ْٜٔ‬أِٓلش ك‪ٓ ٢‬وظزَ ُ‪ ّٞ‬أالٓ‪ ّٞ‬حُ‪ٝ ,٢٘١ٞ‬ػِن رؤٗ‪ٔٓ ٚ‬غ ػٖ "ٓٔؤُش حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظق‪ .‬أٍحى ُ‪٢‬‬
‫ٓوخرِش حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظق ‪ ًًَٝ‬أٗ‪٣ ٚ‬ؼظوي أٗ‪ٓ ٌٚ٘ٔ٣ ٚ‬ؼَكش ٖٓ "‪َٛ‬م" ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظق‪.‬‬

‫(‪ )6‬ك‪ٞٗ 9 ٢‬كٔزَ ‪ ، 1983‬أؿَ‪ٌٓ ٟ‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ٓ ٢‬وخرِش ٓغ ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ُّٞ ٢‬أالٓ‪ٞ٤ٗ ، ّٞ‬‬
‫ٌٓٔ‪٣ ُْ .ٌٞ٤‬ظْ اهزخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬إٔ ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬هي حػظَ‪ ٝ‬ىػ‪ٞ‬ط‪ ٚ‬اُ‪ٞٓ ٠‬ظق ُ‪ْ٘٣ٍ ٞ‬‬
‫ُ‪٤‬لَٓ‪ ٍٞ‬ك‪ 3 ٢‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪ ٢ُ ًًَٝ .1982‬أٗ‪٣ ُْ ٚ‬لخ‪ ٍٝ‬أريح حالط‪ٜ‬خٍ رخُٔ‪ٞ‬ظق ‪٣ ٌٖ٣ ُْٝ ،‬ؼَف حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظق‬
‫‪٣ ُْٝ ،‬زيأ أ‪ٌٓ ١‬خُٔخص ‪ٛ‬خطل‪٤‬ش ٓؼ‪َٛ .ٚ‬ف ُ‪ ٢‬إٔ حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظق ُْ ‪٣‬ؼي ك‪ٓ ٢‬وظزَ ُ‪ٍٞ‬حْٗ ُ‪٤‬لَٓ‪ٝ ، ٍٞ‬أٗ‪ُْ ٚ‬‬
‫‪ُ ٌٖ٣‬ي‪٣َ١ ٚ٣‬وش ُِظ‪ٞ‬ح‪ٓ َٛ‬ؼ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ .ُِٚ٘ٓ ٢‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬وخرِش الكوش ٓغ ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ، ٢‬حػظَف ُ‪٢‬‬
‫رؤٗ‪ ٚ‬حط‪ َٜ‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ظق ُ‪ٍٞ‬حْٗ ُ‪٤‬لَٓ‪ًٝ ٍٞ‬خٕ هي ‪ٌٓ َِٟ‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔخرن ر٘ؤٕ‬
‫حالط‪ٜ‬خٍ‪.‬‬

‫(‪ )7‬ك‪٘٣ 24 ٢‬خ‪ ، 1984 َ٣‬حؿظخُ ُ‪ ٢‬كل‪ً٘ ٚ‬ق حٌٌُد حٌُ‪ ١‬ط‪ ٖٔ٠‬أٓجِش طظؼِن رٔخ اًح ًخٕ هي حؿظخُ‬
‫أ‪ٝ ١‬هض ٓ‪ٓ ٠٠‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص َٓ‪٣‬ش اُ‪ ٠‬أ‪ ١‬كٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش أؿ٘ز‪٤‬ش‪ .‬طْ اؿالم حُظلو‪٤‬ن حألؿ٘ز‪ٌُٔ ٢‬خكلش حُظـْٔ‬
‫حُظخرغ ٌُٔظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢ُ ٢‬ك‪ٓ 12 ٢‬خٍّ ‪.1984‬‬
‫(‪ٗ )8‬ؼزش حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ ٖٓ الَٗ ‪ ،‬ك‪٤‬غ ػِٔض ‪ ٖٓ ٢ُ،‬ػخّ ‪ 1982‬كظ‪ 23 ٠‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪ ، 1998‬رؤػِ‪٠‬‬
‫ٓٔظ‪ ٖٓ ٟٞ‬حألٖٓ ٖٓ أ‪ٗ ١‬ؼزش ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ‪ .‬إ هْٔ حُزلغ ‪ٝ‬حُظط‪ َ٣ٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ ٓٔئ‪ ٍٝ‬ػٖ ط‪ ْ٤ٜٔ‬حألِٓلش‬
‫حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش حُلَحٍ‪٣‬ش‪ً .‬خٕ ُ‪ ٢‬ؿِءح ٖٓ كَ‪٣‬ن ٓٔئ‪ ٍٝ‬ػٖ طط‪ َ٣ٞ‬أِٓلش ٗ‪٣ٝٞ‬ش كَحٍ‪٣‬ش ُِ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‪.‬‬
‫أ‪ٟٝ‬ق ُ‪( ٢‬هالٍ ٓوخرِش ك‪ 9 ٢‬كزَح‪ٓ 1999 َ٣‬غ ػٔالء هخ‪ٌُٔ ٖ٤ٛ‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ )٢‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬أػ٘خء‬
‫‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى‪ ٙ‬ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ ‪ ،‬ػَٔ ػِ‪ ٠‬هٔٔش ٍٓ‪٣ٍ ُٞ‬خ‪٤ٟ‬ش الؿَحٗؾ ‪ ،‬طؼَف أ‪٠٣‬خ رخْٓ‬

‫‪39‬‬
(4) The FBI expert described in paragraph (1) has explained that PRC
intelligence operations virtually always target overseas ethnic Chinese with access to
intelligence information sought by the PRC. Travel to China is an integral element of
the Chinese intelligence collection tradecraft, particu-larly when it involves overseas
ethnic Chinese. FBI analysis of previous Chi-nese counterintelligence investigations
indicates that the PRC uses travel to China as a means to assess closely and evaluate
potential intelligence sources and agents, as a way to establish and reinforce cultural
and ethnic bonds with China, and as a safehaven in which to recruit, task, and debrief
established intelligence agents.
(5) Based on information supplied by DOE, the FBI began an investiga-tion
of LEE and Sylvia Lee on May 30, 1996. A review of FBI records disclosed that LEE
had previously been the subject of an FBI foreign counterintelli-gence investigation
during approximately 1982–1984, when he was in contact with a suspected PRC
intelligence agent. LEE was overheard on court-autho-rized electronic surveillance
contacting a former employee of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory who
had been suspected of passing classi-fied weapons information to the PRC. On
December 3, 1982, court-autho-rized telephone surveillance of the employee
intercepted a call from LEE. LEE introduced himself, explained that he was a
weapons designer at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and commented that he had
heard about the employee’s ―matter.‖ LEE wanted to meet the employee and stated
that he thought he could find out who had ―squealed‖ on the employee.
(6) On November 9, 1983, the FBI interviewed LEE in Los Alamos, New
Mexico. LEE was not told that the FBI had intercepted his call to the Law-rence
Livermore employee on December 3, 1982. Lee stated that he had never attempted to
contact the employee, did not know the employee, and had not initiated any telephone
calls to him. LEE stated that the employee was no longer at the Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory, and that he had no way of con-tacting him at his home. In a subsequent
interview with the FBI, LEE admit-ted that he had called the Lawrence Livermore
employee and had previously misled the FBI about the contact.
(7) On January 24, 1984, LEE passed a polygraph examination which
included questions concerning whether he had ever passed classified infor-mation to
any foreign government. The FBI’s foreign counterintelligence investigation of LEE
was closed on March 12, 1984.
(8) The X-Division of LANL, where LEE worked from 1982 through
December 23, 1998, has the highest level of security of any division at LANL. It is
LANL’s research and development division responsible for the design of
thermonuclear weapons. LEE was part of a team responsible for developing
thermonuclear weapons for the United States. LEE has explained (during a February
9, 1999, interview with Special Agents of the FBI) that, while at LANL, he worked on
five Lagrangian mathematical codes, also known as

39
‫ٍٓ‪ ُٞ‬حُٔ‪ٜ‬يٍ"‪ٝ".‬أ‪ٟٝ‬ق ُ‪ ٢‬إٔ حػ٘‪ ٌٙٛ ٖٓ ٖ٤‬حَُٓ‪٣َٓ ُٞ‬ش ألٗ‪ٜ‬خ طٔظويّ ُظط‪ َ٣ٞ‬أِٓلش ٗ‪٣ٝٞ‬ش‪ٝ .‬هي أرِؾ‬
‫ط٘خٍُِ ٗ‪ٞٓ ٞٛٝ ، َ٤‬ظق ك٘‪ٝ ٢‬هخثي كَ‪٣‬ن ك‪ ٢‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ‪ٌٓ ،‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬إٔ حَُٓ‪ُٞ‬‬
‫حَُ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬ػَٔ ر‪ٜ‬خ ُ‪ ٢‬حٓظويٓض ُظط‪ َ٣ٞ‬أِٓلش ٗ‪٣ٝٞ‬ش ٓوظِلش ‪ ،‬رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي ٓالف ‪٣‬ؼَف رخْٓ ىرِ‪ٞ٤‬‬
‫‪.88‬‬
‫(‪ٝ )9‬كوخ ُ٘‪ ، َ٤‬كبٕ ًال ٖٓ ٍٓ‪ ُٞ‬حُٔ‪ٜ‬يٍ حَُٔ‪٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪َٛ٤‬خ ٖٓ حُٔ‪ٞ‬حى حُظ‪ ٢‬ػَٔ ٓؼ‪ٜ‬خ ُ‪ ٢‬طٔؼَ ػو‪ٞ‬ىح ٖٓ‬
‫طـخٍد حألِٓلش حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش ‪ٝ‬ط‪ٜٔ٤ٜٔ‬خ‪ .‬حُـ‪،َٛٞ‬طؼظزَ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص أًؼَ ه‪ٔ٤‬ش ُٔ‪ ْٜٔ‬حألِٓلش ٖٓ ٓوط‪ ٢‬حُو٘زِش‬
‫حُلؼِ‪ٓ .٢‬غ ٍٓ‪ ُٞ‬حُٔ‪ٜ‬يٍ ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪َٛ٤‬خ ٖٓ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حُظ‪ ٢‬طليى حُ‪٣ٜٞ‬ش ‪ ،‬ال ‪٣‬ظؼ‪ ٖ٤‬ػِ‪ ْٜٔٓ ٠‬حُو٘خرَ اؿَحء‬
‫أ‪ ١‬حهظزخٍ كؼِ‪ ٖٓ .٢‬هالٍ ط‪ َ٤ٛٞ‬حُٔظـ‪َ٤‬حص (ٓؼَ حُٔ‪ٞ‬حى حُٔوظِلش أ‪ ٝ‬حألرؼخى حُٔوظِلش) ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼخىالص‬
‫‪ٝ‬رَحٓؾ ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ٓوظِلش ‪ٝ‬ػَ‪ ٝ‬حُ٘ظخثؾ ‪ ُِْٜٔٔ ٌٖٔ٣ ،‬ر٘خء حألِٓلش حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش حألًؼَ طط‪ٍٞ‬ح‪.‬‬

‫[اىفقشح ٍحزوفخ]‬

‫‪ 1‬أ‪ٛ‬زق ‪ ٞٛ‬ؿ‪ ٖ٤‬طخ‪ٍ ٝ‬ث‪ ْ٤‬رَٗخٓؾ أِٓلش ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ك‪٘٣ ٢‬خ‪ ٖٓ َ٣‬ػخّ ‪.1994‬‬
‫(‪ )11‬هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬هالٍ ٓوخرِش ٓخ هزَ ً٘ق حٌٌُد ك‪ 23 ٢‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪ 1998‬اٗ‪ً ٚ‬خٕ ػِ‪ ٠‬حط‪ٜ‬خٍ حؿظٔخػ‪ ٢‬رِ‪ٝ‬حٍ‬
‫ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش اُ‪ ٠‬الَٗ ‪ ،‬رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي ُ‪٣‬خٍحص اُ‪ٓ ٠‬وَ اهخٓظ‪ .ٚ‬رؼي حُٔوخرِش ك‪ 23 ٢‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪1998‬‬
‫‪ ،‬أىحٍ ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ً٘ق حٌٌُد حُظخرغ ُ‪ُٞ‬حٍس حُطخهش كل‪ٜ‬خ ُـ‪ٜ‬خُ ً٘ق حٌٌُد ُ‪ً .٢‬خٕ ٍأ‪ ١‬حُلخك‪ ٚ‬حأل‪٢ُٝ‬‬
‫‪ ٞٛ‬إٔ ُ‪ ٌٖ٣ ُْ ٢‬هخىػخ‪ٓٝ .‬غ ًُي ‪ ،‬أىص َٓحؿؼخص َٓحهزش حُـ‪ٞ‬ىس حُالكوش ُِ٘ظخثؾ ‪ ٖٓ ،‬هزَ ًَ ٖٓ ‪ُٝ‬حٍس‬
‫حُطخهش ‪ٓٝ‬وَ ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪( ٢‬حُٔوَ حَُث‪ )٢ٔ٤‬اُ‪ٗ ٠‬ظ‪٤‬ـش ٓظلن ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ ٓلخى‪ٛ‬خ إٔ ُ‪ ٌٖ٣ ُْ ٢‬كخٓٔخ‬
‫‪ ،‬إ ُْ ‪ ٌٖ٣‬هخىػخ ‪ ،‬ػ٘يٓخ أٌَٗ أٗ‪ ٚ‬حٍطٌذ حُظـْٔ ‪ٟ‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‪.‬‬

‫(‪ )12‬رؼي ٍكِش ُ‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 1988‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُ‪ ، ٖ٤ٜ‬حٓظـ‪ٞ‬ر‪ٟ ٚ‬خر‪ ٢‬حألٖٓ حُيحهِ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ ٍ‪ٝ‬رَص كَ‪ٓٝ‬خٕ‪ٓ .‬ؤٍ‬
‫كَ‪ٓٝ‬خٕ ُ‪ ٢‬ػٔخ اًح ًخٕ هي ‪َُ١‬ف ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬أ‪ ١‬أٓجِش ؿ‪٘ٓ َ٤‬خٓزش هالٍ ٍكِظ‪ٍ .ٚ‬ى ُ‪ ٢‬رخُ٘ل‪ٝ .٢‬حكظلع كَ‪ٓٝ‬خٕ‬
‫رٔالكظخط‪ٌٛ ٖٓ ٚ‬ح حالٓظـ‪ٞ‬حد ‪ٝ ،‬ك‪ٗ ٢‬زخ‪ / ١‬كزَح‪ 1999 َ٣‬أػي طوَ‪َ٣‬ح ‪٣‬ظ‪٣ًًَ ٖٔ٠‬خط‪ ٚ‬حٓظ٘خىح اُ‪٠‬‬
‫ٓالكظخط‪ٝ .ٚ‬حؿ‪ٌٛ ٢ُ ٚ‬ح حُظوَ‪ َ٣‬هالٍ ٓوخرِظ‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬هزَ ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ٓ 5 ٢‬خٍّ ‪ُْ .1999‬‬
‫‪٣‬ويّ أ‪ ١‬طلٔ‪ُٔ َ٤‬زذ ػيّ طًٌَ‪ ٙ‬اهزخٍ كَ‪ٓٝ‬خٕ رخُلخىع ك‪ ٢‬ؿَكظ‪ ٚ‬رخُل٘يم‪ٝ .‬هخٍ إ حُٔزذ حُ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬ي ُظًٌَ‪ٙ‬‬
‫ُِلخىع هزَ ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ً٘ق حٌٌُد حُوخ‪ ٙ‬ر‪ ٞٛ ٚ‬أٗ‪ُٓ ٚ‬جَ ٓئحال ٓزخَٗح ر٘ؤٕ حُظـْٔ ‪ٝ‬حٌُ‪ ١‬ىكؼ‪ُ ٚ‬زؼ‪ ٞ‬حر٘‪ٚ‬‬
‫اُ‪ ٠‬طًٌَ حُٔئحٍ حٌُ‪َ١ ١‬ك‪ ٚ‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬ط٘٘ؾ‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )13‬ك‪٘٣ 17 ٢‬خ‪ ، 1999 َ٣‬أؿَ‪ ٟ‬ػٔالء هخ‪ٌُٔ ٕٞٛ‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ٓ ٢‬وخرِش ٓغ ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬وَ‬
‫اهخٓظ‪ .ٚ‬هالٍ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔوخرِش ‪ ٢ُ ًًَ ،‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 1984‬أ‪ً ، 1985 ٝ‬خٕ ك‪ٓ ٢‬ئطَٔ ك‪ِ٤ٛ ٢‬ظ‪٤ٛ ٕٞ‬ي ‪ٓ ،‬خ‪ٝ‬ع‬
‫ًخٍ‪٘٤ُٝ‬خ ‪ ،‬ك‪٤‬غ حُظو‪ ٢ُ ٠‬ى‪ٞ٣ ١‬حٕ ٖٓ ٓؼ‪ٜ‬ي حُل‪٣ِ٤‬خء حُظطز‪٤‬و‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حَُ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬خص حُلخٓ‪ٞ‬ر‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ٖ٤ٜ‬‬
‫حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش‪ٓ( .‬ؼ‪ٜ‬ي ط‪ ْ٤ٜٔ‬حألِٓلش حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ‪ ٞٛٝ ،‬ؿِء ٖٓ حألًخى‪٤ٔ٣‬ش حُ‪٤٘٤ٜ‬ش‬
‫ُِل‪٣ِ٤‬خء حُ‪ٜ٘‬يٓ‪٤‬ش (ًخ‪٣‬ذ) ‪ ٖ١ٞٓ ،‬رَٗخٓؾ حألِٓلش حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش حُ٘خَٓ ُـٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش)‪ .‬هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬إ‬
‫ُ‪ً ٢‬خٕ ٍ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬خ ػِ‪ ٠‬ىٍح‪٣‬ش د\ٍ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬خص الؿَحٗؾ ‪ٝ ،‬حُظ‪ ٢‬هخٍ ُ‪٢‬‬

‫‪40‬‬
―source codes.‖ LEE explained that two of these codes are classified because they are
used to develop nuclear weapons. Charles Neil, Technical Staff member and Team
Leader in the X-Division has informed the FBI that the mathematical codes with which
LEE worked were used to develop various nuclear weapons, including a weapon
known as the W-88.

(9) According to Neil, both of the classified source codes and other mate-rials
with which LEE worked represent decades of nuclear weapons test-ing and design. In
essence, the information is more valuable to a weapons designer than an actual bomb
blueprint. With source codes and other identi-fying information a bomb designer does
not have to do any actual testing. By plugging variables (such as different materials or
different dimensions) into various equations and computer programs and viewing the
results a designer could build the most sophisticated nuclear weapons.
[Paragraph deleted]

1 Hu Side became the head of the PRC weapons program in January of 1994.

(11) LEE said during his December 23, 1998 pre-polygraph interview that he
had social contact with PRC visitors to LANL, including visits to his residence.
Following the interview on December 23, 1998, DOE polygraphers administered a
polygraph examination of LEE. The examiner’s initial opin-ion was that LEE was not
deceptive. However, subsequent quality control reviews of the results, by both DOE
and by FBI Headquarters (HQ) resulted in an agreed finding that LEE was
inconclusive, if not deceptive, when deny-ing he ever committed espionage against the
United States.
(12) Following LEE’s 1988 trip to China he was debriefed by LANL Inter-nal
Security officer ROBERT VROOMAN. VROOMAN asked LEE if he had been asked
any inappropriate questions during his trip. LEE responded in the negative.
VROOMAN retained his notes from that debriefing and in February 1999 prepared a
report containing his recollections based an his notes. LEE was confronted with that
report during his interview by the FBI on March 5, 1999. He offered no explanation for
why he did not remember to tell VROOMAN about the incident in his hotel room. He
said that the only reason he remembered the incident prior to his DOE polygraph was
because he had been asked a direct question regarding espionage which for some rea-
son prompted him to remember the question posed to him by ZHENG.
On January 17, 1999, LEE was interviewed at his residence by FBI Special Agents.
During this interview, LEE stated that in 1984 or 1985, he was at a conference in
Hilton Head, South Carolina, where he met LI DE YUAN from the PRC’s Institute of
Applied Physics and Computational Math (IAPCM). (IAPCM is the PRC’s Nuclear
Weapons Design Institute, and is part of the Chinese Academv of Engineering Physics
(CAEP), the home of the PRC’s overall Nuclear Weapons Program). LEE said LI was
a mathemati-cian familiar with Lagrangian mathematics, which LEE said
40
‫اٗ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٝ‬حكيس ٖٓ ٓـخالص هزَس ُ‪ٝ .٢‬هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬أ‪٠٣‬خ اٗ‪ٗ ٚ‬ظ‪٤‬ـش الؿظٔخػ‪" ٝ ، ٚ‬طط‪ َ٣ٞ‬ػالهش ٓغ ُ‪ ، ٢‬طٔض‬
‫ىػ‪ٞ‬ط‪ ٚ‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُِـ٘ش حُٔ٘ظًَش ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُ‪ًٞ‬خالص ك‪ ٢‬ػخٓ‪.1988 ٝ 1986 ٢‬‬
‫(‪ًٌُ ٢ُ ًًَٝ )14‬ي أٗ‪ ٚ‬ػ٘يٓخ ً‪ٛ‬ذ اُ‪ ٠‬حُٔؼ‪ٜ‬ي ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ُ ، 1986‬ىػ‪ ٢‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُظليع ػٖ حَُ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬خص‬
‫حُلخٓ‪ٞ‬ر‪٤‬ش‪ٝ .‬هخٍ اٗ‪ٓ ٚ‬ظلْٔ ‪ٝ‬طٔض ٓؼخِٓظ‪ ٚ‬رٌَ٘ ؿ‪٤‬ي ُِـخ‪٣‬ش ٖٓ هزَ ٗظَحث‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬اٗ‪ ٚ‬حُظو‪ ٠‬رؤٗوخ‪ٓ ٙ‬وظِل‪ ٖ٤‬هالٍ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حَُكِش ‪ ،‬حػ٘خٕ ٓ٘‪ٝٝ ٕٞٗ ١ٝ ٢ُ ْٜ‬حٗؾ ط٘‪ .ٞ٤ٗ ٠‬هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬إ‬
‫‪ٝ‬حٗؾ ػَٔ ك‪ٗ "٢‬لْ ٓ٘خ‪١‬ن حَُٔ٘‪ٝ‬ع " ًٔخ كؼَ‪ٝ ,‬ه‪ٞ٠‬ح حٌُؼ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُ‪ٞ‬هض ٓؼخ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔئطَٔ‪ ٢ُ ًًَٝ .‬أٗ‪ٚ‬‬
‫رؼي ٍكِش ػخّ ‪ 1986‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُٔؼ‪ٜ‬ي ‪ ،‬ريأ ك‪ ٢‬طِو‪ ٢‬رطخهخص ‪ٍٓٝ‬خثَ ٖٓ ‪ٛ‬ئالء حُؼِٔخء‪.‬‬
‫ػخٕ ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪1988‬‬ ‫(‪َٛ )15‬ف ُ‪ ٢‬ػال‪ٝ‬س ػِ‪ًُ ٠‬ي أٗ‪ُ ٚ‬ىػ‪ُ ٢‬ل‪ٓ ٍٞ٠‬ئطَٔ ِ‬
‫‪ ،‬ك‪٤‬غ حُظو‪َٓ ٠‬س أهَ‪ ٟ‬رؼِٔخء ٖٓ ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ‪ ،‬رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي ‪ٝ‬حكي ‪٣‬يػ‪ ٠‬ط٘٘ؾ ٗخ‪ ٝ‬ط‪ٗٞ‬ؾ‪.‬‬
‫‪َٛ‬ف ُ‪ ٢‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬اكي‪ ٟ‬حألٓٔ‪٤‬خص رؼي حُؼ٘خء طِو‪ٌٓ ٠‬خُٔش ‪ٛ‬خطل‪٤‬ش ٖٓ ط٘٘ؾ ‪ٔ٣‬ؤُ‪ ْٜ‬ػٔخ اًح ًخٕ ربٌٓخٗ‪ْٜ‬‬
‫حالؿظٔخع‪ٝ .‬حكن ُ‪ٝ ، ٢‬رؼي ًُي ر‪ٞ‬هض ه‪ َٛٝ ، َ٤ٜ‬ط٘٘ؾ اُ‪ ٠‬ؿَكظ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُل٘يم ٓغ ‪ ٞٛ‬ؿ‪ ٖ٤‬طخ‪ٝ .ٝ‬حػظَف‬
‫ُ‪ ٢‬رؤٗ‪ً ٚ‬خٕ ‪٣‬ؼِْ إٔ ط٘٘ؾ ًخٕ ٓي‪َ٣‬ح ُي‪ ٟ‬ح‪٤ُ٥‬ش حُٔ٘ظًَش ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُ‪ًٞ‬خالص‪َٛ .‬ف ُ‪ ٢‬أٗ‪٣ ٚ‬ؼظوي إٔ ‪ ٞٛ‬ؿ‪ ٖ٤‬طخ‪ٝ‬‬
‫ًخٕ هز‪َ٤‬ح ك‪ ٢‬حُٔظلـَحص‪ .‬أػخى ُ‪ ٢‬حُظؤً‪٤‬ي ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬خ هخُ‪ ٚ‬هالٍ ‪ 23‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪ 1998‬هزَ كل‪ ٚ‬ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ً٘ق‬
‫حٌٌُد أٗ‪ ٚ‬ػ٘يٓخ ٓجَ ٓئحال ‪٣‬ظ‪ٍ ٖٔ٠‬ىح َٓ‪٣‬خ أهزَ‪ ْٛ‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬ال ‪٣‬ؼَف حإلؿخرش ‪ٝ‬ال ‪َ٣‬ؿذ ك‪٘ٓ ٢‬خه٘ش ‪ٌٙٛ‬‬
‫حُٔٔؤُش‪.‬‬
‫ًخٕ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُٔئطَٔ ٓ‪ٟٞٞ‬ع ٓوخرِش ٓخ هزَ ً٘ق حٌٌُد حُٔ٘خٍ اُ‪ٜ٤‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُلوَس ‪ ٌٙٛ ٖٓ 11‬حإلكخىس حُوط‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬

‫(‪ )16‬حط‪ٜ‬خٍ ُ‪ٓ ٢‬غ ط٘٘ؾ ‪ٓ ٞٛ ٝ‬خ‪٣‬ي ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ً 1988‬خٕ ‪٘٣‬زـ‪ ٢‬ارالؽ ٓٔئ‪ ٢ُٝ‬حألٖٓ الَٗ ‪ٝ‬كوخ ُِ‪ٞ‬حثق‬
‫‪ُٝ‬حٍس حُطخهش‪ .‬حٓظؼَح‪ ٝ‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُ‪ٞ‬ػخثن حُظ‪ ٢‬هيٓض ُ‪ ٢‬حألٖٓ ‪ُٝ‬حٍس حُطخهش ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ٌ٘٣ 1988‬ق أ‪ ١‬طوَ‪َ٣‬‬
‫ٖٓ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُ٘‪ٜ‬ؾ ُ‪ ٖٓ ٢‬ؿخٗذ ط٘٘ؾ ‪ ٞٛٝ‬ؿ‪ ٖ٤‬طخ‪ .ٝ‬ك‪ ، 1988 ٞ٤ُٞ٣ 12 ٢‬هيّ ُ‪ ٢‬طوَ‪ٍ َ٣‬كِش هخٍؿ‪٤‬ش ‪ًٔ ،‬خ‬
‫‪ٓ ٞٛ‬طِ‪ٞ‬د ٖٓ هزَ الَٗ‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬طوَ‪ٛٝ ، َٙ٣‬ق ُ‪ٍ ٢‬كِش حُؼَٔ حُظ‪ ٢‬هخّ ر‪ٜ‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬رٌ‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ .1988 ٞ٤ٗٞ٣ ٢‬ر‪ٔ٘٤‬خ‬
‫كيى ُ‪ ٢‬ػَ٘س أٗوخ‪ٓ ٙ‬وظِل‪ ٖ٤‬حُظو‪ ٠‬ر‪ ْٜ‬هالٍ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حَُكِش ‪ ،‬كَ٘ ك‪ ٢‬ط‪ ٖ٤ٔ٠‬ؿخٗذ ‪ ٞٛ‬ؿ‪ ٖ٤‬طخ‪ًٔ .ٝ‬خ ُْ‬
‫‪ٌ٘٣‬ق ُ‪ ٢‬ػٖ إٔ أ‪ٗ ١‬و‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ٓؤُ‪ ٚ‬ػٖ أ‪ٔٓ ١‬خثَ َٓ‪٣‬ش‪.‬‬

‫(‪ )17‬ك‪ 10 ٢‬كزَح‪ ، 1999 َ٣‬أؿَ‪ٌٓ ٟ‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬كل‪ٜ‬خ ُـ‪ٜ‬خُ ً٘ق حٌٌُد ُ‪ .٢‬هالٍ ‪ٌٛ‬ح‬
‫حُلل‪ٓ ، ٚ‬ؤٍ ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢ُ ٢‬ػٔخ اًح ًخٕ هي هيّ ٍِٓ‪( ٖ٤٣َٓ ٖ٤٣‬طٔض ٓ٘خه٘ظ‪ٜٔ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُلوَس‬
‫‪ ) 8‬أل‪ٗ ١‬و‪ ٚ‬ؿ‪َٜٓ َ٤‬ف ُ‪ٓٝ ٚ‬خ اًح ًخٕ هي ك‪ َٜ‬ػٔيح ػِ‪ ٠‬أ‪ٝ ١‬ػخثن ٖٓ ‪َ١‬حُ ىرِ‪ً .88-ٞ٤‬خٕ ٍأ‪١‬‬
‫حُلخك‪ ٚ‬إٔ ٗظخثؾ ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ً٘ق حٌٌُد ُْ طٌٖ كخٓٔش ك‪ٔ٤‬خ ‪٣‬ظؼِن ر‪ ٌٜٙ‬حألٓجِش‪ٝ .‬أػ‪٤‬ي ‪٤ٛ‬خؿش حُٔئحٍ حُؼخٗ‪٢‬‬
‫ُ‪ٗ َٔ٘٤‬طخهخ أ‪ٓٝ‬غ ٖٓ حألٗ٘طش‪ .‬ػْ ‪ِ١‬ذ ُ‪ٓ ٢‬ظخرؼش ٓئحُ‪:ٖ٤‬‬
‫ّ‪ٓ َٛ :‬زن ُي إٔ أػط‪٤‬ض أ‪٣‬خ ٖٓ ‪ ٖ٣ٌٛ‬حَُِٓ‪ُ٘ ٖ٣‬و‪ ٚ‬ؿ‪َٜٓ َ٤‬ف ُ‪ٚ‬؟‬
‫ؽ‪ :‬ال‪.‬‬
‫ّ‪ٓ َٛ :‬زن ُي إٔ هيٓض ٓؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص ىرِ‪88ٞ٤‬أل‪ٗ ١‬و‪ ٚ‬ؿ‪َٜٓ َ٤‬ف ُ‪ٚ‬؟‬
‫ؽ‪ :‬ال‪.‬‬

‫‪41‬‬
Is the one Of LEE’s areas of expertise. LEE also said that it was as a result of his
meeting, and ―developing a relationship with LI, that he was invited to the IAPCM in
both 1986 and 1988.
(14) LEE further stated that when he went to the IAPCM in 1986, he was
invited to speak on computational mathematics. He said he was excited and was
treated very well by his PRC counterparts. LEE said he met various people during
this trip, two of whom were LI WEI SHUN and WANG ZHI SHEU. LEE said
WANG worked in ―the same project areas‖ as he did, and they spent a lot of time
together at the conference. LEE stated that following the 1986 trip to the IAPCM, he
began to receive cards and letters from these scientists.
(15) LEE furthermore stated that he was invited to attend a second con-
ference in the PRC in 1988, where he again met PRC scientists, including one named
ZHENG SHAO TONG. LEE stated that one evening after dinner he received a phone
call from ZHENG asking if they could meet. LEE agreed, and shortly thereafter,
ZHENG arrived at his hotel room with HU SIDE. LEE acknowledged that he knew
that ZHENG was an administrator with the IAPCM. LEE stated that he thought HU
SIDE was an explosives expert. LEE reaffirmed what he had said during the
December 23, 1998 pre-polygraph examination that when asked a question which
involved a classified response he told them he did not know the answer and did not
wish to discuss this matter.
This conference was the subject matter of the pre-polygraph interview referred to in
Paragraph 11 of this Affidavit.
(16) LEE’s contact with ZHENG and HU SIDE in 1988 should have been
reported to LANL security officials pursuant to DOE regulations. A review of all the
documentation that LEE provided DOE security in 1988 reveals no report of this
approach to LEE by ZHENG and HU SIDE. On July 12, 1988, LEE did submit a
Foreign Trip Report, as was required by LANL. In his report, LEE described the
business trip that he made to Beijing in June 1988. While LEE specified ten different
people with whom he met during this trip, he failed to include HU SIDE. LEE also
did not disclose that anyone from the PRC had asked him about any classified
matters.
(17) On February 10, 1999, the FBI conducted a polygraph examination of
LEE. During this examination, the FBI asked LEE whether he had pro-vided two
classified codes (discussed in paragraph 8) to any unauthorized person and whether
he deliberately obtained any W-88 documents. It was the examiner’s opinion that the
polygraph results were inconclusive as to those questions. The second question was
rephrased to cover a broader range of activities. LEE was then asked the follow two
questions:
Q: Have you ever given any of those two codes to an unauthorized person?
A: No.
Q: Have you ever provided W-88 information to any unauthorized person?
A: No.
41
 ‫حٓظ٘ظؾ كخك‪ً٘ ٚ‬ق حٌٌُد إٔ اؿخرخص ُ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٌٙٛ ٠‬حألٓجِش ًخٗض هخىػش‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )18‬ػْ أػط‪ ٠‬كخك‪ً٘ ٚ‬ق حٌٌُد ُ‪ ٢‬كَ‪ٛ‬ش ُٔ٘خه٘ش اؿخرخط‪ ٚ‬رٌَ٘ أًزَ‪ .‬هالٍ حُٔ٘خه٘ش ‪ ،‬طط‪ٞ‬ع ُ‪٢‬‬
‫رخُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حُـي‪٣‬يس حُظخُ‪٤‬ش حُظ‪ٌ٘٣ ُْ ٢‬ق ػ٘‪ٜ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخرالص حُٔخروش ٓغ ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬أ‪ُٝ ٝ‬حٍس‬
‫حُطخهش‪ .‬هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬اٗ‪ ٚ‬هالٍ ٍكِظ‪ ٚ‬اُ‪ ٠‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ ، 1986‬حط‪ َٜ‬ر‪، ٢ُ ٖ٤ٗ ١ٝ ٚ‬‬
‫حٌُ‪ ١‬ػَف ُ‪ ٢‬أٗ‪ٓ ٚ‬ظ‪ ١ٍٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُزَٗخٓؾ حُ٘‪ُ ١ٝٞ‬ـٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش‪ .‬ؿخء ُ‪َُ ٢‬إ‪٣‬ش ُ‪ٓٝ ، ٢‬ؤٍ ػٔخ‬
‫اًح ًخٕ ُ‪ٔٓ ٌٚ٘ٔ٣ ٢‬خػيط‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬كَ ٌِٓ٘ش ًخٕ ‪ٞ٣‬حؿ‪ٜٜ‬خ (ُ‪ٝ .)٢‬حكن ُ‪ٟٞ٣ .٢‬ق ُ‪ٓ ٢‬خ هيٓ‪ ٢ُ ٚ‬ك‪ٌَٗ ٢‬‬
‫ٓؼخىُش ُٔٔخػيس ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬كَ ٌِٓ٘ظ‪ ًٌَ٣ .ٚ‬طوَ‪ َ٣‬ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ً٘ق حٌٌُد إٔ ُ‪ ٢‬هخٍ إ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔؼخىُش ًخٗض ‪٢ٛ‬‬
‫ٗلٔ‪ٜ‬خ حُٔٔظويٓش ك‪ ٖٓ ٖ٣ٍِٓ ٢‬كجش حُظ‪٤ٜ٘‬ق‪ .‬حػظَف ُ‪ ٢‬رؤٕ ٓٔخػيط‪ً ٢ُ ٍ ٚ‬خٕ ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬حٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ رٔ‪ُٜٞ‬ش‬
‫ُظط‪ َ٣ٞ‬حألِٓلش حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش‪.‬‬

‫(‪ ) 19‬ك‪ ٢‬طوَ‪ َ٣‬حَُكِش حُوخٍؿ‪٤‬ش حٌُ‪ ١‬هيٓ‪ ٢ُ ٚ‬اُ‪ٔٓ ٠‬ئ‪ ٢ُٝ‬حألٖٓ ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ رؼي ٍكِظ‪ ٚ‬ػخّ ‪ ، 1986‬كَ٘‬
‫ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬حٌُ٘ق ػٖ أٗ‪ِ١ ٚ‬ذ ٓ٘‪ٔٓ ٚ‬خػيس ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬كَ ٌِٓ٘ش ٍ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬ش‪ًٔ .‬خ ُْ ‪ٌ٘٣‬ق ُ‪ ٢‬أٗ‪ٓ ٚ‬خػي ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬كَ‬
‫حٌُِٔ٘ش ‪ٝ ،‬إٔ حُٔٔخػيس حُظ‪ ٢‬هيٓ‪ٜ‬خ ًخٕ ٖٓ حٌُٖٔٔ حٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ رٔ‪ُٜٞ‬ش ُظط‪ َ٣ٞ‬حألِٓلش حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش‪.‬‬

‫(‪ٝ ) 20‬رؼي كل‪ ٚ‬ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ً٘ق حٌٌُد ‪ ،‬هيّ ُ‪ ٢‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ٓؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص ػٖ حَُكِش حُظ‪ ٢‬هخّ ر‪ٜ‬خ اُ‪ ٠‬ر‪٤‬ـ‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ‬
‫‪ٌ٘٣ ُْ 1988‬ق ػ٘‪ٜ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخرالص حُٔخروش‪ .‬هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬إ ُ‪ٝ ٞ٤ٗ ٢ٛ‬حٗؾ ‪ ،‬ػخُْ ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش ‪،‬‬
‫حط‪ َٜ‬ر‪ ٚ‬رؼي ٓئطَٔ ك‪ َٙ٠‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬ػخّ ‪ٝ .1988‬كوخ ُطِذ ‪ٝ‬حٗؾ ٖٓ ُ‪ٔٓ ٢‬خػيط‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬كَ ٌِٓ٘ش‬
‫ٍ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬ش‪ .‬حػظَف ُ‪ ٢‬رؤٕ اؿخرظ‪ ٚ‬ػِ‪ٝ ٠‬حٗؾ طلظ‪ ١ٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أؿِحء ٖٓ حُٔؼخىالص ٓٔخػِش ُظِي حُٔ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ىس ك‪٢‬‬
‫حَُٓ‪ ُٞ‬حَُٔ‪٣‬ش حُٔ٘خٍ اُ‪ٜ٤‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُلوَس ‪ٓ ٢ُ ٍْٓ .8‬الكظخص ُظ‪٤ٟٞ‬ق ٌِٓ٘ش ‪ٝ‬حٗؾ‪ .‬هخٍ ُ‪: ٢‬اٗ‪ٌٖٔ٣ ٚ‬‬
‫حٓظويحّ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص ك‪ ٢‬طط‪ َ٣ٞ‬حألِٓلش ؛ ‪ٓٝ‬غ ًُي ‪ ًًَ ،‬أٗ‪٘٣ ُْ ٚ‬خهٖ أريح حألِٓلش حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش ٓغ ‪ٝ‬حٗؾ‪.‬‬
‫حػظَف ُ‪ ٢‬رؤٗ‪ٓ ٚ‬خػي ‪ٝ‬حٗؾ رٌَ٘ ًخَٓ ك‪ٌِ٘ٓ ٢‬ظ‪ ٚ‬حَُ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ أٗ‪ ٚ‬حكظَ‪ ٝ‬إٔ ‪ٝ‬حٗؾ ًخٕ ؿِءح‬
‫ٖٓ ر َٗخٓؾ حألِٓلش حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش ُـٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش‪ً .‬خٕ ُ‪ٝ ٢‬حػوخ ٖٓ إٔ ٓٔخػيط‪ُٞ ٚ‬حٗؾ هي كِض أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫كٔ٘ض ٌِٓ٘ش ‪ٝ‬حٗؾ‪َٛ .‬ف ُ‪ ٢‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬حكظَ‪ ٝ‬إٔ ‪ٝ‬حٗؾ ًخٕ ‪٣‬ؼِْ أٗ‪٣ )٢ُ( ٚ‬ؼَٔ ػِ‪ ٠‬حألِٓلش حُ٘‪٣ٝٞ‬ش رٔزذ‬
‫حٍطزخ‪ٓ ٢ُ ١‬غ الَٗ‪.‬‬

‫(‪ٝٝ )21‬كوخ ُ٘‪ً ، ٢ُ ، َ٤‬ؼخُْ ٍ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬خص ك‪ ٢‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ ‪ًٝ ،‬خٕ ػيى "ُ" ‪ًِٔٝ‬ش حَُٔ‪ ٍٝ‬حُظ‪ٌ٘ٓ ٢‬ظ‪ٖٓ ٚ‬‬
‫حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حألًؼَ َٓ‪٣‬ش ُِـخ‪٣‬ش ٗؼزش حُؼخَٗ ػٖ ‪٣َ١‬ن حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ‪ٍ .‬هْ " ُ " ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬ؼَف كَ‪٣‬ي‬
‫‪٣‬ؼط‪ ٌَُ ٠‬كَى ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ظطِذ حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ٗ ٠‬ظخّ حُِٔلخص حُٔ٘ظَى الَٗ (ًلْ)‪ُ .‬ـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪٢‬‬
‫حُؼخُٔ‪ٗ ٞٛ ٢‬ظخّ طوِ‪ ٖ٣‬حُِٔلخص الَٗ‪ .‬اٗ‪ ٖٓ ٌٕٞٓ ٚ‬ؿِأ‪٘ٓ ٖ٣‬ل‪ :ٖ٤ِٜ‬حُـِء حُٔـِن ٖٓ حُ٘ظخّ ‪ ،‬حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ظْ‬
‫طوِ‪ ٖ٣‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬؛ ‪ٝ‬حُـِء حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬ف ٖٓ حُ٘ظخّ ‪ ،‬حٌُ‪٣ ١‬وِٕ كو‪ ٢‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش‪.‬‬
‫‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُـِء حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬ف ٖٓ حُ٘ظخّ ٖٓ أ‪ٌٓ ١‬خٕ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼخُْ أل‪ٔٓ ١‬ظويّ ُإلٗظَٗض‪ .‬ال ‪ٌٖٔ٣‬‬
‫حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُـِء حُٔـِن ٖٓ حُ٘ظخّ اال أل‪ُٝ‬جي حٌُ‪٣ ٖ٣‬ؼِٔ‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ ٓغ حُظ‪ٜ‬خٍ‪٣‬ق حألٓ٘‪٤‬ش‬

‫‪42‬‬
The polygraph examiner concluded that LEE’s answers to these ques-tions were
deceptive.

(18) The polygraph examiner then gave LEE an opportunity to discuss his
answers further. During the discussion, LEE volunteered the following new
information that he had not revealed in the prior interviews with the FBI or DOE. LEE
said that during his trip to the PRC in 1986, he was approached by WEI SHEN LI, who
LEE knew to be involved in the PRC’s Nuclear Program. LI came to see LEE, and
asked if LEE could assist him in solving a problem he (LI) was having. LEE agreed.
LEE illustrated what he had provided to LI in the form of an equation to assist LI in
solving his problem. The polygrapher’s report states that LEE said that this equation
was the same used in two classi-fied codes. LEE admitted that his assistance to Ll
could have been used easily for nuclear weapons development.
(19) In the Foreign Trip Report that LEE submitted to LANL security
officials following his 1986 trip, LEE failed to reveal that he had been asked to assist
LI in solving a mathematical problem. LEE also did not divulge that he had helped LI
solve the problem, and that the help he provided could have been used easily for
nuclear weapons development.
(20) Following the polygraph examination, LEE also provided informa-tion
about the trip he made to Beijing in 1988 that he had not revealed in the earlier
interviews. LEE said that he was approached by ZHI SHIU WANG, a PRC scientist,
following a conference he attended in China in 1988. Accord-ing to LEE, WANG
asked LEE to help him solve a mathematical problem. LEE admitted that his answer to
WANG contained portions of equations similar to those in the classified codes referred
to in paragraph 8. LEE drew notes to illustrate WANG’s problem. LEE said that this
information could be used in weapons development; however, he stated that he never
discussed nuclear weapons with WANG. LEE acknowledged that he had fully assisted
WANG with his mathematical problem even though he had assumed WANG was part
of the PRC’s Nuclear Weapons Program. LEE was confident that his assistance to
WANG had solved or improved WANG’s problem. LEE stated he assumed that
WANG knew that he (LEE) worked on nuclear weapons because of LEE’s association
with LANL.
(21) According to NEIL, LEE, as a mathematician in the X-Division, had a
―Z‖ number and password which enabled him to access the X-Division’s most highly
classified information by computer. A ―Z‖ number is a unique identifier given to every
individual at LANL who requires access to LANL’s Common File System (CFS). The
CFS is LANL’s file storage system. It is com-prised of two separate parts: the closed
part of the system, on which clas-sified information is stored; and the open part of the
system, which stores only unclassified information. The open part of the system is
accessible from anywhere in the world to any Internet user. The closed part of the
system is accessible only to those working at LANL with the security clearances

42
‫حُٔ‪َٜ‬ف ر‪ٜ‬خ ٖٓ هزَ الَٗ‪ًٞٔ .‬ظق ك‪ ٢‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ ‪ ،‬طٌٖٔ ُ‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ً ٠‬ال حُـِأ‪ُ ٖٓ ٖ٣‬ـ٘ش‬
‫حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪.٢‬‬
‫(‪ٜٗ ) 22‬ق ط٘خٍُِ ٗ‪ ، َ٤‬حَُٔ٘ف حأله‪ ٢ُ َ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬هْٔ حُؼخَٗ ‪ ،‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬ال ‪ٞ٣‬ؿي حط‪ٜ‬خٍ ٓزخَٗ ٓٔٔ‪ٞ‬ف ر‪ ٚ‬ر‪ٖ٤‬‬
‫حألؿِحء حُٔـِوش ‪ٝ‬حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬ك ش ٖٓ ُـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ .٢‬رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ ه‪ٞ‬حػي الَٗ ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ،‬إٔ طٌ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص‬
‫ؿ‪ َ٤‬حَُٔ‪٣‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬حُـخٗذ حُٔـِن ٖٓ حُ٘ظخّ ؛ ‪ٓٝ‬غ ًُي ‪٣ ،‬لظَ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظل‪ٟٝ ٖ٤‬غ ٓؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص َٓ‪٣‬ش ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫حُـخٗذ حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬ف ٖٓ ُـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ .٢‬رٌَ٘ ٓ٘خٓذ ‪٘ٛ‬خى كخؿش ُ٘وَ حُِٔلخص ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش ر‪ٖ٤‬‬
‫حألؿِحء حُٔـِوش ‪ٝ‬حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬كش ٖٓ ُـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ ٖٓ .٢‬ػخّ ‪ 1980‬اُ‪ ٠‬ػخّ ‪ً ، 1994‬خٗض ‪٘ٛ‬خى‬
‫‪٣َ١‬وظخٕ ُ٘وَ حُِٔلخص ر‪ ٖ٤‬ؿِأ‪ُ ٖٓ ٖ٣‬ـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ً .٢‬خٗض اكي‪ ٟ‬حُطَم ‪ ٢ٛ‬حٓظويحّ هطؼش‬
‫ٖٓ حُٔؼيحص ٓغ حُزَحٓؾ حُٔ٘خٓزش ‪ ،‬طٔٔ‪" ٠‬آُش ٓ‪ ."٢‬ط‪٘ٔ٠‬ض حُطَ‪٣‬وش حُؼخٗ‪٤‬ش ٗوَ ػزَ طِ٘‪ َ٣‬حُِٔلخص ٖٓ‬
‫ؿِء ‪ٝ‬حكي ٖٓ ُـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ٓ ٢‬زخَٗس آخ ػِ‪ ٠‬هَ‪ٓ َٕٓ ٙ‬وخّ ‪ 2/1-3‬ر‪ٛٞ‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬هَ‪ٗٞ١‬ش‬
‫طوِ‪ً ٖ٣‬حص ٓؼش أًزَ‪ .‬ط‪ٞ‬هق حٓظويحّ "ح‪ُ٥‬ش ٓ‪ٌُٜ "٢‬ح حُـَ‪ ٝ‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ .1994‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ ، 1996‬طْ‬
‫حٓظويحّ هطؼش ٖٓ حُٔؼيحص طٔٔ‪" ٠‬حُِثزن" ُ٘وَ حُِٔلخص ٖٓ حُـِء حُٔـِن اُ‪ ٠‬حُـِء حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬ف ٖٓ ُـ٘ش‬
‫حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ .٢‬طلظلع ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُطَ‪٣‬وش ‪ ،‬حُظ‪ ٢‬ال طِحٍ ٓٔظويٓش ‪ ،‬رٔـَ ٗوَ ألٓٔخء حُِٔلخص حُظ‪ ٢‬طْ‬
‫حٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ‪ . .‬ر‪ ٖ٤‬ػخٓ‪ً ، 1996 ٝ 1994 ٢‬خٗض ‪٣َ١‬وش حُظِ٘‪ َ٣‬رخٓظويحّ حألهَح‪ ٙ‬حَُٔٗش أ‪ ٝ‬هَح‪ٖ٤١‬‬
‫حُظوِ‪ ٢ٛ ٖ٣‬حُطَ‪٣‬وش حُ‪ٞ‬ك‪٤‬يس حُٔظخكش ُ٘وَ حُِٔلخص ٖٓ حُـِء حُٔـِن اُ‪ ٠‬حُـِء حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬ف ٖٓ ُـ٘ش حألٖٓ‬
‫حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ .٢‬ال ‪ِ٣‬حٍ ٖٓ حٌُٖٔٔ حٓظويحّ ‪٣َ١‬وش حُ٘وَ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪" ٠‬حُِثزن"‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )23‬الَٗ ‪ٔ٣‬ظويّ ػخىس ‪ٓ 3‬ظَ ىّ ‪ 6150‬هَح‪ُ ٖ٤١‬ظلٔ‪ َ٤‬حُِٔلخص ُ٘وِ‪ٜ‬خ ر‪ ٖ٤‬حألؿِحء حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬كش ‪ٝ‬حُٔـِوش‬
‫ٖٓ ُـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ .٢‬رٔـَى طِ٘‪ َ٣‬حُِٔلخص ٖٓ ؿِء ‪ٝ‬حكي ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ،‬طلٔ‪ِٜ٤‬خ رٔ‪ُٜٞ‬ش اُ‪ ٠‬أ‪ ١‬ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ‬
‫آهَ ‪٣‬لظ‪ ١ٞ‬ػِ‪ٗ ٠‬ظخّ ط٘ـ‪ٓ َ٤‬ظ‪ٞ‬حكن‪ .‬ك‪ٓ 5 ٢‬خٍّ ‪ٝ ، 1999‬حكن ُ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬طلظ‪ٌٓ ٖ٤‬خطز‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ ٖٓ هزَ‬
‫ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ .٢‬ك‪ٌٓ ٢‬ظذ هْٔ ُ‪ ٢‬حُؼخَٗ ‪ٝ ،‬ؿي حُٔلوو‪ ٕٞ‬ىكظَ ٓالكظخص ر‪ًٞٔٗ ٚ‬ؽ ‪ِ١‬ذ‬
‫ط‪٣ٍٞ‬ي الَٗ ‪ ،‬رظخٍ‪٣‬ن ‪ 20‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪ .1995‬أٗخٍ ٗٔ‪ًٞ‬ؽ حُطِذ ‪ٌٛ‬ح اُ‪ ٠‬إٔ ٍ ُ‪ِ١- ٢‬ذ هخ‪٘ٛ ٞٛ ٙ‬ي‪ٝ‬هخ‬
‫ٌٓ‪ٗٞ‬خ ٖٓ هْٔ هَح‪ٓ ٖ٤١‬ؼش ‪ 3‬أٓظخٍ ط‪٤‬خٍ ٓٔظَٔ ‪ 6150‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪َٛ .1995‬ف ٗ‪ َ٤‬إٔ ‪ٌٛ‬ح ًخٕ ؿ‪َ٤‬‬
‫ػخى‪ ١‬ألٕ حُوَح‪ٓ ٖ٤١‬ظ‪ٞ‬كَس رٔ‪ُٜٞ‬ش ك‪ ٢‬ؿَكش حإلٓيحى رخُؤْ حُؼخَٗ ‪ٝ‬ال ‪٣‬ـذ إٔ طٌ‪ٓ ٕٞ‬طِ‪ٞ‬رش رٌَ٘‬
‫هخ‪ .ٙ‬ك‪ٌٓ ٢‬ظذ هْٔ ط‪ ٢‬حُوخ‪ ٙ‬د ُ‪ ، ٢‬ك‪٤‬غ طْ طؼ‪ ٚ٘٤٤‬رؼي طؼِ‪٤‬ن طل‪ ٚ٠٣ٞ‬حألٓ٘‪ٝ ، ٢‬ؿي حُٔلوو‪ٓ ٖ٤‬ض‬
‫هَح‪ ّ 3 ٖ٤١‬ى‪ٝ .6150 ٢ٓ ١‬هي هِ‪ ٚ‬كل‪ ٚ‬أ‪ ٌُٜٙ ٢ُٝ‬حُوَح‪ ٖٓ ٖ٤١‬ؿخٗذ أكَحى الَٗ اُ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ٜ‬خ ال‬
‫طلظ‪ ١ٞ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص َٓ‪٣‬ش‪ ٌٙٛ .‬حُوَح‪ٓ 3 ٖ٤١‬ظَ ىّ ‪ٝ 6150‬طظ‪ٞ‬كَ أ‪٠٣‬خ ٖٓ ٓوخُٕ ىػْ حٌُٔظذ‬
‫‪ٔ٤ُٝ‬ض كَ‪٣‬يس ٖٓ ٗ‪ٞ‬ػ‪ٜ‬خ ُ٘ؼزش الَٗ‪.‬‬
‫‪ًٔٝ‬خ ‪ٟٞٓ ٞٛ‬ن أىٗخ‪ ٙ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُلوَس ‪ ، 29‬أػ‪٤‬ي حٗظيحد ُ‪ٗ ٖٓ ٢‬ؼزش الَٗ (حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ) اُ‪ٗ ٠‬ؼزش أهَ‪ٟ‬‬
‫(ٗؼزش ط‪ )٢‬رؼي طؼِ‪٤‬ن حإلًٕ حألٓ٘‪ ٢‬حُٔٔ٘‪ٞ‬ف ُ‪ .ٚ‬ك‪ٔ٤‬خ رؼي‪٘٤ٓ ,‬خٍ اُ‪ ٠‬حُزلغ ك‪ٌٓ ٢‬خطذ ُ‪ ٢‬رخْٓ " رلغ‬
‫ٓخٍّ‪”.‬‬

‫(‪ًٞٔ )24‬ظق ك‪ ٢‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ ‪ٔٓ ،‬ق ُ‪ ٢‬ربٗ٘خء ىالثَ ك‪ُ ٢‬ـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ٝ ٢‬طٔٔ‪٤‬ش طِي حُيالثَ‬
‫ر٘لٔ‪ .ٚ‬ػ٘ي اٗ٘خث‪ٜ‬خ ‪٣ ،‬ظْ طٔـ‪ ًَ َ٤‬ىُ‪ َ٤‬طْ اٗ٘خإ‪ ٖٓ ٙ‬هزَ ًَ ٓ‪ٞ‬ظق ك‪ ٢‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ ك‪ُ ٢‬ـ٘ش حألٖٓ‬
‫حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪.٢‬‬

‫‪43‬‬
authorized by LANL. As an X-Division employee, LEE had access to both parts of
the CFS.

(22) CHARLES NEIL, LEE’s most recent supervisor in the X-Division,

advised that there is no direct communication allowed between the closed and open
parts of the CFS. Under LANL rules, unclassified information can be on the closed
side of the system; however, employees are prohibited from placing classified
information on the open side of the CFS. Occasion-ally there is a need to transfer
unclassified files between the closed and open parts of the CFS. From 1980 to 1994,
there were two methods of transferring files between the two parts of the CFS. One
method was to use a piece of equipment with appropriate software, called ―Machine
C.‖ The second trans-fer method involved downloading files from one part of the
CFS directly onto either a 3-1/2-inch floppy disk or a larger capacity storage
cartridge. The use of ―Machine C‖ for this purpose was discontinued in 1994. In 1996
the use of a piece of equipment called ―Mercury‖ was implemented to transfer files
from the closed to the open part of the CFS. This method, which is still used,
maintains a record of the names of the files that have been. transferred. Between 1994
and 1996 the downloading method utilizing floppy discs or storage cartridges was the
only method available to transfer files from the closed to the open part of the CFS.
This transfer method can still be used in addition to ―Mercury‖.

LANL commonly uses 3M DC 6150 cartridges to download files for transfer between
the open and closed parts of the CFS. Once files have been downloaded from one
part, they can be uploaded easily into any other computer that has a compatible
operating system. On March 5, 1999, LEE consented to a search of his offices at
LANL by the FBI. In LEE’s X-Division office, investigators found a notebook with a
LANL supply order form, dated December 20, 1995. This order form indicated that
LEE special-ordered a box of five 3M DC 6150 cartridges in 1995. Neil stated that
this was unusual because the cartridges are readily available at X-Division’s supply
room and do not normally have to be special ordered. In LEE’s T-Division office,
where he was assigned following suspension of his security authorization, investi-
gators found six 3M DC 6150 cartridges. A preliminary examination of those
cartridges by LANL personnel determined that they do not contain classified
information. These 3M DC 6150 cartridges are also available from office sup-ply
stores and are not unique to LANL. As described below in paragraph 29, LEE was
reassigned from one LANL division (the X-Division) to another (the T-Division)
following suspension of his security authorization. Hereafter, the search of both of
LEE’s offices will be referred to as ―the March search.‖

(23) As an X-Division employee, LEE was permitted to create directo-ries in

the CFS and to name those directories himself. Upon its creation, every directory
created by each X-Division employee is recorded in the CFS
43
‫هخّ ُ‪ ٢‬رظٔٔ‪٤‬ش أكي حُيالثَ حُظ‪ ٢‬أٗ٘ؤ‪ٛ‬خ ىُ‪ً" َ٤‬ق ‪ "1‬حُوخ‪ ٙ‬ر‪ً .ٚ‬خٕ ىُ‪ً َ٤‬ق ‪ٞٓ 1‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ىح ك‪ ٢‬حُـِء‬
‫حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬ف ٖٓ ُـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ٝ .٢‬هي كَِ هزَحء حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ الَٗ هخثٔش ًق ‪ ، 1‬ك‪٠‬ال ػٖ حػ٘‪ٖٓ ٖ٤‬‬
‫حُيالثَ حألهَ‪ ٟ‬حُظ‪ ٢‬أٗ٘ؤ‪ٛ‬خ ُ‪ٝ .٢‬هي هٍَ ‪ٛ‬ئالء حُوزَحء إٔ حُيالثَ حُؼالػش ُ‪َٓ ٢‬ى ٓخ ‪٣‬وَد ٖٓ ‪ِٓ 300‬ق‪.‬‬
‫رؼ‪ ٌٙٛ ٞ‬حُِٔلخص ػزخٍس ػٖ ِٓلخص ٌٓظزش طلظ‪ ١ٞ‬ػِ‪ِٓ ٠‬لخص ا‪ٟ‬خك‪٤‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬طلظ‪ ١ٞ‬ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔـٔ‪ٞ‬ع ‪٣ ،‬ويٍ‬
‫هزَحء الَٗ إٔ حُيالثَ حُظ‪ ٢‬طْ اٗ٘خإ‪ٛ‬خ ر‪ٞ‬حٓطش ُ‪٣ ٢‬لظ‪ ١ٞ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬خ ‪ َٜ٣‬اُ‪ 1600 ٠‬حُِٔلخص‪ٌ٘٣ٝ .‬ق‬
‫حُلل‪ ٚ‬حأل‪ُ ٢ُٝ‬وخثٔش ًخف‪ 1-‬إٔ أٓٔخء حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُِٔلخص حُٔيٍؿش ‪ ٢ٛ‬أٓٔخء حُِٔلخص حُٔؼَ‪ٝ‬كش رظ‪٤ٜ٘‬ل‪ٜ‬خ‬
‫ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔٔظ‪ ٟٞ‬حَُٔ‪٣ٝ .١‬و‪ ّٞ‬هزَحء حُ٘زٌش رخٓظَؿخع حُِٔلخص ‪ٝ‬حٓظؼَح‪ٜٟ‬خ رؤٗلٔ‪ .ْٜ‬كظ‪ ٠‬ح‪ً٘ ، ٕ٥‬لض‬
‫‪ ٌٙٛ‬حَُٔحؿؼش إٔ ‪ ٖٓ 21‬حُِٔلخص حُٔيٍؿش ك‪ ٢‬ىُ‪ ٢ً ٢ُ َ٤‬اف ‪ ٢ٛ 1‬رخُلؼَ ‪ٝ‬ػخثن َٓ‪٣‬ش‪ ٖٓٝ .‬ر‪ٌٙٛ ٖ٤‬‬
‫حُِٔلخص حَُٔ‪٣‬ش حُزخُؾ ػيى‪ٛ‬خ ‪ِٓ 21‬لخ أكي حَُٓ‪ ُٞ‬حَُٔ‪٣‬ش (حُٔ‪ٞٛٞ‬كش أػال‪ ٙ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُلوَس ‪ٓٝ )8‬وططخص‬
‫ط‪٤ٔ٤ٜٔ‬ش ُٔالك‪ ٖ٤٣ٝٞٗ ٖ٤‬ا‪ٟ‬خك‪ٝ .ٖ٤٤‬هي هٍَ هزَحء الَٗ إٔ ُ‪ ٢‬ريأ ٗوَ حُِٔلخص حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش ٖٓ ٗظخّ ٓـِن‬
‫ُـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ ٢‬اُ‪ٗ ٠‬ظخّ ٓلظ‪ٞ‬ف ػِ‪ ٠‬ىُ‪ً ِٚ٤‬ق ‪[ ٖٓ 1‬ػيس ًِٔخص كٌف] ‪ٝ‬كوخ ُظ٘خٍُِ ٗ‪,َ٤‬‬
‫ُ‪٘ٛ ْ٤‬خى ؿَ‪ ٝ‬حُؼَٔ ًحص حُ‪ِٜ‬ش حَُٔ٘‪ٝ‬ػش ُظوِ‪ ٖ٣‬حُِٔلخص حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش ػِ‪ ٠‬حُـخٗذ حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬ف ُِـ٘ش حألٖٓ‬
‫حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪.٢‬‬
‫(‪ )25‬ط٘خٍُِ ٗ‪ َ٤‬هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬إٔ حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظق الَٗ كو‪ٗ ٢‬ظَح ُؼيى "ُ" ‪ًِٔٝ‬ش حَُٔ‪ٔٓٝ ٍٝ‬ئ‪ٗ ٍٝ‬ظخّ الَٗ ‪ٌٖٔ٣‬‬
‫حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬كٌف حُِٔلخص ك‪ ٢‬حُيالثَ حُظ‪ ٢‬طْ اٗ٘خإ‪ٛ‬خ ٖٓ هزَ حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظل‪ ٖ٤‬الَٗ‪ ٖٓ ًَ .‬أٍهخّ" ُ" ‪ًِٔٝ‬خص‬
‫حَُٔ‪ ٍٝ‬طو‪٠‬غ ُلَحٓش ٓ٘يىس ‪ٝ ،‬هطغ ؿ‪٘ٓ َ٤‬ظًَش ٖٓ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حُظ‪٣ ٢‬طِذ ٖٓ حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظل‪ ٖ٤‬الَٗ ُِللخظ‬
‫ػِ‪٣َٓ ٠‬ش‪ ، ٢ُ .‬أ‪ ٝ‬أ‪ٗ ١‬و‪ُ ٚ‬ي‪ٍ ٚ٣‬هْ" ُ " ‪ًِٔٝ‬ش َٓ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ٢ُ ٍٝ‬حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬ىُ‪ً ِٚ٤‬ق ‪ 1‬ػِ‪ُ ٠‬ـ٘ش‬
‫حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ٓ ٢‬لظ‪ٞ‬كش ٖٓ أ‪ٌٓ ١‬خٕ ك‪ ٢‬حُؼخُْ‪ .‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬وخرِش أؿَح‪ٛ‬خ ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ٓ 5 ٢‬خٍّ‬
‫‪ٍ ، 1999‬ك‪ ٢ُ ٞ‬طوي‪ًِٔ ْ٣‬ش حَُٔ‪ ٍٝ‬حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش ر‪ُِٔٔ ٚ‬خف ُ‪ًٞ‬الء ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬رخُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪٠‬‬
‫ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ حُٔلٔ‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخ‪ ٙ‬ر‪.ٚ‬‬
‫(‪ )26‬ك‪ 5 ٢‬أرَ‪ ، 1999 َ٣‬أػ٘خء حُلل‪ ٚ‬حُٔٔظَٔ ُأل‪ٍٝ‬حم ‪ٝ‬حُٔالكظخص ٖٓ ٌٓظذ ُ‪ ، ٢‬كيى حُٔلوو‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫طؼِ‪ٔ٤‬خص ك‪ ٢‬ىكظَ ٓالكظخص ك‪٤ً ٍٞ‬ل‪٤‬ش ٗٔن حَُِٓ حَُٔ‪( ١‬حُٔ٘خٍ اُ‪ ٚ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُلوَس ‪ )8‬ػِ‪ ٠‬هَ‪.َٕٓ ٙ‬‬
‫ًخٗض ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُظؼِ‪ٔ٤‬خص ٌٓظ‪ٞ‬رش رو‪ ٢‬حُ‪٤‬ي ك‪ ٢‬ىكظَ ٓالكظخص ُ‪ .٢‬ك‪ ٢‬حُـِء حُؼِ‪ ٖٓ ١ٞ‬حُظي‪ً ٖ٣ٝ‬خٗض حألكَف‬
‫حُ‪٤٘٤ٜ‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬طٔض طَؿٔظ‪ٜ‬خ ًـ " ‪٣َ١‬وش ُطزخػش حُيُ‪ َ٤‬رؤًِٔ‪ ٚ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُوَ‪”.ٙ‬‬

‫(‪ًٞٔ )27‬ظق ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ ك‪ ٢‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ ‪ُٔٓ ،‬ق ٍ ُ‪ ٢‬رخٓظويحّ ك‪ٞ‬حٓ‪٤‬ذ الَٗ ك‪ ٢‬حٍُِٔ٘‪ً .‬خٕ ُي‪٢ُ ٟ‬‬
‫ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ‪ًٔ ١‬ز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ٓو‪ٜٜ‬خٕ ُ‪ٝ ، ٚ‬طْ طٔـ‪ ِٚ٤‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ـَ ٓٔظٌِخط‪ ٚ‬حُ٘و‪٤ٜ‬ش‪ً .‬خٕ ‪ٌٛ‬حٕ حُـ‪ٜ‬خُحٕ ػزخٍس ػٖ‬
‫ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ٓلٔ‪ٓ ٍٞ‬خً‪٘٤‬ظ‪ٓٝ ٕٞ‬طق ٌٓظذ ٓخً٘ظ‪.ٕٞ‬‬

‫(‪ )28‬هالٍ ٓوخرِش ‪٘٣ 17‬خ‪ٓ 1999 َ٣‬غ ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬وَ اهخٓظ‪ ، ٚ‬الكع ‪ َ٤ًٝ‬هخ‪ُِٔ ٙ‬وخرِش ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ‬
‫ٌٓظز‪ٞٓ ٢‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى ك‪ ٢‬ؿَكش حُٔؼ‪٘٤‬ش‪ٝ .‬الكع حُ‪ َ٤ًٞ‬إٔ حُلخٓ‪ٞ‬د ‪ ٞٛ‬حُ٘وطش حُٔل‪٣ٍٞ‬ش ُٔ٘طوش ػَٔ طلظ‪١ٞ‬‬
‫ػِ‪ٝ ٠‬ػخثن ‪ٝ‬ر٘‪ٞ‬ى أهَ‪ .ٟ‬هالٍ ٓوخرِش الكوش ٓغ ُ‪ ، ٢‬أؿَ‪٣‬ض ك‪ٓ 5 ٢‬خٍّ ‪َٛ ، 1999‬ف ُ‪ُ ٢‬ؼٔالء‬
‫ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬حُوخ‪ ٖ٤ٛ‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬حكظلع ك‪ٓ ٢‬وَ اهخٓظ‪ ٚ‬رـ‪ٜ‬خُ ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ٓطق ٌٓظذ ٓخً٘ظ‪٘٣ ٕٞ‬ظٔ‪٢‬‬
‫اُ‪٠‬‬

‫‪44‬‬
LEE named one of the directories that he created his ―KF1‖ directory. The KF1
directory was located in the open part of the CFS. LANL computer experts have
analyzed the KF1 list, as well as two other directories that LEE created. These
experts have determined that LEE’s three directories listed approximately 300 files.
Some of these files are library files, which contain or contained additional files. In
total, the LANL experts estimate that the direc-tories LEE created contained as many
as 1600 files. Preliminary examination of the KF1 list reveals that the names of many
of the files listed were the names of files known to be classified at the Secret level.
The LANL experts are in the process of retrieving and reviewing the files themselves.
So far, this review has revealed that 21 of the files listed in LEE’s KF1 directory are
indeed Secret documents. Among these 21 Secret files is one of the classified codes
(described above in paragraph 8) and design contours for two addi-tional nuclear
weapons. The LANL experts have determined that LEE began transferring classified
files from the CFS closed system to the open system on his KF1 directory from
[several words deleted] According to CHARLES NEIL, there is no legitimate work
related purpose for storing classified files on the open side of the CFS.
(25) CHARLES NEIL told me that only the LANL employee given the ―Z‖
number and password and LANL’s system administrator can access or delete files in
directories created by LANL employees. Both ―Z‖ numbers and passwords are
closely guarded, non-shared pieces of information which LANL employees are
required to keep confidential. LEE, or anyone with Lee’s ―Z‖ number and password
could access his KF1 directory on the open CFS from anywhere in the world. In an
interview conducted by the FBI on March 5, 1999, LEE refused to provide his
password to allow FBI Special Agents access to his laptop computer.
(26) On April 5, 1999, during the continuing examination of papers and notes
from LEE’s office, investigators located instructions in a notebook on how to copy
the classified code (referred to in paragraph 8) onto a floppy disk. These instructions
were handwritten in LEE’s notebook. At the top of the notation were Chinese
characters which have been translated as ―method to print entire directory onto disk.‖
(27) As a LANL employee in the X-Division, LEE was permitted to use
LANL computers at home. LEE had two computers assigned to him, and recorded on
his personal property log. These two computers were a MacIn-tosh laptop and a
MacIntosh desk top.

(28) During the January 17, 1999, interview of LEE at his residence, an
interviewing Special Agent observed a desktop computer located in the living room.
The Agent observed that the computer was the focal point of a work area that
contained documents and other items. During a later interview of’ LEE, conducted on
March 5, 1999, LEE stated to FBI Special Agents that he kept at his residence a
MacIntosh desktop computer which belonged to

44
‫الَٗ‪ .‬حػظَف ُ‪ ٢‬رؤٗ‪ ٚ‬حٓظويّ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ " ألٗ٘‪ ٢‬أػَٔ أك‪٤‬خٗخ ك‪ ٢‬حٍُِٔ٘‪ٝ".‬هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬أ‪٠٣‬خ أٗ‪ ٚ‬حٓظويّ ‪ٌٛ‬ح‬
‫حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ حٌُٔظز‪ُ ٢‬الط‪ٜ‬خٍ رٌٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ الَٗ ك‪ٌٓ ٢‬ظز‪ ٢ُ ًًَٝ .ٚ‬أ‪٠٣‬خ أٗ‪ ٚ‬حٓظويّ حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ك‪ٓ ٢‬وَ اهخٓظ‪ٚ‬‬
‫ُِظلون ٖٓ حُزَ‪٣‬ي حإلٌُظَ‪ٝ ٢ٗٝ‬حُو‪٤‬خّ رٔؼخُـش حُ٘‪ .ٜٙٞ‬ك‪ٓ 5 ٢‬خٍّ ‪ ٢ُ ِْٓ ، 1999‬اُ‪ٓ ٠‬لوو‪ٌٓ ٢‬ظذ‬
‫حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ حٌُٔظز‪ٓ ٢‬خً٘ظ‪ ٕٞ‬حُِٔٔ‪ٞ‬ى ًَُ٘ش الَٗ ‪ٝ‬حٌُ‪ً ١‬خٕ ك‪ .ُِٚ٘ٓ ٢‬طْ حالٓظ‪٤‬الء‬
‫ػِ‪ ٠‬ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ حُٔلٔ‪ٓ ٍٞ‬خً‪٘٤‬ظ‪ ٕٞ‬حُِٔٔ‪ٞ‬ى ًَُ٘ش الَٗ ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ٓ 5 ٢‬خٍّ ‪ 1999‬أػ٘خء حُزلغ ػٖ‬
‫ٓ‪ٞ‬حكوش ٌٓظذ هْٔ ط‪ ٢‬حُوخ‪ ٙ‬د ُ‪ .٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ ػيّ ٓئحُ‪ ٚ‬ػِ‪ٝ ٠‬ؿ‪ ٚ‬حُظلي‪٣‬ي ‪ ،‬اال إٔ ُ‪٣ ُْ ٢‬وْ ربٗظخؽ‬
‫أ‪ ١‬أهَح‪ًٔ ٙ‬ز‪ٞ٤‬طَ أ‪ ٝ‬أَٗ‪١‬ش طوِ‪ ٖ٣‬حٓظويٓ‪ٜ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حٍُِٔ٘ ػِ‪ ٠‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ حُِٔٔ‪ًٞ‬ش ٍ الَٗ حُوخ‪ٙ‬‬
‫ر‪ٝ .ٚ‬كوخ ُوزَحء الَٗ ‪ ،‬طٔظويّ أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ حُٔلٔ‪ٓ ٍٞ‬خً٘ظ‪ ٕٞ‬حُِٔٔ‪ًٞ‬ش ٍ الَٗ ُ‪ٝ ٢‬حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ‬
‫حٌُٔظز‪ ،٢‬هَح‪ ٖ٤١‬هخرِش ُإلُحُش ريال ٖٓ حُوَ‪ ٙ‬حُ‪ِٜ‬ذ‪ .‬هٍَ هزَحء الَٗ أٗ‪٣ ُْ ٚ‬ظْ حكظ‪ٞ‬حء أ‪ٓ ١‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص‬
‫َٓ‪٣‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬حُوَح‪ ٖ٤١‬ىحهَ أ‪ ٖٓ ١‬حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ‪ٝ ٖ٣‬هض حالٓظ‪٤‬الء ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ أ‪ ٝ‬اٗظخؿ‪ٜ‬خ‪.‬‬

‫(‪ )29‬رؼي كظَس ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ِ٤‬س ٖٓ ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ً٘ق حٌٌُد حٌُ‪ ١‬أؿَط‪ُٝ ٚ‬حٍس حُطخهش ك‪ 23 ٢‬ى‪ٔٔ٣‬زَ ‪ ، 1998‬ػِوض‬
‫‪ُٝ‬حٍس حُطخهش ‪ ٢ُ ٍٞٛٝ‬اُ‪ ٠‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حَُٔ‪٣‬ش‪ًٔ .‬خ هخٓض الَٗ ربػخىس طؼ‪ ٖٓ ٢ُ ٖ٤٤‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ‬
‫اُ‪ ٠‬هْٔ ط‪ ، ٢‬حٌُ‪ ١‬ال ‪٣‬ظؼخَٓ ٓغ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حَُٔ‪٣‬ش‪ .‬ر‪ًُ ٖ٤‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض ‪ٓ 5 ٝ‬خٍّ ‪ ، 1999‬كخ‪٢ُ ٍٝ‬‬
‫حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬حُٔخى‪ ١‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ ك‪٘ٓ ٢‬خٓزظ‪٘ٓ ٖ٤‬ل‪ِٜ‬ظ‪ .ٖ٤‬ك‪٘ٓ ٢‬خٓزش ‪ٝ‬حكيس ػِ‪ ٠‬حألهَ هالٍ ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُ‪ٞ‬هض ‪،‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢ُ َٜ‬ػِ‪ ٍٞٛٝ ٠‬ري‪َٓ ٕٝ‬حكوش اُ‪ ٠‬حُؤْ حُؼخَٗ‪.‬‬

‫(‪ )30‬أػ٘خء حُزلغ ك‪ٓ ٢‬خٍّ ‪ /‬آًحٍ ٌُٔظذ ُ‪ ٢‬حُؼخَٗ ‪ ،‬ػؼَ حُٔلوو‪ ٕٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬ىكظَ ٓالكظخص‪ .‬حكظ‪ٌٛ ٟٞ‬ح‬
‫حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ حُيكظَ‪ ١‬ػِ‪ٔٓ ٠‬ظ٘ي ٌٓ‪ٛ ٖٓ ٕٞ‬للش ‪ٝ‬حكيس ‪٣‬لظ‪ ١ٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُِٔلخص ك‪ ٢‬ىُ‪ ٚ٤ً َ٤‬اف ‪ 1‬حٌُ‪١‬‬
‫أٗ٘ؤ‪ ٢ُ ٙ‬ك‪ُ ٢‬ـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ .٢‬أػ٘خء حُزلغ ‪ ،‬هخّ ط٘خٍُِ ٗ‪ َ٤‬رلل‪ ٌٙٛ ٚ‬حُوخثٔش ‪ٝ‬أ‪ٟٝ‬ق إٔ‬
‫حُِٔلخص حُٔٔٔخس ك‪ ٢‬ىُ‪ ٢ً ٢ُ َ٤‬اف ‪ً 1‬خٗض ٓ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ىس ك‪ ٢‬حُـِء حُٔلظ‪ٞ‬ف ٖٓ ُـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪.٢‬‬
‫طلظ‪ ١ٞ‬حُِٔلخص ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص َٓ‪٣‬ش ُِـخ‪٣‬ش‪ .‬كخ‪ َ٤ٗ ٍٝ‬حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُِٔلخص حُٔيٍؿش ك‪ ٢‬ىُ‪ ٢ً َ٤‬اف‬
‫‪1‬حُوخ‪ ٙ‬د ُ‪ .٢‬حًظ٘ق إٔ ؿخُز‪٤‬ش حُِٔلخص هي طْ كٌك‪ٜ‬خ‪ِ١ .‬ذ ٗ‪ َ٤‬حُٔٔخػيس ٖٓ ط‪ٓٞ‬خّ ٓظ‪ٞ‬د ‪ٓ ،‬ي‪ُ َ٣‬ـ٘ش‬
‫حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ُِ ٢‬ؤْ حُؼخَٗ‪ .‬كل‪ٓ ٚ‬ظ‪ٞ‬د ىُ‪ ٚ٤ً َ٤‬اف ‪ 1‬حُوخ‪ ٙ‬د ُ‪ٝ ٢‬هٍَ إٔ حُِٔلخص هي طْ‬
‫كٌك‪ٜ‬خ ر‪ 9 ٖ٤‬كزَح‪ 11 ٝ 1999 َ٣‬كزَح‪ ، 1999 َ٣‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ ّٞ٤‬حُظخُ‪ٌُٔ ٢‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ٌُِ٘ ٢‬ق ػٖ‬
‫ُ‪.٢‬‬

‫(‪ ) 31‬أػ٘خء حُزلغ ك‪ٓ ٢‬خٍّ ‪ /‬آًحٍ ٌُٔظذ ُ‪ ٢‬حُؼخَٗ ‪ ،‬كيى ٓلوو‪ٌٓ ٞ‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ُٝٝ ٢‬حٍس حُطخهش‬
‫ػالع ‪ٝ‬ػخثن ٓظؼيىس حُ‪ٜ‬للخص ُْ طلَٔ ػالٓخص حُظ‪٤ٜ٘‬ق ًٔخ ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬طِ‪ٞ‬د رٔ‪ٞ‬ؿذ حُِ‪ٞ‬حثق ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ كو‪٤‬وش‬
‫إٔ طِي حُ‪ٞ‬ػخثن طلظ‪ ١ٞ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص َٓ‪٣‬ش‪ .‬طٔض اُحُش ‪ٞ١‬حرغ أ‪ ٝ‬ػالٓخص حُظ‪٤ٜ٘‬ق رؼيس ‪َ١‬م‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ػ‪٤‬وش‬
‫حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش حأل‪ ، ٠ُٝ‬طْ طـط‪٤‬ش حُوظْ حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬ق ر‪ٔ٘٤‬خ طْ ٗٔن حُٔٔظ٘ي ػِ‪ ٠‬آُش حُ٘ٔن‪ .‬ك‪ٝ ٢‬ػ‪٤‬وش َٓ‪٣‬ش ػخٗ‪٤‬ش ‪ ،‬طْ هطغ‬
‫ػالٓخص حُظ‪٤ٜ٘‬ق كؼِ‪٤‬خ ٖٓ أػِ‪ٝ ٠‬أٓلَ ًَ ‪ٝ‬ط‪َ٤‬س‪ٝ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ػ‪٤‬وش حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش حُؼخُؼش ‪ ،‬كٌكض ػالٓش حُظ‪٤ٜ٘‬ق رؤَٓ‬
‫كخٓ‪ٞ‬ر‪ ٢‬هزَ ‪١‬زخػش حُ‪ٞ‬ػ‪٤‬وش‪ٝ .‬كوخ ُظ٘خٍُِ ٗ‪ ، َ٤‬ال ‪ٞ٣‬ؿي ؿَ‪ ٝ‬ط‪ٞ‬ظ‪٤‬ق ً‪ِٛ ٝ‬ش د الَٗ رلٖٔ ٗ‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬كٌف‬
‫طٔٔ‪٤‬خص أ‪ ٝ‬ػالٓخص حُظ‪٤ٜ٘‬ق ٖٓ ٓٔظ٘ي ٓ‪ٜ٘‬ق‬

‫‪45‬‬
LANL. LEE admitted that he used this computer ―because I sometimes work at
home.‖ LEE also stated that he used this desktop computer to connect to the LANL
computer in his office. LEE also stated that he used the com-puter in his residence
to check E-mail and to do word processing. On March 5, 1999, LEE turned over to
FBI investigators the LANL-owned MacIntosh desktop computer that had been in
his house. LEE’s LANL-owned MacIn-tosh laptop computer was seized on March
5, 1999 during a consent search of LEE’s T-Division office. Although not
specifically asked, LEE did not pro-duce any computer discs or storage cassettes
that he utilized at home on his LANL-owned computers. According to LANL
experts, LEE’s LANL-owned MacIntosh laptop and desktop computer utilized
removable cartridges in lieu of a hard drive. LANL experts have determined that
no classified infor-mation was contained on the cartridges within either computer
at the time they were seized or produced.
(29) Shortly after the polygraph that DOE conducted on December 23, 1998,
DOE suspended LEE’s access to all classified information. LANL also reassigned
LEE from the X-Division to the T-Division, which does not handle classified
information. Between that time and March 5, 1999, LEE tried to gain physical
access to the X-Division on two separate occasions. On at least one occasion
during this time, LEE obtained unescorted access to X-Division.
(30) During the March search of LEE’s X-Division office, investigators
found a notebook. This notebook contained a one-page computer-gener-ated
document which listed all of the files in the KF1 directory that LEE had created in
the CFS. During the search, Charles Neil, examined this list and explained that the
files named in LEE’s KF1 directory were contained in the open part of the CFS.
The files contained highly classified information. Neil tried to access the files
listed in LEE’s KF1 directory. He discovered that the majority of the files had been
deleted. Neil sought assistance from Thomas Stup, CFS administrator for the X-
Division. Stup examined LEE’s KF1 direc-tory files and determined that the files
had been deleted between February 9, 1999 and February 11, 1999, the day after
the FBI polygraphed LEE.
During the March search of Lee’s X-Division office, FBI and DOE investigators
located three multi-page documents that did not bear classifica-tion markings as
required by regulation despite the fact that those documents contained classified
information. The classification stamps or marks had been removed in several ways.
In the first classified document, the classified stamp had been covered up while the
document had been copied on a copy-ing machine. In a second classified document,
the classification markings had been physically cut from the top and bottom of each
pace. In the third classified document, the classification marking had been deleted by
computer command before the document was printed. According to CHARLES
NEIL, there is no bona fide LANL-related employment purpose in deleting clas-
sification designations or markings from a classified document

45
‫ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬حهغ ‪ ،‬كبٕ ٓؼَ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُلٌ‪ٝ‬كخص طٌَ٘ حٗظ‪ٜ‬خًخ ُألٖٓ ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ‪ .‬ر٘خء ػِ‪ ٠‬طيٍ‪٣‬ز‪ٝ ٢‬هزَط‪ ,٢‬طؼي اُحُش‬
‫طٔٔ‪٤‬خص أ‪ ٝ‬ػالٓخص حُظ‪٤ٜ٘‬ق ‪٣َ١‬وش ُظوِ‪ٓ َ٤‬وخ‪ َ١‬حٌُ٘ق أ‪ ٝ‬حُظو‪ٞ‬ف ػ٘ي حُظـٔ‪٤‬غ‪ ,‬اُحُش‪ ,‬أ‪ ٝ‬حالكظلخظ‬
‫رخُٔ‪ٞ‬حى حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش رطَ‪٣‬وش ؿ‪َٜٓ َ٤‬ف ر‪ٜ‬خ‪ .‬رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ًُ ٠‬ي ‪ ،‬كبٕ اُحُش ػالٓخص حُظ‪٤ٜ٘‬ق ًٔخ ‪ٟٞٓ ٞٛ‬ق‬
‫أػال‪ ٖٓ ٙ‬حُٔٔظ٘يحص حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش ٖٓ ٗؤٗ‪ ٚ‬إٔ ‪ َٜٔ٣‬هيٍس ُ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬اُحُش حُٔٔظ٘يحص حُٔ‪ٜ٘‬لش ٖٓ الَٗ رطَ‪٣‬وش‬
‫ؿ‪َٜٓ َ٤‬ف ر‪ٜ‬خ‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )32‬ك‪ 7 ٢‬أرَ‪ ًًَ ، 1999 َ٣‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬ظل‪ ٕٞ‬ك‪ٌٓ ٢‬ظذ ٓٔخػيس حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ك‪ ٢‬الَٗ إٔ ٓـالط‪ ْٜ‬طٌ٘ق إٔ ُ‪٢‬‬
‫هيّ حُطِزخص حألٍرؼش حُظخُ‪٤‬ش ُِل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔٔخػيس‪ .‬أ‪ٝ‬ال ‪ ،‬ك‪ٓ 2 ٢‬خٍّ ‪ٓ ، 1998‬ؤٍ ُ‪ ٢‬ػٖ ً‪٤‬ل‪٤‬ش‬
‫حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ِٓ ٠‬ل‪ ٚ‬حُٔـِن هْٔ حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حُوخٍؽ‪ً .‬خٕ ‪ٌٛ‬ح هزَ ٍكِش ٗو‪٤ٜ‬ش هخّ ر‪ٜ‬خ ُ‪ ٢‬اُ‪٠‬‬
‫طخ‪ٞ٣‬حٕ ‪ٝ‬حُظ‪ ٢‬ريأص ك‪ٓ 15 ٢‬خٍّ ‪ .1998‬حٓظَٔص ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حَُكِش ُٔيس ‪ٓٞ٣ 45‬خ‪ .‬أرِؾ ٌٓظذ حُٔٔخػيس ُ‪ ٢‬أٗ‪ُْ ٚ‬‬
‫‪ ٖٓ ٌٖ٣‬حٌُٖٔٔ حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ُ ٠‬ـ٘ش حألٖٓ حُـٌحث‪ ٢‬حُؼخُٔ‪ ٢‬حُٔـِوش ٖٓ حُوخٍؽ‪ .‬ػخٗ‪٤‬خ ‪ ،‬ك‪٘٣ 21 ٢‬خ‪1999 َ٣‬‬
‫‪(،‬حٌُ‪ً ١‬خٕ رؼي أٍرؼش أ‪٣‬خّ ٖٓ ٓوخرِش ٌٓظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ٓ ٢‬ؼ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬حٍُِٔ٘) ‪ٓ ،‬ؤٍ ُ‪ ٢‬ػٖ ً‪٤‬ل‪٤‬ش‬
‫ط‪ َ٤ٛٞ‬ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ٓلٔ‪ ٍٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬ؿخٓخ ‪ ٞٛٝ ،‬ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ٓؼخُـش الَٗ ‪ٔ٣‬ظويّ إلؿَحء حُلٔخرخص ريال‬
‫ٖٓ طوِ‪ ٖ٣‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص‪ .‬ػخُؼخ ‪ ،‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ك‪٘٣ 21 ٢‬خ‪ِ١ ، 1999 َ٣‬ذ ُ‪ ٢‬حُٔٔخػيس ك‪ ٢‬كٌف حُِٔلخص‪ .‬هالٍ ‪ِ١‬ز‪ٚ‬‬
‫ُِٔٔخػيس‪ًُ ٢ُ ًًَ ,‬ي‪ ,‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ ؿ‪ٜٞ‬ى حُلٌف‪ ,‬حُِٔلخص "ُٖ طوظل‪".٢‬حػظوي ٌٓظذ حُٔٔخػيس أٗ‪ٚ‬‬
‫رلخؿش اُ‪ ٠‬حطوخً هط‪ٞ‬س أه‪َ٤‬س ُلٌف حُِٔلخص ‪ٝ‬أهزَ‪ ٙ‬رٌ‪٤‬ل‪٤‬ش أًخٍ حُؼِٔ‪٤‬ش‪ٍ .‬حرؼخ ‪ ،‬ك‪ 1 ٢‬كزَح‪، 1999 َ٣‬‬
‫هخٍ ُ‪ ٢‬اٗ‪ً ٚ‬خٕ ‪٣‬ظ‪ ٖٓ َٜ‬ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ٓخً٘ظ‪ ٕٞ‬حُِٔٔ‪ٞ‬ى ٍ الَٗ (‪ٝ‬حٌُ‪ً ١‬خٕ ك‪ٓ ٢‬وَ اهخٓظ‪ًٝ )ٚ‬خٕ ‪٣‬يهَ‬
‫(حُل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ٗ ٠‬ظخّ ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ الَٗ) ‪ ٌُٖٝ‬طْ هطغ حالط‪ٜ‬خٍ‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )33‬طْ ك‪ ٖٓ ٢ُ َٜ‬الَٗ ك‪ٓ 8 ٢‬خٍّ ‪ .1999‬أُـض ‪ُٝ‬حٍس حُطخهش ط‪٣َٜ‬ق ُ‪ ٢‬حألٓ٘‪ ٢‬ك‪ٗ ٢‬لْ حُ‪.ّٞ٤‬‬
‫رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ًُ ٠‬ي ‪ٛ ،‬يم ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬أ‪ ٝ‬ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪ٓ 8 ٢‬خٍّ ‪ 1999‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬أػخى ؿٔ‪٤‬غ ٓٔظٌِخص الَٗ‪ .‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حَُؿْ ٖٓ‬
‫إٔ ُ‪ً ٢‬خٕ ‪٣‬و‪ٓ ْ٤‬غ ػخثِظ‪ ٚ‬ك‪٘ٓ ٢‬طوش ُ‪ ّٞ‬أٗـِ‪ً ، ّٞ‬خُ‪٤‬ل‪٤ٍٗٞ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُلظَس ٓخ ر‪ ّٞ٣ ٖ٤‬أ‪ ٝ‬ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪ٓ 9 ٢‬خٍّ‬
‫‪ 1999‬كظ‪ ّٞ٣ ٠‬أ‪ ٝ‬ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪ 7 ٢‬أرَ‪ ، 1999 َ٣‬اال أٗ‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼَ‪ٝ‬ف إٔ ُي‪ ٚ٣‬أ‪ٌٓ ١‬ظذ أ‪ٌٓ ٝ‬خٕ آهَ‬
‫روالف ٌٓخٕ اهخٓظ‪ُِ ٚ‬ؼَٔ أ‪ ٝ‬حٌُ‪ٝ ١‬كَ ُ‪ ٚ‬حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ‪.‬‬
‫(‪ ) 34‬ر٘خء ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حُٔخروش ‪٘ٛ ،‬خى ٓزذ ٓلظَٔ ُالػظوخى رؤٕ ‪٘ٛ‬خى أىُش ك‪ٓ ٢‬وَ اهخٓش ُ‪ ٢‬طٌ٘ق ػٖ‬
‫حٗظ‪ٜ‬خًخص ‪ 18‬ى‪ٝ‬الٍ أَٓ‪.1924 ٝ 1001 ٝ 793 ٢ٌ٣‬‬
‫(‪ )35‬حُطِزخص حُظخرؼش إل‪ٛ‬يحٍ أَٓ طلظ‪ ٖ٤‬ر٘ؤٕ اهخٓش ُ‪ًٔ ، ٢‬خ ‪ٟٞٓ ٞٛ‬ق ك‪ ٢‬حُِٔلن أ‪.‬‬

‫(‪ )36‬أػظوي إٔ ‪٘ٛ‬خى ٓززخ ٓلظٔال ُالػظوخى رؤٕ حألىُش ػِ‪ ٠‬حألٗ٘طش حإلؿَحٓ‪٤‬ش حًٌُٔ‪ٍٞ‬س أػال‪٤ٓ ٙ‬ظْ حُؼؼ‪ٍٞ‬‬
‫ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ ك‪ٓ ٢‬وَ اهخٓش ُ‪ .٢‬طٔظ٘ي ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حالٓظ٘ظخؿخص اُ‪ ٠‬طـَرظ‪ٝ ٢‬طيٍ‪٣‬ز‪ ٢‬ك‪ٔ٤‬خ ‪٣‬ظؼِن رؤٗ‪ٞ‬حع حُٔـالص ‪ٝ‬حُز٘‪ٞ‬ى‬
‫حُظ‪٣ ٢‬لظلع ر‪ٜ‬خ حألٗوخ‪ ٙ‬حُٔ٘وَ‪ ٕٞ١‬ك‪ ٢‬حألٗ٘طش حُٔ‪ٟٞ‬لش أػال‪ ٙ‬ػخىس ك‪ٌٓ ٢‬خٕ اهخٓظ‪ًٌُٝ ْٜ‬ي ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫حُلوخثن حًٌُٔ‪ٍٞ‬س أػال‪.ٙ‬‬

‫(‪ )37‬حُؼ٘خ‪ َٛ‬حَُٔحى كـِ‪ٛ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُِٔلن د ٖٓ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حإلكخىس ‪ ٢ٛٝ ،‬طَ٘ٔ ‪ ،‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ال حُل‪، َٜ‬‬
‫حألهَح‪ ٙ‬حُلخٓ‪ٞ‬ر‪٤‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬ؿ‪َٛ٤‬خ ٖٓ أؿ‪ِٜ‬س طوِ‪ً ٖ٣‬حًَس حُلخٓ‪ٞ‬د‬

‫‪46‬‬
In fact, such deletions would constitute a LANL security violation. Based on my
training and experience, removing classification designations or markings is a way to
minimize risk of detection or apprehension when gathering, removing, or retaining
classified materials in an unauthorized fashion. Additionally, the removal of
classification markings as described above from classified docu-ments would
facilitate LEE’s ability to remove classified documents from LANL in an
unauthorized fashion.
(32) On April 7, 1999, employees at LANL’s Computer Help Desk stated that
their logs reveal that LEE had made the following four requests for assis-tance. First,
on March 2, 1998, LEE asked how to access his closed file X-Division CFS from
overseas. This was just before a personal trip that LEE made to Taiwan which began
on March 15, 1998. This trip lasted for 45 days. The Help Desk informed LEE that it
was not possible to access the closed CFS from overseas. Second, on January 21,
1999, (which was four days after the FBI interviewed him at home), LEE asked how
to hook up a laptop into GAMMA, which is a LANL processing computer used to
make calculations rather than store information. Third, also on January 21, 1999,
LEE sought help in deleting files. During his request for help, LEE stated that,
despite his deletion efforts, the files were ―not going away.‖ The Help Desk surmised
that he needed to take one last step to delete the files and told him how to complete
the process. Fourth, on February 1, 1999, LEE said that he was dial-ing in from his
LANL-owned MacIntosh computer (which was at his resi-dence) and was getting in
(obtaining access to LANL’s computer system) but was getting disconnected.
(33) LEE was fired from LANL on March 8, 1999. DOE revoked LEE’s
security clearance that same day. Additionally, LEE certified on or about March 8,
1999 that he had returned all LANL property. Although LEE has been residing with
family in the Los Angeles, California area between on or about March 9, 1999 until
on or about April 7, 1999, he is not known to have any office or other location other
than his residence out of which to work or which provided him computer access.
(34) Based on the foregoing information, there is probable cause to believe
that there is evidence in LEE’s residence that reveals violations of 18 U.S.C. §§ 793,
1001, and 1924.
(35) The affiant requests that a search warrant be issued for LEE’s resi-dence,
as described in Attachment A.
(36) I believe that there is probable cause to believe that evidence of the
above-described criminal activities will be found in LEE’s residence. These
conclusions are based on my experience and training relating to the types of records
and items that persons engaged in the activities described above typically keep at
their residence as well as on the facts recited above.
(37) Items to be seized are described in Attachment B of this Affidavit, and
include but are not limited to computer disk or other computer memory

46
‫‪ٝ‬حُٔـالص ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ػخثن ‪ٝ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬حى ‪ ،‬رٔخ ك‪ٜ٤‬خ طِي حُٔٔظويٓش ُظٔ‪ َ٤ٜ‬حالط‪ٜ‬خالص ‪ٝ‬حُز‪٤‬خٗخص حإلٌُظَ‪٤ٗٝ‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُٔؼيحص‬
‫حُلخٓ‪ٞ‬ر‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حألؿ‪ِٜ‬س حُطَك‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫اىَيحق أ‪:‬‬
‫‪ٗ 80‬خٍع رَِٗ‪ٗٞ‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬ح‪٣‬ض ٍ‪ٝ‬ى ‪87544 ٌٞ٤ٌٔٓ ٞ٤ٗ ،‬‬
‫‪ٗ 80‬خٍع رَِٗ‪ٗٞ‬ش ‪١ ٖٓ ٍِ٘ٓ ٞٛ‬خرن ‪ٝ‬حكي ‪ ٖٓ ،‬حُط‪ٞ‬د حُز٘‪ ، ٢‬ا‪١‬خٍ ًٔظ٘خث‪،ُٕٞ(٢‬أَٓٔ هخطْ) ‪،‬‬
‫ػِ‪ ٠‬ؿَحٍ ٍِٓػش ٓغ َٓآد ُٔ‪٤‬خٍط‪٣ .ٖ٤‬ـط‪ ٢‬حُط‪ٞ‬د كو‪ ٢‬حُـِء حألٓخٓ‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حٍُِٔ٘ ‪ٝ ،‬ؿ‪ٞ‬حٗز‪ٖٓ ٚ‬‬
‫حُـ‪ ٚ‬حُز٘‪ٝ ٢‬حُٔوق رِ‪ًٔ ٕٞ‬ظ٘خث‪ٓ .٢‬زخَٗس أٓخّ حٍُِٔ٘ ‪ٝ‬رـ‪ٞ‬حٍ ٗخٍع رَِٗ‪ٗٞ‬ش ط‪ٞ‬ؿي هْٔ أٗـخٍ‬
‫ه‪َ٠‬حء ‪٘ٛٝ‬ي‪ٝ‬م رَ‪٣‬ي أر‪ٞ٣ .ٞ٤‬ؿي طلض ‪٘ٛ‬ي‪ٝ‬م حُزَ‪٣‬ي ‪ٝ‬ػخء ُ‪ٜ‬ل‪٤‬لش" ٓ‪٤ٗٞ‬ظ‪ٛ ٢ٛٝ " ٍٞ‬ل‪٤‬لش ٓلِ‪٤‬ش‬
‫ك‪ ُّٞ ٢‬أالٓ‪ ّٞ‬ر‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬ش ٗ‪ٔ٣ . ,ٌٞ٤ٌٔٓ ٞ٤‬ظي ٗخٍع رَِٗ‪ٗٞ‬ش َٗهخ ‪ٝ‬ؿَرخ طوَ‪٣‬زخ‪٣ .‬وغ حٍُِٔ٘ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُـخٗذ‬
‫حُ٘ٔخُ‪ ٖٓ ٢‬حُ٘خٍع ك‪ ٢ٓٝ ٢‬حٌُظِش طوَ‪٣‬زخ ‪ٞ٣ٝ ،‬حؿ‪ ٚ‬حُـ٘‪ٞ‬د‪.‬‬
‫طْ حُظلون ٖٓ إٔ حٍُِٔ٘ ‪ ٞٛ‬حُٔوَ حُ٘و‪ُٝٝ ٢ُ ٍ ٢ٜ‬ؿظ‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬هزَ أٗوخ‪ ٙ‬آهَ‪٣ ٖ٣‬ؼ‪ ٕٞ٘٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ٘طوش‬
‫‪ًٌُٝ‬ي ٖٓ هزَ حػ٘‪ ٖٓ ٖ٤‬حُؼٔالء حُوخ‪ٌُٔ ٖ٤ٛ‬ظذ حُظلو‪٤‬وخص حُل‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬حٌُ‪ ٖ٣‬هخرِ‪ٞ‬ح ُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ٌٛ ٢‬ح حُٔ‪ٞ‬هغ‪.‬‬
‫اىَيحق ة‪:‬‬
‫اىجْىد اىتً سٍتٌ حدزهب‪:‬‬
‫‪٣‬ظْ ‪ٛٝ‬ق أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ٜ‬خ أ‪ٝ ١‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ‪ ،‬رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي أ‪ ١‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س اٌُظَ‪٤ٗٝ‬ش هخىٍس‬
‫ػِ‪ ٠‬ؿٔغ أ‪ ٝ‬طلِ‪ َ٤‬أ‪ ٝ‬اٗ٘خء أ‪ ٝ‬ػَ‪ ٝ‬أ‪ ٝ‬طل‪ َ٣ٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬طوِ‪ ٖ٣‬أ‪ ٝ‬اهلخء أ‪ٗ ٝ‬وَ ٗز‪٠‬خص أ‪ ٝ‬ر‪٤‬خٗخص ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ‬
‫ً‪َٜ‬رخث‪٤‬ش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬ـ٘خ‪٤ٔ٤١‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬ر‪٣َٜ‬ش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬خ ٗخر‪ًُ ٚ‬ي‪ .‬طظ‪ ٌٙٛ ٖٔ٠‬حألؿ‪ِٜ‬س ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ال حُل‪ َٜ‬أ‪١‬‬
‫أؿ‪ِٜ‬س ٓؼخُـش ر‪٤‬خٗخص (ٓؼَ ‪ٝ‬كيحص حُٔؼخُـش حًَُِٔ‪٣‬ش ‪ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ "حُٔلٔ‪ُٞ‬ش" أ‪" ٝ‬حُٔلٔ‪ُٞ‬ش"‬
‫حُٔٔظوِش); أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حُظوِ‪ ٖ٣‬حُيحهِ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُطَك‪٤‬ش (ٓؼَ حألهَح‪ ٙ‬حُؼخرظش ‪ٝ‬حألهَح‪ ٙ‬حُ‪ِٜ‬زش حُوخٍؿ‪٤‬ش ‪ٓٝ‬لًَخص‬
‫حألهَح‪ ٙ‬حَُٔٗش ‪ٝ‬حألهَح‪ ٙ‬حَُٔٗش ‪ٓٝ‬لًَخص حألَٗ‪١‬ش ‪ٝ‬حألَٗ‪١‬ش ‪ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س طوِ‪ ٖ٣‬حألهَح‪ ٙ‬حُ‪ٞ٠‬ث‪٤‬ش‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُٔ‪٠‬ـ‪١ٞ‬ش ‪ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س طوِ‪ ٖ٣‬حٌُحًَس حألهَ‪ )ٟ‬؛ أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حإلىهخٍ‪ /‬حإلهَحؽ حُطَك‪٤‬ش (ٓؼَ ُ‪ٞ‬كخص حُٔلخط‪٤‬ق‬
‫‪ٝ‬حُطخرؼخص ‪ٝ‬حُٔخٓلخص حُ‪ٞ٠‬ث‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حَُحٓٔخص ‪ٗٝ‬خٗخص ػَ‪ ٝ‬حُل‪٤‬ي‪ٝ ٞ٣‬حُوخٍثخص حُز‪٣َٜ‬ش); ‪ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س‬
‫حالط‪ٜ‬خالص ًحص حُ‪ِٜ‬ش (ٓؼَ أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حُٔ‪ٞ‬ىّ ‪ٝ‬حٌُخرالص ‪ٝ‬حُظ‪٤ٛٞ‬الص ‪ٓٝ‬ؼيحص حُظٔـ‪ٝٝ َ٤‬كيحص ًحًَس‬
‫حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬حُؼ٘‪ٞ‬حث‪ ٢‬أ‪ً ٝ‬حًَس حُوَحءس كو‪ٝ ٢‬حُٔوَٗخص حُ‪ٜٞ‬ط‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُٔٔـِ‪ ٕٞ‬ح‪ٝ ٕٞ٤ُ٥‬حُٔٔـِ‪ ٕٞ‬حَُٔ‪٣‬ؼ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حالط‪ٜ‬خٍ حُ‪ٜ‬خطل‪ ٢‬حُوخرِش ُِزَٓـش أ‪ ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حإلٗخٍس ‪ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س ط‪٤ُٞ‬ي حُ٘ـٔش حإلٌُظَ‪٤ٗٝ‬ش) ؛ ‪ًٌُٝ‬ي أ‪١‬‬
‫أؿ‪ِٜ‬س أ‪ ٝ‬آُ‪٤‬خص أ‪ ٝ‬أؿِحء ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬حٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ ُظو‪٤٤‬ي حُ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ ٌٙٛ ٠‬حألؿ‪ِٜ‬س (ٓؼَ حُٔلخط‪٤‬ق ‪ٝ‬حألهلخٍ حُٔخى‪٣‬ش)‪.‬‬

‫‪٣‬ظْ ‪ٛٝ‬ق رَحٓؾ حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ٜ‬خ أ‪ٝ ١‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص ‪ ،‬رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي أ‪ ١‬طؼِ‪ٔ٤‬خص أ‪ ٝ‬رَحٓؾ أ‪ٍِٓ ٝ‬‬
‫حُزَٗخٓؾ حُٔوِٕ ك‪ٓٝ ٌَٗ ٢‬خث‪ ٢‬اٌُظَ‪٤ٗٝ‬ش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬ـ٘خ‪٤ٔ٤١‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬ر‪٣َٜ‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬ؿ‪َٛ٤‬خ ٖٓ حُ‪ٓٞ‬خث‪ ٢‬حُظ‪ٌٖٔ٣ ٢‬‬
‫طلٔ‪َٛ٤‬خ ر‪ٞ‬ح ٓطش حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ أ‪ ٝ‬حٌُٔ‪ٗٞ‬خص حَُٔطزطش ر‪ .ٚ‬هي طظ‪ ٖٔ٠‬رَحٓؾ حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ أ‪٠٣‬خ ر‪٤‬خٗخص ٓؼ‪٘٤‬ش أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫أؿِحء ر‪٤‬خٗخص أ‪ ٝ‬أكَف طلٌْ ؿِءح ال ‪٣‬ظـِأ ٖٓ ط٘ـ‪ َ٤‬رَحٓؾ حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ‪ .‬طَ٘ٔ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُؼ٘خ‪ ، َٛ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪َ٤‬‬
‫حُٔؼخٍ ال حُل‪ ، َٜ‬رَحٓؾ ٗظخّ حُظ٘ـ‪ٝ ، َ٤‬رَحٓؾ حُظطز‪٤‬وخص ‪ٝ ،‬رَحٓؾ حَُٔحكن ‪ٝ ،‬حُٔـٔؼ‪ٝ ، ٖ٤‬حُٔظَؿٔ‪ٖ٤‬‬
‫حُز‪ٝ ، ٖ٤٤٘٤‬رَحٓؾ حالط‪ٜ‬خالص ‪ٝ ،‬حُزَٓـش حألهَ‪ ٟ‬حُٔٔظويٓش أ‪ ٝ‬حُِٔٓغ حٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ ُِظ‪ٞ‬ح‪ٓ َٛ‬غ ٌٓ‪ٗٞ‬خص‬
‫حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ حألهَ‪.ٟ‬‬

‫‪47‬‬
storage devices, records, documents and materials including those used to facilitate
communications, electronic data, and computer equipment and peripherals.
ATTACHMENT A
80 Barcelona Avenue, White Rock, New Mexico 87544
80 Barcelona Avenue is a one story, brown brick, maroon framed, ranch-style house
with a two car garage. The brick covers only the front portion of the house, the sides
of which are brown stucco and the roof is a maroon color. Directly in front of the
house and adjacent to Barcelona Avenue are five ever-green trees and a white
mailbox. Beneath the mailbox is a receptacle for the ―Monitor,‖ a local Los Alamos,
New Mexico, newspaper. Barcelona Avenue runs roughly east and west. The house
is on the north side of the street in approximately the center of the block, facing
south.
The house has been verified to be the personal residence of LEE and his wife by
other persons living in the area as well as by two Special Agents of the FBI who
interviewed LEE at this location.
ATTACHMENT B
Items to be seized:
Computer hardware is described as any and all computer equipment, including any
electronic devices which are capable of collecting, analyzing, creating, displaying,
converting, storing, concealing, or transmitting elec-tronic, magnetic, optical, or
similar computer impulses or data. These devices include but are not limited to any
data processing hardware (such as central processing units and self-contained
―laptop‖ or ―notebook‖ computers); inter-nal and peripheral storage devices (such as
fixed disks, external hard disks, floppy disk drives and diskettes, tape drives and
tapes, optical and compact disk storage devices, and other memory storage devices) ;
peripheral input/ output devices (such as keyboards, printers, scanners, plotters,
video display monitors, and optical readers); and related communications devices
(such as modems, cables and connections, recording equipment, RAM or ROM
units, acoustic couplers, automatic dialers, speed dialers, programmable telephone
dialing or signaling devices, and electronic tone-generating devices); as well as any
devices, mechanisms, or parts that can be used to restrict access to such hardware
(such as physical keys and locks).
Computer software is described as any and all information, including any
instructions, programs or program code stored in the form of electronic, magnetic,
optical or other media which are capable of being interpreted by a computer or its
related components. Computer software may also include certain data, data
fragments or control characters integral to the operation of computer software. These
items include, but are not limited to operating system software, applications
software, utility programs, compilers, inter-preters, communications software and
other programming used or intended to be used to communicate with other computer
components.

47
‫‪٣‬ظْ ‪ٛٝ‬ق حُ‪ٞ‬ػخثن حُٔظؼِوش رخٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ٜ‬خ أ‪ٓ ١‬خىس ٌٓظ‪ٞ‬رش أ‪ٔٓ ٝ‬ـِش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬طز‪ٞ‬ػش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬وِٗش اٌُظَ‪٤ٗٝ‬خ‬
‫طَ٘ف أ‪ ٝ‬ط‪ٟٞ‬ق طٌ‪ ٖ٣ٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬حٓظويحّ أ‪ ١‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س أ‪ ٝ‬رَحٓؾ أ‪ ٝ‬ػ٘خ‪ً َٛ‬حص ‪ِٛ‬ش طْ حالٓظ‪٤‬الء ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ‪.‬‬
‫ًٔخ طَ٘ٔ حُز٘‪ٞ‬ى حُظ‪٤ٓ ٢‬ظْ حالٓظ‪٤‬الء ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ أ‪ٔٓ ١‬ظ٘يحص طْ اٗ٘خإ‪ٛ‬خ ر‪ٞ‬حٓطش حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ أ‪ٔٗ ٝ‬وش ‪ٍٝ‬ه‪٤‬ش‬
‫طظؼِن رخُ٘زٌش حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش ‪ ٍُٞٓٝ ،‬حُٔ‪ٜ‬يٍ ‪ٞ١ٝ ،‬حرن حإلىهخٍ ‪ ٍُٞٓٝ ،‬ك‪ٍٞ‬طَحٕ ‪ٝ ،‬حُلٔخرخص حَُ‪٣‬خ‪٤ٟ‬ش‬
‫حألهَ‪.ٟ‬‬
‫‪٣‬ظْ ‪ٛٝ‬ق ًِٔخص َٓ‪ ٍٝ‬حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ‪ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س أٖٓ حُز‪٤‬خٗخص ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ٜ‬خ ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حألؿ‪ِٜ‬س أ‪ ٝ‬حُزَحٓؾ أ‪ ٝ‬حُز‪٤‬خٗخص—‬
‫ٓ‪ٞ‬حء ًخٗض ٗلٔ‪ٜ‬خ ك‪١ ٢‬ز‪٤‬ؼش حألؿ‪ِٜ‬س أ‪ ٝ‬حُزَحٓؾ—حُظ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ٢‬حٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ أ‪ٜٔٔٓ ٝ‬ش الٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ ُظو‪٤٤‬ي‬
‫حُ ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬أ‪ ٝ‬طٔ‪ َ٤ٜ‬اهلخء أ‪ ١‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ أ‪ ٝ‬رَحٓؾ أ‪ٝ ٝ‬ػخثن ٓظؼِوش رخٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ أ‪ ٝ‬ر‪٤‬خٗخص اٌُظَ‪٤ٗٝ‬ش‬
‫أ‪ٓ ٝ‬ـالص أ‪ٔٓ ٝ‬ظ٘يحص أ‪ٞٓ ٝ‬حى ‪ٗ ٖٟٔ‬طخم ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُظطز‪٤‬ن‪ٝ .‬طَ٘ٔ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُز٘‪ٞ‬ى ‪ ٌُٖٝ‬ال طوظ‪ َٜ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬أ‪١‬‬
‫أؿ‪ِٜ‬س أٖٓ حُز‪٤‬خٗخص (ٓؼَ أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حُظ٘ل‪ٍٝ ، َ٤‬هخثن ‪ُٞٝ‬كخص حُي‪ٝ‬حثَ) ًِٔخص حَُٔ ‪ٓٝ ،‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص ٓٔخػِش ٓخ ‪ٞٛ‬‬
‫ٓطِ‪ٞ‬د ُِ‪ ٍٞٛٞ‬اُ‪ ٠‬رَحٓؾ حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ أ‪ ٝ‬حُز‪٤‬خٗخص أ‪ُ ٝ‬ظوي‪ ْ٣‬حُزَحٓؾ أ‪ ٝ‬حُز‪٤‬خٗخص ك‪ٛ ٌَٗ ٢‬خُلش ُالٓظؼٔخٍ‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش اُ‪ ٠‬حُل‪ٞ‬حٓ‪٤‬ذ ‪ٝ‬حُٔؼيحص ‪ٝ‬حُزَحٓؾ حُٔظ‪ِٜ‬ش رخُلخٓ‪ٞ‬د ًٔخ ‪ٟٞٓ ٞٛ‬ق أػال‪ ، ٙ‬طَ٘ٔ حأل‪٘ٛ‬خف‬
‫حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ظؼ‪ٟ ٖ٤‬زط‪ٜ‬خ أ‪ ١‬ىكخطَ أ‪ٓ ٝ‬ـالص أ‪ ٝ‬ا‪ٜ٣‬خالص أ‪ٓ ٝ‬الكظخص أ‪ ٝ‬رَ‪٣‬ي اٌُظَ‪ ٢ٗٝ‬أ‪ ٝ‬ىكخطَ أ‪ٝ ٝ‬ػخثن أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫حطلخهخص أ‪ ٝ‬أ‪ٍٝ‬حم ػَٔ أ‪َٓ ٝ‬حٓالص أ‪ٓ ٝ‬ؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص طظؼِن رؤػٔخٍ ٓوظزَ ُ‪ ّٞ‬أالٓ‪ ّٞ‬حُ‪ ٢٘١ٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬ط‪ٜ‬ق طِي‬
‫حألػٔخٍ ‪٘ٓٝ‬خٍ‪٣‬غ حُؼَٔ ك‪ٜ٤‬خ‪ .‬هي طظ‪ ٌٙٛ ٖٔ٠‬حُز٘‪ٞ‬ى ٓٔظ٘يحص ٓ‪ٜ٘‬لش ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٜ٘ٓ َ٤‬لش‪.‬‬
‫أ‪ٝ ١‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُ‪ٞ‬ػخثن أ‪ ٝ‬حُٔـالص حُٔظؼِوش رخُٔلَ أ‪ ٝ‬حَُٔحٓالص ٓغ أ‪ٔٓ ١‬ئ‪ ٍٝ‬أ‪ ٝ‬ػخُْ أ‪ٓ ٝ‬و‪ ْ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٣ٍٜٞ‬ش‬
‫حُ‪ ٖ٤ٜ‬حُ٘ؼز‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ٗظَح الٓظويحّ أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ ‪ ،‬هي طٌ‪ ٌٙٛ ٕٞ‬حُز‪٤‬خٗخص ك‪ٔٓ ٌَٗ ٢‬ظ٘يحص ‪ٍٝ‬ه‪٤‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬هي ‪٣‬ظْ طوِ‪ٜ٘٣‬خ ك‪٢‬‬
‫ٌَٗ ‪ٓٝ‬خث‪ ٢‬اٌُظَ‪٤ٗٝ‬ش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬ـ٘خ‪٤ٔ٤١‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬ر‪٣َٜ‬ش أ‪ٓٝ ٝ‬خث‪ ٢‬أهَ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ٟ‬هَحءط‪ٜ‬خ ر‪ٞ‬حٓطش ؿ‪ٜ‬خُ ًٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫ٓؼيحص ٓظؼِوش رخٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ‪ٝ .‬طَ٘ٔ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُ‪ٓٞ‬خث‪ ، ٢‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ال حُل‪ ، َٜ‬أ‪ ١‬أهَح‪ ٙ‬ػخرظش أ‪ ٝ‬أهَح‪ٙ‬‬
‫هخٍؿ‪٤‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬هَح‪ ٖ٤١‬أهَح‪ِٛ ٙ‬زش هخرِش ُإلُحُش أ‪ٓ ٝ‬لًَخص أهَح‪َٗٓ ٙ‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬أهَح‪ ٙ‬أ‪ ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س َٗحث‪ ٢‬أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫أَٗ‪١‬ش أ‪ ٝ‬أؿ‪ِٜ‬س طوِ‪ً ٖ٣‬حًَس أهَ‪ٔ٤ُ ٟ‬ض ك‪ٍٝ ٌَٗ ٢‬ه‪ ٢‬هي طٌ‪ ٕٞ‬حٓظويٓض ً‪ِ٤ٓٞ‬ش الٍطٌخد حٗظ‪ٜ‬خًخص‬
‫ُِز٘ي ‪ ٖٓ 18‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس ‪ٝ‬أهٔخٓ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ ، 793 ٝ 1924 ،‬أ‪ ٝ‬طٌَ٘ ىُ‪٤‬ال ػِ‪ ٠‬كي‪ٝ‬ع حٗظ‪ٜ‬خًخص ُِز٘ي‬
‫‪ ٖٓ 18‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‪.‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬طَ٘ٔ حُز٘‪ٞ‬ى حألهَ‪ ٟ‬حُظ‪٤ٓ ٢‬ظْ حالٓظ‪٤‬الء ػِ‪ٜ٤‬خ أؿ‪ِٜ‬س حٌُٔز‪ٞ٤‬طَ حُٔلٔ‪ُٞ‬ش ‪ٝ ،‬حُ‪٤ٓٞ٤‬خص ‪ٝ ،‬حُظو‪ٔ٣ٞ‬خص ‪،‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬أىُش حُٔؼخٓالص ‪ٓٝ ،‬ـالص حُ‪ٜ‬خطق ‪ٓٝ ،‬ـالص رطخهخص حالثظٔخٕ‪.‬‬
‫طَ٘ٔ ػزخٍس" حُٔـالص ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ٞ‬ػخثن ‪ٝ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬حى " ‪ ،‬رٔخ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي طِي حُٔٔظويٓش ُظٔ‪ َ٤ٜ‬حالط‪ٜ‬خالص ‪ ،‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪َ٤‬‬
‫حُٔؼخٍ ال حُل‪ٓ ، َٜ‬ـالص حألٗ٘طش حُ٘و‪٤ٜ‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُظـخٍ‪٣‬ش حُٔظؼِوش رٔوظزَ ُ‪ ّٞ‬أالٓ‪ ّٞ‬حُ‪ٓ ، ٢٘١ٞ‬ؼَ‬
‫ٓٔظ٘يحص حُؼَٔ ‪ٝ‬أٓٔخء ‪ٝ‬ػ٘خ‪ ٖ٣ٝ‬حًَُ٘خء ‪ٝ‬حَُٔحٓالص ‪ٝ‬حُزَ‪٣‬ي حإلٌُظَ‪ٝ ٢ٗٝ‬ىكخطَ حُٔـالص ‪ٝ‬حُ‪٤ٓٞ٤‬خص‬
‫‪ٓٝ‬ـالص حُ‪ٜ‬خطق ‪ٝ‬حُٔـالص حُٔ‪َٜ‬ك‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُٔ‪ٞ‬حى حَُٔؿؼ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُ‪ ٍٜٞ‬حُل‪ٞ‬ط‪ٞ‬ؿَحك‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫اىَذعً اىعبً ىيذوىخ‬
‫‪٣‬ظٔظغ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص رِٔطش ‪ٝ‬حٓؼش ُظ٘ٔ‪٤‬ن حُٔلخًٔخص حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش‪ .‬طَ٘ٔ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُِٔطش حُلن‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخ‪ٟ‬خس ٖٓ طِوخء ٗلٔ‪ٚ‬‬

‫‪48‬‬
Computer related documentation is described as any written, recorded, printed or
electronically stored material which explains or illustrates the configuration or use of
any seized hardware, software or related item.
Also included as items to be seized are any computer generated docu-ment or hard
copy related to LANL, source codes, input decks, FORTRAN codes and other
mathematical calculations.
Computer passwords and data security devices are described as all of the devices,
programs, or data—whether themselves in the nature of hardware or software—that
can be used or are designed to be used to restrict access to or facilitate concealment
of any computer hardware, software, computer related documentation, electronic
data, records, documents or materials within the scope of this application. These
items include but are not limited to any data security hardware (such as encryption
devices, chips and circuit boards) passwords, and similar information that is required
to access computer pro-grams or data or to otherwise render programs or data into a
useable form.
In addition to computers and computer related hardware and software as described
above, items to be seized include any books, records, receipts, notes, e-mail, ledgers,
documents, agreements, worksheets, correspondence or information relating to or
describing work involving the Los Alamos National Laboratory and work projects
therein. These items may include classified as well as unclassified documents.
Any and all documents or records relating to travel to or correspondence with any
PRC official, scientist or resident.
Due to the use of computers, this data may be in the form of paper docu-ments or
may be stored in the form of electronic, magnetic, optical or other media capable of
being read by a computer or computer related equipment. This media includes but is
not limited to any fixed disks, external disks, removable hard disk cartridges, floppy
disk drives and diskettes, tape devices and tapes or other memory storage devices not
in paper form which may have been used as a means of committing, or constitute
evidence of the commis-sion of, violations of Title 18, United States Code, Sections,
1924 and 793.
Other items to be seized include notebooks, diaries, calendars, evidence of
transactions, telephone records, and credit card records.
The phrase ―records, documents and materials,‖ including those used to facilitate
communications includes but is not limited to records of personal and business
activities relating to Los Alamos National Laboratory, such as business documents,
associate names and addresses, correspondence, e-mail, log books, diaries, telephone
records, bank records, reference materials and photographs.
State Attorney General
In most states the attorney general has broad authority to coordinate local
prosecutions. This authority includes the right to prosecute on his own

48
‫‪ٝ‬حإلَٗحف ‪ٔٓ ٝ‬خػيس ‪ٝ‬حٓظ٘خٍس ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء حُٔلِ‪ .ٖ٤٤‬اًح حكظخؽ ٓلخٓ‪ٓ ٢‬لظَف ٓلِ‪ ٢‬اُ‪ ٠‬حُٔٔخػيس أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫كَ٘ ك‪ ٢‬أىحء ‪ٝ‬حؿزخط‪ُِٔ ,ٚ‬يػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ كَ‪٣‬ش حُظ‪َٜ‬ف‪ٓ .‬خ ُْ ‪٣‬ظْ حٓظيػخإ‪ ٖٓ ٙ‬هزَ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ حُٔلِ‪ ، ٢‬أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫ٓخ ُْ ‪٣‬لَ٘ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ حُٔلِ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخ‪ٟ‬خس ػ٘يٓخ طزٍَ حُلوخثن ًُي ‪ ،‬ال ‪٣‬ظيهَ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ُِي‪ُٝ‬ش‬
‫ػخىس‪٘ٛ .‬خى ػيى هِ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُظ‪ ٢‬ال ‪٣‬ظٔظغ ك‪ٜ٤‬خ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ رِٔطش ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔلخًٔخص حُٔلِ‪٤‬ش‪ٝ .‬اًح ًخٕ‬
‫‪٘٣‬زـ‪ ٢‬إٔ ‪٘ٛ ٌٕٞ٣‬خى ٓوخُلخص ك‪ٜ٘ٓ ٢‬ز‪ ٖٓ ٚ‬هزَ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حىػخء ٓلِ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬طِي حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص ‪ ٌٖٔ٣ ،‬حٓظيػخء‬
‫حُلخًْ ُظؼ‪ٓ ٖ٤٤‬يع هخ‪ ٙ‬ألىحء ‪ٝ‬حؿزخص حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ حُٔلِ‪ .٢‬ػ٘يٓخ ‪٣‬ظْ حٓظج٘خف حُو‪٤٠‬ش ‪ ،‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ‬
‫حُٔلخًْ ‪٣ ،‬وغ ػِ‪ ٠‬ػخطن حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ُِي‪ُٝ‬ش ٓٔئ‪٤ُٝ‬ش ػَ‪ ٝ‬حُو‪٤٠‬ش ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف‪ٔ٤ٓٝ .‬خػي‬
‫حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ُِٔوخ‪١‬ؼش حُظ‪ ٢‬ؿَص ك‪ٜ٤‬خ حُٔلخًٔش‪.‬‬
‫ٍحبًٍ اىذفبع‬

‫‪ٔ٣‬ؼَ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع كو‪ٞ‬م ‪ٜٓٝ‬خُق حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ .ٚ٤‬ػِ‪ ٠‬ػٌْ حُٔيػ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ‪ ،‬حٌُ‪ٜ٣ ١‬ظْ رخُؼيحُش ‪ٝ‬حإلٗ‪ٜ‬خف‬
‫‪ ،‬كبٕ حُظِحّ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘ل‪ ٞ‬حُٔ٘‪ ٜٙٞ‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼخ‪ َ٤٣‬حُِٔ‪ٞ‬ى حُؼخٓش ُ٘وخرش حُٔلخٓ‪ ٖ٤‬حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش‬
‫‪ ٞٛ‬حٓظويحّ ًَ ٗـخػظ‪ٝ ٚ‬طلخٗ‪ٜٓٝ ٚ٤‬خٍحط‪ُ ٚ‬لٔخ‪٣‬ش كو‪ٞ‬م حُٔظ‪٣ .ْٜ‬لَٔ حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُطْٔ‬
‫ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪٣ ٚ‬ظطِذ ٓ٘‪ ْٜ‬حُو‪٤‬خّ رٌَ ٓخ ‪ُِ ٌٖٔٓ ٞٛ‬ل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪ ٠‬طزَثش كظ‪ً ُٞ ٠‬خٗ‪ٞ‬ح ‪٣‬ؼَك‪ ٕٞ‬إٔ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ٚ٤‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬حهغ حٍطٌذ حُـَ‪ٔ٣‬ش‪.‬‬

‫‪ ٚ٘٣‬حُظؼي‪ َ٣‬حُٔخىّ ُِيٓظ‪ ٍٞ‬حألَٓ‪ ٢ٌ٣‬ػِ‪ ٠‬إٔ حُٔظ‪ ٖ٤ٜٔ‬رخٍطٌخد ؿَحثْ ُ‪ ْٜ‬حُلن ك‪ ٢‬إٔ ‪ٔ٣‬ؼِ‪ٓ ْٜ‬لخّ‪.‬‬
‫كيىص حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٤٠‬ش حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪٤‬ش ؿيػ‪ٟ ٕٞ‬ي ‪َ٘٣ٝ‬ح‪٣‬ض حُٔزيأ حُوخثَ إٔ ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُٔظ‪ُ ٖ٤ٜٔ‬ي‪ْٜ٣‬‬
‫حُلن ك‪ ٢‬حالٓظؼخٗش رٔلخّ ك‪ ٢‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُـ٘خ‪٣‬خص ‪ ،‬كظ‪ً ُٞ ٠‬خٗ‪ٞ‬ح ال ‪ٔ٣‬ظط‪٤‬ؼ‪ ٕٞ‬ط‪ٓ َ٤ًٞ‬لخّ هخ‪.ٙ‬‬
‫‪ٓٝ‬ؼض حُٔلٌٔش ‪ٌٛ‬ح حُٔل‪ َٔ٘٤ُ ّٜٞ‬ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُـ٘ق ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤٠‬ش أٍؿَٓ٘ـَ ‪ٟ‬ي ‪ٛ‬خٓ‪ٓ ، ٖ٤ِ٤‬ؼظزَس أٗ‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿ‪٤‬خد‬
‫حُظ٘خٍُ ‪ ،‬ال ‪٣‬ـ‪ٓ ُٞ‬ـٖ أ‪ٗ ١‬و‪ ٚ‬رٔزذ أ‪ ١‬ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ش ‪ٞٓ ،‬حء ًخٗض ؿ٘لش أ‪ ٝ‬ؿ٘خ‪٣‬ش ‪ٓ ،‬خ ُْ ‪ٔٓ ٌٖ٣‬ؼال‬
‫رٔلخّ‪.‬‬

‫‪٘ٛ‬خى أٓخٓخ أٍرؼش أٗ‪ٞ‬حع ٖٓ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع‪ :‬حُٔلخٓ‪ ٖ٤‬حُؼخٓ‪ٝ ، ٖ٤‬هيٓخص حُيكخع حُٔوخُلش ‪ٓٝ ،‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع‬
‫حُٔؼ‪ٓٝ ، ٖ٤‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع حُوخ‪ٝ .ٙ‬طؼ‪ ٖ٤‬حُلٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش ٓلخٓ‪ ٖ٤‬ػخٓ‪٣ٝ ٖ٤‬ظوخ‪ٍٝ ٕٟٞ‬حطز‪٣ٝ ، ْٜ‬ؼ‪ُ ٕٞ٘٤‬ظٔؼ‪َ٤‬‬
‫حألٗوخ‪ ٙ‬حُٔظ‪ ٖ٤ٜٔ‬رخٍطٌخد ؿَحثْ حٌُ‪ ٖ٣‬ال ‪ٔ٣‬ظط‪٤‬ؼ‪ ٕٞ‬ط‪ٓ َ٤ًٞ‬لخٓ‪ُ ٖ٤‬ظٔؼ‪ .ِْٜ٤‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص ُي‪ٜ٣‬خ‬
‫ٌٓخطذ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ؼَٔ ر‪ٜ‬خ ٓلخٓ‪ ٕٞ‬هخىٍ‪ ٕٝ‬ؿيح ‪ٝ‬ػي‪ٝ‬حٗ‪.ٕٞ٤‬‬

‫‪ٓٝ‬غ ًُي ‪٘ٛ ،‬خى كخالص ‪ ٌٕٞ٣‬ك‪ٜ٤‬خ ٌُٔظذ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ ‪ ،‬ألٓزخد ٓظ٘‪ٞ‬ػش ‪ ،‬ط‪٠‬خٍد ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ‪ٜ‬خُق ك‪٢‬‬
‫ه‪٤٠‬ش ٓخ‪ .‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬ز‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٍ ‪ ،‬هي ‪٣‬ليع ‪ٌٛ‬ح اًح ًخٕ ‪٘ٛ‬خى ٓظ‪ٜٔ‬خٕ ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٤٠‬ش ‪ٝ‬حكيس‪ .‬ك‪ ٌٙٛ ٢‬حُلخُش ‪ ،‬هي طؼ‪ٖ٤‬‬
‫حُٔلٌٔش ٓلخٓ‪٤‬خ ٖٓ هيٓخص حُيكخع حُظؼخهي‪٣‬ش ُظٔؼ‪ َ٤‬أكي حُٔظ‪ .ٖ٤ٜٔ‬طظٌ‪ ٕٞ‬هيٓخص حُيكخع حُظؼخهي‪٣‬ش ػخىس ٖٓ‬
‫ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ٖٓ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٖ٤‬حٌُ‪ ٖ٣‬أرَٓ‪ٞ‬ح حطلخه‪٤‬ش ٓغ حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش ُظٔؼ‪ َ٤‬حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ْٜ٤‬حُٔلظخؿ‪ٓ ٖ٤‬وخرَ ٍٓ‪ّٞ‬‬
‫ٓليىس‪.‬‬

‫‪49‬‬
And to supervise, assist, and consult local prosecuting attorneys. If a local pros-
ecuting attorney needs assistance or fails to perform his or her duties, the attorney
general is free to act. Unless called on by the local prosecutor, or unless the local
prosecutor fails to prosecute when the facts warrant it, the state attorney general does
not ordinarily intervene. There are a few states where the attorney general has no
authority over local prosecutions. If there should be malfeasance in office by a local
prosecuting attorney in those states, the governor could be called to appoint a special
prosecutor to perform the duties of the local prosecutor. When a case is appealed, in
most jurisdic-tions it is the responsibility of the state attorney general to present the
case to the appellate court. The attorney general will be assisted by the prosecuting
attorney of the county in which the trial took place.
Defense Counsel
The defense attorney represents the rights and interests of the defendant. Unlike the
prosecutor, who is concerned with justice and fairness, the defense attorney’s
obligation as established by the American Bar Association’s General Standards of
Conduct is to use all of his or her courage, devotion and skills to protect the rights of
the accused. Many defense attorneys interpret this obli-gation as requiring that they
do everything possible to obtain an acquittal even if they know that the defendant in
fact committed the offense.
The Sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states that those who are accused of
crimes have a right to be represented by an attorney. The Supreme Court in the
landmark case of Gideon v. Wainwright established the prin-ciple that all defendants
have a right to counsel in all felony cases, even if they cannot afford to hire their own
attorneys. The court extended this concept to misdemeanor cases in Argersinger v.
Hamilin, holding that, absent a waiver, no person may be imprisoned for any offense,
either misdemeanor or felony, unless he or she has been represented by an attorney.
There are basically four types of defense attorneys: public defenders, con-tract
defense services, assigned defense counsel, and private defense counsel. Public
defenders are hired and paid by the government and are appointed to represent those
persons charged with crimes who cannot afford to hire attor-neys to represent them.
Many counties have public defender’s offices that are staffed by very able, aggressive
attorneys.
However, there are instances where, for a variety of reasons, the public defender’s
office has a conflict of interest in a case. For example, this might occur if there were
two defendants in one case. In this situation, the court might appoint an attorney from
the contract defense services to represent one of the two defendants. Contract defense
services are normally comprised of a group of attorneys who have entered into an
agreement with the county to represent indigent defendants for a specified fee.

49
‫‪ٞ٣‬ؿي ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع حُٔؼ‪ ٖ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿخُز‪٤‬ش حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‪ .‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼخص ‪ٛ‬ـ‪َ٤‬س‬
‫‪ٝ‬ال ‪ٌٜ٘ٔ٣‬خ طلَٔ طٌِلش ٌٓظذ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُؼخّ حَُث‪ .٢ٔ٤‬طلض ٌَٗ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع حُٔؼ‪ ,ٖ٤‬طلظلع حُٔلٌٔش‬
‫روخثٔش ٖٓ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٖ٤‬حٌُ‪ ْٛ ٖ٣‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حٓظؼيحى ُظؼ‪ُ ْٜ٘٤٤‬ظٔؼ‪ َ٤‬حُٔظ‪ ٖ٤ٜٔ‬حُـ٘خث‪ ٖ٤٤‬حُٔؼ‪ .ٖ٣ُٞ‬ػ٘يٓخ ‪ٔ٣‬ؼَ حُٔيػ‪٠‬‬
‫ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔلٌٔش ‪٣ ،‬ؼ‪ ٖ٤‬حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُظخُ‪ ٢‬ك‪ ٢‬حُوخثٔش ُظٔؼ‪ َ٤‬حُٔظ‪.ْٜ‬‬

‫حٌَُ٘ حأله‪ُٔ َ٤‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع حُوخ‪ .ٙ‬ػخىس ٓخ ‪ٔ٣‬ؼَ ‪ٛ‬ئالء حُٔلخٓ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ْٜ٤‬‬
‫حُوخىٍ‪ ٖ٣‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُيكغ ٓوخرَ هيٓخط‪ٍٝ( ْٜ‬رَٓ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬آهَ‪.)2006 ,.ٕٝ‬‬

‫اىحق فً تَثٍو اىزاد‪:‬‬

‫هٍَص حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ حألَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش رؤٕ كن حُظؼي‪ َ٣‬حُٔخىّ ك‪ ٢‬طوي‪ ْ٣‬حُٔ٘‪ٍٞ‬س ‪ٔٔ٣‬ق ُِٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬رخُٔ‪٢٠‬‬
‫هيٓخ ك‪ ٢‬كي ًحط‪ ، ٚ‬أ‪ ٝ‬طٔؼ‪ٗ َ٤‬لٔ‪ ٚ‬ري‪ٓ ٕٝ‬لخّ‪ .‬حألٓخّ حُٔ٘طو‪ ٞٛ ٢‬إٔ حُلن ك‪ ٢‬حالٓظؼخٗش رٔلخّ ‪ٌ٣‬لِ‪ٚ‬‬
‫حُظؼي‪ َ٣‬حُٔخىّ ‪ ٞٛ‬كن ٗو‪ُِٔ ٢ٜ‬ظ‪ ْ٤ُٝ ، ْٜ‬كوخ ‪٘ٔ٣‬ق ُِٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬حٌُ‪ٔ٣ ١‬ؼَ حُٔظ‪٣ .ْٜ‬ـذ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔيػ‪٠‬‬
‫ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬حٌُ‪َ٣ ١‬ؿذ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ‪ ٢٠‬هيٓخ ك‪ ٢‬كي ًحط‪ ٚ‬إٔ ‪٣‬ظ٘خٍُ ػٖ كو‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬حالٓظؼخٗش رٔلخّ ٓؼ‪ .ٖ٤‬ال ‪٣‬ؼ٘‪ ٢‬حُلن‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬طٔؼ‪ٗ َ٤‬لٔ‪ ٚ‬أٗ‪ُِٔ ٌٖٔ٣ ٚ‬يػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬حالٗوَح‪ ١‬ك‪ِٞٓ ٢‬ى ؿ‪ٓ َ٤‬لظَّ أ‪ٓ ٝ‬ؼطَ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔلٌٔش‪ٝ .‬رخإل‪ٟ‬خكش‬
‫اُ‪ًُ ٠‬ي ‪ًًَ ،‬ص حُٔلخًْ أٗ‪ ٚ‬ػ٘يٓخ ‪٣‬ظ٘خٍُ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬ػٖ ػِْ ػٖ كو‪ ٚ‬ك‪ ٢‬حالٓظؼخٗش رٔلخّ ‪ ،‬كبٗ‪ ٚ‬ال‬
‫‪ٔ٣‬ظط‪٤‬غ ك‪ٝ ٢‬هض الكن اػخٍس ٓٔؤُش حُظٔؼ‪ َ٤‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُلؼخٍ ‪ ،‬ألٕ حُٔظ‪ ْٜ‬ك‪ ٢‬ؿ‪ َٙٛٞ‬هي ط٘خٍُ ػٖ أ‪ ١‬حٓظج٘خف‬
‫ر٘ؤٕ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔٔؤُش (ٍ‪ٝ‬رَٓ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬آهَ‪.)2006 ,.ٕٝ‬‬

‫اىتىاصو اىٍََز‬

‫ؿخُزخ ٓخ ‪٣‬ظْ ‪ٟٝ‬غ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع ك‪ٞٓ ٢‬هق كَؽ ُِـخ‪٣‬ش رٔزذ حُؼالهش حُوي‪ٔ٣‬ش حُٔظٔؼِش ك‪" ٢‬حُظ‪ٞ‬ح‪َٛ‬‬
‫حُٔظٔ‪ "ِ٤‬ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُٔلخٓ‪ٝ ٢‬حُٔ‪ .ًَٞ‬ط٘‪ ٌٙٛ ٚ‬حُؼالهش ػِ‪ ٠‬أٗ‪ ٚ‬ال ‪٣‬ـ‪ ُٞ‬حٌُ٘ق ػٖ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص حُٔويٓش‬
‫ُِٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬رَٔ‪٣‬ش ٖٓ هزَ حُؼٔ‪ َ٤‬ى‪ ٕٝ‬إً حُؼٔ‪ .َ٤‬هي طٌ‪ًٝ ٕٞ‬خالص اٗلخً حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬ؿ‪ٓ َ٤‬يًٍش ُِـَحثْ حُظ‪٢‬‬
‫‪٘٣‬خه٘‪ٜ‬خ حُؼٔ‪ .َ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬اكي‪ ٟ‬حُلخالص ‪ ،‬أهزَ أكي حُؼٔالء ٓلخٓ‪ ٚ٤‬ػٖ ؿَ‪ٔ٣‬ظ‪ ٢‬هظَ حٍطٌز‪ٜٔ‬خ ‪ٝ‬أ‪ ٖ٣‬ىك٘ض‬
‫حُـؼغ‪ .‬حٌُِٔ٘ش حُ٘خطـش ػٖ طِو‪ ٌٙٛ ٢‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص ‪ٓ ٢ٛ‬خ اًح ًخٕ ‪٣‬ـذ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬طوي‪ٜٔ٣‬خ اُ‪ًٝ ٠‬خُش اٗلخً‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬أ‪ ٝ‬حالكظلخظ ر‪ٜ‬خ رَٔ‪٣‬ش طخٓش‪ .‬طٔض ٓ٘خه٘ش حإلؿخرش ػِ‪ٌٛ ٠‬ح حُٔئحٍ ٖٓ هزَ حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ ػِٔخء حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫ٓغ ػيّ ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ى اؿخرش ٓليىس هخىٓش‪٣ٝ .‬زي‪ ٝ‬إٔ حَُإ‪٣‬ش حألك‪ َ٠‬طظٔؼَ ك‪ ٢‬طوي‪ ْ٣‬حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص اُ‪ًٝ ٠‬خُش اٗلخً‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔ٘خٓزش ٖٓ أؿَ حٓظؼخىس حُـؼغ ‪ٝ‬اهطخٍ حألهخٍد‪٣ .‬لن ُِٔـظٔغ ‪ًٌُٝ ،‬ي حُٔـَّ ‪ ،‬حُل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫رؼ‪ ٞ‬حالػظزخٍ ‪ٝ‬حُؼيحُش‪ٝ .‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُلخالص ‪ ،‬ال ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬حطوخً اؿَحءحص ٓوخ‪ٟ‬خس ألٕ هخػيس حالٓظؼ٘خء ٖٓ‬
‫ٗؤٗ‪ٜ‬خ إٔ طلظَ حٓظويحّ حُٔؼِ‪ٓٞ‬خص ًيُ‪.َ٤‬‬

‫‪50‬‬
Assigned defense counsel exist in the majority of counties in the United States. Many
of these counties are small and cannot afford the cost of main-taining a public
defender’s office. Under the assigned defense counsel format, the court maintains a
list of attorneys who are willing to be appointed to represent indigent criminal
defendants. When a defendant appears in court, the judge appoints the next attorney
on the list to represent the accused.
The last form of defense attorney is the private defense counsel. These attorneys
usually represent defendants who are capable of paying for their services (Roberson
et al., 2006).
The Right to Represent Oneself
The U.S. Supreme Court has held that the Sixth Amendment right to coun-sel allows
a defendant to proceed pro se, or to represent himself or herself without counsel. The
rationale is that the right to counsel guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment is a personal
right of the accused, not a right bestowed upon the an attorney representing the
accused. The defendant who desires to proceed pro se must make a knowing and
intelligent waiver of his right to an appointed counsel. The right to represent oneself
does not mean that the defendant can engage in disrespectful or disruptive conduct in
court. Additionally, the courts have stated that when a defendant knowingly waives
the right to counsel, he or she cannot later raise the issue of ineffective repre-
sentation, because in essence the accused has waived any appeal on this issue
(Roberson et al., 2006).
Privileged Communication
Defense counsel are often placed in a most awkward position because of the age-old
relationship of ―privileged communication‖ between attorney and client. This
relationship provides that information furnished to an attorney in confidence by a
client may not be revealed without the permission of the client. Law enforcement
agencies may be unaware of crimes discussed by a client. In one instance, a client
told his attorney about two murders he had committed and where the bodies were
buried. The problem created by receiv-ing this information is whether the attorney
should furnish it to the appro-priate law enforcement agency or keep it in strictest
confidence. The answer to this question has been debated by many legal scholars
with no concrete answer forthcoming. It would appear that the better view would be
to fur-nish the information to the appropriate law enforcement agency in order that
the bodies be recovered and relatives notified. Society, as well as the criminal, is
entitled to some consideration and justice. In most instances prosecutive action could
not be taken because the exclusionary rule would prohibit the use of the information
as evidence.

50
‫اًح ًخٗض ‪ٝ‬هخثغ حُو‪٤٠‬ش رل‪٤‬غ طـؼَ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬هخىٍػِ‪ ٠‬حإل‪١‬الم ػِ‪ ٠‬طلَٔ ٓٔئ‪٤ُٝ‬ش حُيكخع رٌَ٘‬
‫كؼخٍ ػٖ حُؼٔ‪ ، َ٤‬ك‪٤‬ـذ ٍك‪ ٞ‬حُو‪٤٠‬ش‪ .‬رٔـَى هز‪ ٍٞ‬حُو‪٤٠‬ش ‪ٝ ٖٓ ،‬حؿذ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬إٔ ‪٣‬زو‪ ٠‬كظ‪٣ ٠‬ظْ‬
‫حُظ‪ َٛٞ‬اُ‪ٗ ٠‬ظ‪٤‬ـش ٓ٘طو‪٤‬ش‪ٓ .‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع ُي‪ ٚ٣‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُ‪ٞ‬ظخثق ُ‪٤‬ئى‪ٜ٣‬خ ‪ ،‬هزَ ‪ٝ‬أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش‪٘٣ٝ .‬زـ‪٢‬‬
‫ػوي ٓئطَٔ ٓغ حُٔظ‪ ْٜ‬ك‪ ٢‬أهَد ‪ٝ‬هض ٌٖٓٔ ػِٔ‪٤‬خ‪٣ .‬ـذ إٔ ‪ٌٛ ٌٕٞ٣‬ح حُٔئطَٔ هخ‪ٛ‬خ ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪َٓ َ٤‬حهذ ‪ ،‬كظ‪٠‬‬
‫ُ‪ً ٞ‬خٕ حُٔظ‪ ْٜ‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ ـٖ ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض‪ .‬اًح ًخٕ ‪٘ٛ‬خى ٓيػ‪٣ ، ٕٞ‬ـذ ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع إٔ ‪٣‬وٍَ ٓخ اًح‬
‫ًخٕ ‪ ٌٖٔ٣‬طٔؼ‪ َ٤‬حُـٔ‪٤‬غ رٌَ٘ كؼخٍ ى‪ ٕٝ‬ط‪٠‬خٍد ك‪ ٢‬حُٔ‪ٜ‬خُق‪ٝ .‬اًح ٍأ‪ ٟ‬أ‪ ٖٓ ١‬حُٔلخٓ‪ ٖ٤‬أ‪ ٝ‬أكي حُٔيػ‪٠‬‬
‫ػِ‪ ْٜ٤‬إٔ طٔؼ‪ ِٚ٤‬رٔلخّ ‪ٝ‬حكي كو‪ٗ ٖٓ ٢‬ؤٗ‪ ٚ‬إٔ ‪٣‬ئى‪ ١‬اُ‪ ٠‬طل‪٣ ، ِ٤‬لن ٌَُ ٓظ‪ ْٜ‬حُل‪ ٍٜٞ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لخّ كَى‪١‬‬
‫‪٣ٝ‬ـذ طِ‪٣ٝ‬ي‪ ٙ‬ر‪.ٚ‬‬

‫ٓ‪٤‬و‪ٓ ّٞ‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع ربٓيحء حُٔ٘‪ٍٞ‬س ُِٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬ر٘ؤٕ حُيكغ حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ـذ طوي‪ ٚٔ٣‬ػ٘ي حالٓظيػخء‪ٌٕٞ٤ٓٝ ,‬‬
‫حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬كخ‪َٟ‬ح ُـَ‪ ٝ‬حٓظـ‪ٞ‬حد حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى ك‪ ٢‬حُـِٔش حُظٔ‪٤ٜ‬ي‪٣‬ش‪ُِٔ .‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬أ‪٠٣‬خ حُلن ك‪ ٢‬حُل‪ ٍٞ٠‬أػ٘خء‬
‫اؿَحء "طٌ٘‪ِ٤‬ش" طلي‪٣‬ي حُ‪٣ٜٞ‬ش اًح طْ حط‪ٜ‬خّ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪٤ٍٔٓ ٚ٤‬خ; ‪ٓٝ‬غ ًُي‪ ,‬ال ‪٣‬لن ُِٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُظيهَ ك‪٢‬‬
‫حُظٌ٘‪ِ٤‬ش أ‪٘ٓ ٝ‬غ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٖٓ ٚ٤‬حُٔ٘خًٍش‪ٞٓ .‬ف حُٔلخٓ‪ِٓ ٢‬ق طِي حالُظٔخٓخص حُظ‪ ٢ٛ ٢‬ك‪ِٜٓ ٢‬لش‬
‫ى‪٣‬ل‪ ٖ٤‬ىحٗض‪٣ .‬لن ُِٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬حُـِ‪ٓ ّٞ‬غ حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬ػِ‪١ ٠‬خ‪ُٝ‬ش حُٔلخٓ‪ ٢‬أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش كظ‪٣ ٠‬ظٌٔ٘‪ٞ‬ح ٖٓ‬
‫ٓ٘ق حُيكخع‪ ٌٙٛ .‬حُٔٔخػيس ‪ٓ ٢ٛ‬زذ آهَ ُٔخًح ‪٣‬لن ُِٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬إٔ ‪ ٌٕٞ٣‬كخ‪َٟ‬ح أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش‪٤ٓ .‬و‪ّٞ‬‬
‫ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع رخٓظـ‪ٞ‬حد ٗ‪ٜٞ‬ى حالىػخء ػ٘ي حالهظ‪٠‬خء ‪٤ٓٝ‬ويّ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حألىُش ٗ‪٤‬خرش ػٖ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ؼظزَ‬
‫‪٣ٍَٟٝ‬خ ك‪ ٢‬ظَ حُظَ‪ٝ‬ف‪٤ٓ .‬ظْ حإلٗخٍس اُ‪ٝ ٠‬حؿزخص أهَ‪ُٔ ٟ‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع ك‪٘ٓ ٢‬خه٘ش اؿَحءحص حُٔلخًٔش‬
‫(ٍ‪ٝ‬رَٓ‪ٝ ٕٞ‬آهَ‪.)2006 ,.ٕٝ‬‬

‫مبتت اىَحنَخ‬

‫إ ٓلخٓ‪ ٢‬حالىػخء ‪ٓٝ‬لخٓ‪ ٢‬حُيكخع ‪ٝ‬حُوخ‪ِ٣ ٢ٟ‬ؼز‪ ٕٞ‬أى‪ٝ‬حٍح ىٍحٓ‪٤‬ش أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش‪َُِٔ ٌٖٔ٣ ,‬ء‬
‫رٔ‪ُٜٞ‬ش حُظـخ‪ ٢ٟ‬ػٖ ًخطذ حُٔلٌٔش‪ ,‬أ‪ً ٝ‬خطذ حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش‪ًٔ ,‬خ ‪ٓ ٞٛ‬ؼَ‪ٝ‬ف حُٔ٘‪ٜ‬ذ أ‪٠٣‬خ‪ٌٛ .‬ح حُٔٔئ‪ٍٝ‬‬
‫أ‪٠٣‬خ ر‪ٞ‬ظ‪٤‬لش ‪ٛ‬خٓش ك‪ٗ ٢‬ظخّ حُؼيحُش ‪ ْ٤ُ ،‬أػ٘خء حُٔلخًٔش كلٔذ ‪ ،‬رَ هزِ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٝ‬رؼي‪ٛ‬خ أ‪٠٣‬خ‪ٝ .‬طظٔؼَ حُٔ‪ٜٔ‬ش‬
‫حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش ٌُخطذ حُٔلٌٔش ك‪ ٢‬حالكظلخظ رـٔ‪٤‬غ ٓـالص ه‪٤٠‬ش ٓؼ‪٘٤‬ش‪ٝ .‬طَ٘ٔ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔـالص ر٘‪ٞ‬ىح ٓؼَ ٗٔن ٖٓ‬
‫ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حَُٔحكؼخص ‪ٝ‬حالُظٔخٓخص حالط‪ٜ‬خٓ‪٤‬ش حُظ‪ ٢‬هيٓض‪ٜ٣ .‬يٍ حٌُخطذ أ‪٠٣‬خ ًٌَٓحص حٓظيػخء ‪ٝ ،‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪٣ ،‬ؼي ُـ٘ش حُظلٌ‪ ٞٛ .ْ٤‬أ‪٣ ٢ٛ ٝ‬ل‪ َ٠‬حُٔلخًٔخص ألىحء حُ‪ ٖ٤ٔ٤‬أٓخّ حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى‪ٝ ,‬طٔـ‪َ٤‬‬
‫حُٔٔظ٘يحص ‪ٝ‬حُللخظ ػِ‪ ٠‬حألىُش حُٔويٓش‪٣ .‬لظلع حٌُخطذ أ‪٠٣‬خ ر٘ٔن ٖٓ ٓلخ‪ َٟ‬حُٔلٌٔش‪ ,‬حألكٌخّ حُ‪ٜ‬خىٍس‪,‬‬
‫‪ِ١ٝ‬زخص حالٓظج٘خف‪.‬‬

‫‪51‬‬
If the facts of a case are such that an attorney absolutely cannot accept the
responsibility of effectively defending a client, the case should be refused. Once the
case is accepted, it is the attorney’s duty to remain until it has been brought to a
logical conclusion. The defense attorney has many functions to perform, both before
and during the trial. A conference with the accused should be held as soon as
practically possible. This conference should be private and unobserved, even if the
accused is in jail at the time. If there are codefendants, the defense counsel must
decide whether all can be effec-tively represented without a conflict of interest. If
either counsel or one of the defendants feels that being represented by just one
counsel would result in prejudice, each defendant is entitled to and must be provided
with individual counsel.
The defense counsel will advise the defendant on the plea that should be entered at
the arraignment, and counsel will be present for the purpose of cross-examining
witnesses at the preliminary hearing. Counsel also has a right to be present during an
identification ―line-up‖ procedure if the defendant has been formally charged;
however, the attorney has no right to interfere with the line-up or to prohibit the
defendant from participating. The counsel will file those motions that are in the best
interest of the defen-dant. The defendant is entitled to sit with counsel at the counsel
table dur-ing the trial so they may confer on the defense. This assistance is another
reason why a defendant is entitled to be present during a trial. Defense counsel will
cross-examine prosecution witnesses when appropriate and will present such
evidence on behalf of the defendant deemed necessary under the circumstances.
Further duties of the defense counsel will be pointed out in the discussion of trial
procedures (Roberson et al., 2006).

Clerk of the Court

With the judge, the prosecuting attorney, and the defense counsel all playing dramatic
roles during a criminal trial, one could easily overlook the clerk of the court, or
county clerk, as the position is also known. This official also has an important
function in the justice system, not only during the trial but before and after as well.
The main function of the court clerk is to maintain all records of a particular case.
These records include items such as copies of all the accusatory pleadings and
motions that have been filed. The clerk also issues subpoenas, and, in many
jurisdictions, prepares the jury panel. He or she attends trials to swear in witnesses,
mark exhibits, and maintain the evi-dence that is introduced. The clerk also keeps
copies of the court transcripts, judgments rendered, and motions for appeals.

51
 ‫اىَأٍىس‬
‫هي ‪ٓ ٌٕٞ٣‬ؤٓ‪ ٍٞ‬حُٔلٌٔش ػ‪ٞ٠‬ح ىحثٔخ ك‪ٗ ٢‬ظخّ حُؼيحُش أ‪ ٝ‬كَىح ٓؼ‪٘٤‬خ ُِٔٔخػيس ك‪ٓ ٢‬لخًٔش ٓؼ‪٘٤‬ش‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬رؼ‪ٞ‬‬
‫حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪ ٌٕٞ٣ ،‬حُٔؤٓ‪ ٍٞ‬ػ‪ٞ٠‬ح ك‪ ٢‬كٌ‪ٓٞ‬ش حُٔوخ‪١‬ؼش ‪٣ٝ‬لَٔ ُوذ حُٔ٘‪ٔ٣ .َ٤‬خػي حُٔؤٓ‪ ٍٞ‬حُوخ‪٢ٟ‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬حُللخظ ػِ‪ ٠‬حُ٘ظخّ ك‪ ٢‬حُٔلٌٔش ‪٣ٝ‬يػ‪ ٞ‬حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى ُإلىالء ر٘‪ٜ‬خىط‪ .ْٜ‬اًح ُْ ‪٣‬ظْ ا‪١‬الم َٓحف حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ٚ٤‬‬
‫ٖٓ حُلـِ ‪ ،‬كٖٔ ‪ٝ‬حؿذ حُٔل‪ َ٠‬كَحٓش حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬ك‪ ٢‬هخػش حُٔلٌٔش‪ .‬ػ٘يٓخ ‪٣‬ظْ ػٍِ ‪٤ٛ‬جش حُٔلِل‪،ٖ٤‬‬
‫طوغ ػِ‪ ٠‬ػخطن حُٔل‪ٔٓ َ٠‬ئ‪٤ُٝ‬ش حُظؤًي ٖٓ هِ‪ ٞ‬حُٔلِل‪ ٖٓ ٖ٤‬أ‪ ١‬حط‪ٜ‬خٍ ٓغ حُـٔ‪٤ٓ ;ٍٜٞ‬ؼ‪٤‬ي حُٔل‪٤ٛ َ٠‬جش‬
‫حُٔلِل‪ ٖ٤‬اُ‪ ٠‬هخػش حُٔلٌٔش رؼي إٔ ‪ِٜٞ٣‬ح اُ‪ ٠‬حُلٌْ‪ .‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ كو‪ٜ‬خء حُوخٗ‪٣ ، ٕٞ‬ويّ حُٔل‪ َ٠‬أ‪ٝ‬حَٓ‬
‫حُٔلٌٔش ‪ٝ‬أ‪ٍٝ‬حم حُٔلٌٔش حألهَ‪.ٟ‬‬

‫مبتت تقبسٌش اىَحنَخ‬

‫طوغ ٓٔئ‪٤ُٝ‬ش طٔـ‪ٓ ًَ َ٤‬خ ه‪ َ٤‬أػ٘خء اؿَحءحص حُٔلخًٔش ػِ‪ ٢‬ػخطن َٓحَٓ حُٔلٌٔش‪ٌٛٝ .‬ح ‪ٜٗ َٔ٘٣‬خىس‬
‫ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُ٘‪ٜٞ‬ى ‪ٝ ،‬حالػظَح‪ٟ‬خص حُٔويٓش ػِ‪ ٠‬أٓجِش حُٔلخٓ‪ٝ ، ٢‬حألكٌخّ حُ‪ٜ‬خىٍس ػٖ حُوخ‪ٝ ، ٢ٟ‬حُٔئطَٔحص‬
‫ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُٔلخٓ‪ٝ ٖ٤‬حُوخ‪ .٢ٟ‬اًح طْ حُ٘ظَ ك‪ ٢‬حُو‪٤٠‬ش ػ٘ي حالٓظج٘خف ‪٣ ،‬ـذ ٗٔن حُٔالكظخص حُٔٔـِش‪٣ .‬ـذ إٔ‬
‫‪َٓ ٌٕٞ٣‬حَٓ حُٔلٌٔش ػِ‪ ٠‬ىٍؿش ػخُ‪٤‬ش ٖٓ حُٔ‪ٜ‬خٍس ُظٔـ‪ َ٤‬حُٔؼخٓالص ألٗ‪ٜ‬خ طليع‪ ,‬ك‪ً ٢‬ؼ‪ ٖٓ َ٤‬حألك‪٤‬خٕ‬
‫ر‪ٞ‬ط‪َ٤‬س َٓ‪٣‬ؼش‪٣ .‬ـ‪َُِٔ ُٞ‬حَٓ طٔـ‪ َ٤‬حإلؿَحءحص رخهظ‪ٜ‬خٍ أ‪ ٝ‬رآُش ٓوظ‪َٜ‬س ػ٘ي حٓظويحٓ‪ٜ‬خ أل‪َٓ ٍٝ‬س ك‪٢‬‬
‫هخػش حُٔلٌٔش ‪ ُْ ،‬طٌٖ ٓٔـالص حألَٗ‪١‬ش ٓ‪ٞ‬ػ‪ٞ‬هش ُِـخ‪٣‬ش‪ٓٝ .‬غ ًُي ‪ ،‬طٔظويّ حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش‬
‫حُ‪ ّٞ٤‬أَٗ‪١‬ش ‪ٞٛ‬ط‪٤‬ش ُظٔـ‪ َ٤‬اؿَحءحص حُٔلخًٔش‪ٝ .‬هي طلٔ٘ض ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔٔـالص ك‪ٞٓ ٖٓ ًَ ٢‬ػ‪ٞ‬ه‪٤‬ظ‪ٜ‬خ ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ٞ‬ىس‬
‫حُظٔـ‪.َ٤‬‬

‫ٍفىضى اىَحبمٌ‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُي‪ٝ‬حثَ حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ‪٣ ،‬ظْ طؼ‪ٓ ٖ٤٤‬ل‪ ٢ٟٞ‬حُٔلخًْ ُٔٔخػيس ه‪٠‬خس حُٔلخًٔش‪ .‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ؼظْ حُلخالص ‪،‬‬
‫‪٣‬ـذ إٔ ‪ُ ٌٕٞ٣‬ي‪ٗ ْٜ٣‬لْ حُٔئ‪ٛ‬الص حُظ‪٣ ٢‬ظٔظغ ر‪ٜ‬خ حُوخ‪٣ٝ ، ٢ٟ‬ـ‪ُِٔ ُٞ‬ل‪ ٝٞ‬إٔ ‪٣‬لَ ٓلَ حُوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬ك‪٢‬‬
‫ٓ‪ٞ‬هغ حُط‪ٞ‬حٍة‪ .‬هالف ًُي ‪٣ ،‬ؼوي حُٔل‪ ٕٟٞٞ‬ؿِٔخص حٓظٔخع ر٘ؤٕ حُطِزخص حُٔويٓش ‪٣ٝ ،‬ليى‪٣ٝ ٕٝ‬وزِ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حٌُلخُش ‪٣ٝ ،‬ئى‪ٝ ٕٝ‬حؿزخص أهَ‪ ٟ‬هي ‪٣‬لَ‪ٜٟ‬خ ػِ‪ ْٜ٤‬حُوخٗ‪.ٕٞ‬‬
‫ّظبً اىَحبمٌ اإلّديٍزٌخ اىٍىً‬

‫‪٣‬ظٔؼَ حالهظالف حٌُز‪ َ٤‬ر‪ ٖ٤‬حُ٘ظخّ حألَٓ‪ٗٝ ٢ٌ٣‬ظخّ حُٔلٌٔش حإلٗـِ‪٣ِ٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬إٔ حٌُِٔٔش حُٔظليس ُي‪ٜ٣‬خ ٗظخّ‬
‫ه‪٠‬خث‪ٞٓ ٢‬كي طظ٘خٓذ ك‪ ٚ٤‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُٔلخًْ ٓغ طَِٔٔ ‪ٝ ٢٘١ٝ ٢َٓٛ‬حكي‪ .‬أٓخ ًٔخ ًًَٗخ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص‬
‫حُٔظليس‪ٝ ٌَُ ،‬ال‪٣‬ش أَٓ‪٤ٌ٣‬ش ٗظخّ ٓلخًْ هخ‪ ٙ‬ر‪ٜ‬خ‪٘ٛٝ ،‬خى ٗظخّ ك‪٤‬يٍحُ‪ ٢‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ‪ ،‬رل‪٤‬غ ‪٘ٛ ٌٕٞ٣‬خى حُؼي‪٣‬ي‬
‫ٖٓ أٗظٔش حُٔلخًْ ك‪ ٢‬حُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬خص حُٔظليس‪.‬‬

‫‪52‬‬
Bailiff
The court bailiff may be a permanent member of the justice system or an individual
appointed to assist in a particular trial. In some jurisdictions the bailiff is a member of
the county government and carries the title of marshal. The bailiff assists the judge in
maintaining order in the court and calls the witnesses to testify. If the defendant has
not been released from custody, it is the duty of the bailiff to guard the defendant in
the courtroom. When the jury is sequestered, it is the responsibility of the bailiff to
make certain that the jurors are free from all contact with the public; the bailiff will
return the jury to the courtroom after they have reached a verdict. In many jurisdic-
tions the bailiff serves court orders and other court papers.
Court Reporter
The responsibility of recording everything said during the trial proceeding belongs to
the court reporter. This includes the testimony of all the witnesses, objections made to
the attorney’s questions, rulings made by the judge, and conferences between the
attorneys and the judge. If the case is taken up on appeal, the recorded notes must be
transcribed. The court reporter must be highly skilled to record transactions as they
take place, often at a rapid pace. The reporter may record the proceedings in shorthand
or with a stenotype machine. When first used in the courtroom, tape recorders were
not very reliable. However, today many jurisdictions are using audio tapes to record
the trial proceedings. These recorders have improved in both their reliability and the
quality of recording.
Court Commissioners
In many judicial districts, court commissioners are appointed to assist trial judges. In
most instances they must possess the same qualifications as a judge, and a
commissioner may substitute for a judge in an emergency situ-ation. Otherwise, the
commissioners hold hearings on motions filed, set and accept bail, and perform other
duties as may be imposed on them by law.
English Court System Today

A significant difference between the U.S. system and the English court sys-tem is that
the United Kingdom has a unitary judicial system in which all courts fit into a single
national hierarchy. As noted earlier, each U.S. state has its own court system, and
there is a federal system as well, so that there are numerous court systems in the
United States.

52
‫أػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لٌٔش ك‪ ٢‬حُ٘ظخّ حإلٗـِ‪ٓ ٢ٛ ١ِ٤‬ـِْ حُِ‪ٍٞ‬ىحص ‪ ،‬حٌُ‪ٔ٣ ١‬ظٔغ اُ‪ ٠‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬أ‪ ْٛ‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ػ٘ي‬
‫حالٓظج٘خف ‪ٝ‬رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُلجخص حُوخ‪ٛ‬ش ٖٓ حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ ًٔلٌٔش ًحص حهظ‪ٜ‬خ‪ ٙ‬أ‪٣ .٢ِٛ‬ظْ ط٘ل‪ ٌ٤‬حُٔ‪ٜ‬خّ حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش‬
‫ُٔـِْ حُِ‪ٍٞ‬ىحص ٖٓ هزَ ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ‪ٛ‬ـ‪َ٤‬س ٓوظخٍس ٖٓ حُو‪٠‬خس حٌُ‪٣ ٖ٣‬ظْ طؼ‪ ْٜ٘٤٤‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ـِْ حُ٘‪ٞ‬حد ُِؼَٔ‬
‫ر‪ ٌٜٙ‬حُ‪ٜ‬لش‪.‬‬

‫ٍحنَخ اىَينخ أو ٍقعذ اىَيل‬

‫ػويص ٓلٌٔش ٓوخػي حٌُِٔش أ‪ ٝ‬حُِٔي ك‪ ٢‬حأل‪ًٍٞ َٛ‬حّ ٍ‪٣‬ؾ ("أٓخّ حُِٔي") ‪ٓٝ‬خكَص أ‪ٔ٘٣‬خ ً‪ٛ‬ذ حُِٔي أ‪ٝ‬‬
‫حٌُِٔش‪ .‬حٓظٔؼض حُٔلٌٔش اُ‪ ٠‬ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ طظؼِن رخُٔ‪٤‬خىس أ‪ ٝ‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُظ‪ ٢‬طئػَ ػِ‪ ٠‬حألر٘خء حٌُزخٍ حٌُ‪٣ ٖ٣‬ظٔظؼ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫رخٓظ‪٤‬خُ إٔ ‪٣‬لخًٔ‪ٞ‬ح أٓخٓ‪ ٚ‬كو‪ُِٔ ٌٖٔ٣ .٢‬وؼي أ‪٠٣‬خ ط‪ٜ‬ل‪٤‬ق حألهطخء ‪ٝ‬حُظوِق ػٖ حُٔيحى ُـٔ‪٤‬غ حُٔلخًْ‬
‫حألهَ‪ .ٟ‬كويص طيٍ‪٣‬ـ‪٤‬خ ػالهخط‪ٜ‬خ حُ‪ٞ‬ػ‪٤‬وش ٓغ حُِٔي ‪ٝ‬أ‪ٛ‬زلض ٓلٌٔش ٓ٘ل‪ِٜ‬ش ُِوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ‪.‬‬

‫ٓخٍٓض ٓلٌٔش ٓـِْ حُِٔي حالهظ‪ٜ‬خ‪ ٙ‬حُو‪٠‬خث‪ ٢‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُٔيٗ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬ػِ‪ٓ ٠‬لخًْ حُوخٗ‪ٕٞ‬‬
‫حُؼخّ حُؼِ‪٤‬خ حألهَ‪ ٟ‬كظ‪ ٠‬ػخّ ‪ٝ ، 1830‬ك‪ًُ ٢‬ي حُ‪ٞ‬هض أ‪ٛ‬زلض ؿَكش حُوِحٗش ٓلٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف ٖٓ ٓلخًْ‬
‫حُوخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُؼخّ حُؼِ‪٤‬خ حُؼالع‪ .‬حٓظٔؼض ‪٤ٛ‬جش حُِٔي اُ‪ ٠‬حُطؼ‪ ٕٞ‬حُٔويٓش ٖٓ ٓلٌٔش ‪٤ٛ‬جش حُِٔي ك‪ ٢‬أ‪َُ٘٣‬يح كظ‪٠‬‬
‫ٗ‪ٜ‬خ‪٣‬ش حُوَٕ حُؼخٖٓ ػَ٘ ‪ٓٝ‬خٍٓض ‪ٝ‬ال‪٣‬ش ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ٓ‪ٜٔ‬ش ػِ‪ ٠‬حُٔٔئ‪ٝ ٖ٤ُٝ‬ؿ‪ َْٛ٤‬ػٖ ‪٣َ١‬ن أ‪ٝ‬حَٓ ٓخ هزَ‬
‫حالٓظيػخء (أَٓ حإلك‪٠‬خٍ ‪ٝ ،‬اكخُش حُيػ‪ٝ ، ٟٞ‬حُلظَ ‪ٝ ،‬حًٌَُٔس )‪ .‬ىٓؾ هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُو‪٠‬خء ُؼخّ ‪1873‬‬
‫حُٔلٌٔش ك‪ ٢‬هْٔ ‪٤ٛ‬جش حٌُِٔش ك‪ٓ ٢‬لٌٔش حُؼيٍ حُؼِ‪٤‬خ‪٣ .‬ظٌ‪ ٕٞ‬هْٔ حٌُِٔش ح‪ٍ ٖٓ ٕ٥‬ث‪ ْ٤‬حُو‪٠‬خس‪ ٞٛٝ-‬حُِ‪ٍٞ‬ى‬
‫ٍث‪ ْ٤‬ه‪٠‬خس اٗـِظَح‪ 24 ٝ-‬هخ‪٤ٟ‬خ طْ طؼ‪ ْٜ٘٤‬ك‪ ٢‬حُؤْ‪٣ .‬ويّ حالٓظج٘خف ٖٓ حُٔلخًْ حُيٗ‪٤‬خ أٓخّ ٓلٌٔش كَػ‪٤‬ش‬
‫طظؤُق ٖٓ هخ‪ ٖ٤٤ٟ‬أ‪ ٝ‬ػالػش ه‪٠‬خس ٖٓ حُيحثَس‪.‬‬

‫ٍحنَخ اىقضبء اىعيٍب‬

‫ًٔخ أُـ‪ ٠‬هخٗ‪ ٕٞ‬حُو‪٠‬خء ُؼخّ ‪ 1873‬حُؼي‪٣‬ي ٖٓ حُٔلخًْ حإلٗـِ‪٣ِ٤‬ش حُظخٍ‪٣‬و‪٤‬ش حُظ‪ً ٢‬خٕ ُ‪ٜ‬خ ِٓطخص ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش‬
‫ٓظيحهِش‪ .‬أٗ٘ؤ حُوخٗ‪ٓ ٕٞ‬لٌٔش ه‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش ػِ‪٤‬خ طظٌ‪ٓ ٖٓ ٕٞ‬لٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف ‪ٓ ٝ‬لٌٔش حُؼيٍ حُؼِ‪٤‬خ ‪ٝ ،‬حأله‪َ٤‬س ُ‪ٜ‬خ‬
‫هٔٔش أهٔخّ‪ :‬حُٔلخٍس ‪ٓٝ ،‬وؼي حٌُِٔش (أ‪ ٝ‬حُِٔي) ‪ٝ ،‬حُيػخ‪ ٟٝ‬حُؼخٓش ‪ٝ ،‬حُوِحٗش ‪ٝ ،‬حُ‪ٛٞ‬خ‪٣‬خ ‪ٝ ،‬حُطالم ‪،‬‬
‫‪ٝ‬حألٓ‪َ٤‬حُ‪٤‬ش‪.‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ 1881‬طْ طؼي‪ َ٣‬حُ٘ظخّ َٓس أهَ‪ٝ ٟ‬حٓظ‪ٞ‬ػذ هْٔ ٓوخػي حٌُِٔش ٓلخًْ حُٔ٘خٗيحص حُؼخٓش ‪ٝ‬حُوِحٗش‪.‬‬
‫ك‪ ٢‬ػخّ ‪ ، 1971‬طْ طؼي‪ٗ َ٣‬ظخّ حُٔلخًْ ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح ‪ ِِ٣ٝٝ‬رٌَ٘ أًزَ ٖٓ هالٍ اُـخء رؼ‪ ٞ‬حُٔلخًْ‬
‫حُٔظو‪ٜٜ‬ش ‪ٝ‬حٓظزيحٍ طِي حُٔلخًْ رٔلٌٔش حُظخؽ‪ .‬حُٔلٌٔش حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ طـِْ ً‪٤ٜ‬جش ٗخِٓش ‪ ،‬أٓلَ‬
‫ٓـِْ حُِ‪ٍٞ‬ىحص ‪ٓ ٢ٛٝ ،‬لٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف حُ٘‪ٜ‬خث‪٤‬ش‬
‫ط٘ؤْ ٓلٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف اُ‪ ٠‬هْٔ ٓيٗ‪ٝ ٢‬هْٔ ؿ٘خث‪ .٢‬طظٌ‪ٓ ٕٞ‬لٌٔش حُؼيٍ حُؼِ‪٤‬خ ٖٓ ػالػش أهٔخّ ُ‪ٜ‬خ‬

‫‪53‬‬
The highest court in the English system is the House of Lords, which hears some of
the most important cases on appeal and a few special classes of cases as a court of
original jurisdiction. The judicial functions of the House of Lords are conducted by a
small, select group of judges who are appointed to the House to act in this capacity.
Court of Queen’s or King’s Bench
The Court of the Queen’s, or King’s, Bench was originally held coram rege (―before
the monarch‖) and traveled wherever the king or queen went. The court heard cases
that concerned the sovereign or cases affecting great per-sons privileged to be tried
only before him. The Bench could also correct the errors and defaults of all other
courts. Only gradually did it lose its close con-nections with the king and become a
separate court of common law.
The Court of King’s Bench exercised jurisdiction over criminal and civil cases and
over the other superior common law courts until 1830, at which time the Court of
Exchequer Chamber became the court of appeal from the three superior common law
courts. King’s Bench heard appeals from the Court of King’s Bench in Ireland until
the end of the eighteenth century and exercised important jurisdiction over officials
and others by means of pre-rogative writs (habeas corpus, certiorari, prohibition, and
mandamus). The Judicature Act of 1873 merged the court in the Queen’s Bench
Division of the High Court of Justice. The Queen’s Bench Division now consists of a
chief justice—who is the lord chief justice of England—and 24 judges assigned to the
division. Appeals from inferior courts come before a divisional court, composed of
two or three judges of the division.
Supreme Court of Judicature
The Judicature Act of 1873 also abolished many of the historical Eng-lish courts that
had overlapping judicial powers. The Act established a Supreme Court of Judicature
consisting of the Court of Appeal and the High Court of Justice, the latter having five
divisions: Chancery, Queen’s (or King’s) Bench, Common Pleas, Exchequer, and
Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty.
In 1881 the system was again modified and the Queen’s Bench Division absorbed the
courts of Common Pleas and Exchequer. In 1971, the court system of England and
Wales was further modified by the abolishment of certain specialized courts and the
replacement of those courts by the Crown Court. The Supreme Court of Judicature sits
as a comprehensive body, below the House of Lords, which is the final court of
appeal.
The Court of Appeal is divided into a Civil Division and a Criminal Division. The
High Court of Justice is made up of three divisions

53
‫حهظ‪ٜ‬خ‪ ٙ‬أ‪ٝ ٢ِٛ‬حٓظج٘خك‪ :٢‬هْٔ حُٔلخٍس ‪ ،‬رَثخٓش حُِ‪ٍٞ‬ى حُٔٔظ٘خٍ ‪ ،‬أ‪ٗ ٝ‬خثذ حُٔٔظ٘خٍ ‪ٝ ،‬حُظؼخَٓ ٓغ‬
‫ٓز‪٤‬ؼخص حألٍح‪ٝ ٢ٟ‬حُؼوخٍحص ‪ٓٝ‬خ اُ‪ًُ ٠‬ي ؛ هْٔ ٓوخػي حٌُِٔش ‪ ،‬رَثخٓش حُِ‪ٍٞ‬ى ٍث‪ ْ٤‬حُو‪٠‬خس ‪ٝ‬حُظؼخَٓ‬
‫رٌَ٘ أٓخٓ‪ٓ ٢‬غ حُؼوي ‪ٝ‬حُ‪( ٍَ٠‬طؼي ٓلٌٔش حألٓ‪َ٤‬حُ‪٤‬ش ‪ٝ‬حُٔلٌٔش حُظـخٍ‪٣‬ش ؿِءح ٖٓ هْٔ ٓوخػي حٌُِٔش);‬
‫‪ٝ‬طؤ‪ ْ٤‬حألَٓس‪ ،‬رَثخٓش ٍث‪ ،ْ٤‬حٌُ‪٣ ١‬ظؼخَٓ ٓغ حُظز٘‪ ،٢‬اؿَحءحص ٓظؼِوش رخُِ‪ٝ‬حؽ ‪ٝ‬حُٔٔخثَ حُؼخثِ‪٤‬ش حألهَ‪.ٟ‬‬

‫ٍحنَخ اىصيح‬
‫ٓلخًْ حُ‪ِٜ‬ق ك‪ ٢‬اٗ ـِظَح ‪ٓ ٢ٛ ِِ٣ٝٝ‬لخًْ أىٗ‪ ٠‬طؼ٘‪ ٠‬ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخّ حأل‪ ٍٝ‬رخُ‪ٞ‬ال‪٣‬ش حُو‪٠‬خث‪٤‬ش حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ػِ‪٠‬‬
‫ٓـٔ‪ٞ‬ػش ‪ٝ‬حٓؼش ٖٓ حُـَحثْ ‪ ٖٓ ،‬حُٔوخُلخص حَُٔ‪٣ٍٝ‬ش حُزٔ‪٤‬طش اُ‪ ٠‬حُـَحثْ حألًؼَ هط‪ٍٞ‬س ٓؼَ حَُٔهش‬
‫حُزٔ‪٤‬طش أ‪ ٝ‬حالػظيحء‪٘ٛ .‬خى ػيس ٓجخص ٖٓ ‪ ٌٙٛ‬حُٔلخًْ ك‪ ٢‬اٗـِظَح ‪َ٣ ، ِِ٣ٝٝ‬أٓ‪ٜ‬خ ٓوؼي أ‪٤ٛ ٝ‬جش ٌٓ‪ٗٞ‬ش ٖٓ‬
‫حػ٘‪ ٖ٤‬أ‪ ٝ‬أًؼَ ٖٓ حُو‪٠‬خس حُؼخى‪( ٖ٤٣‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُٔيٍر‪ ٖ٤‬هخٗ‪ٗٞ‬خ) ‪ٝ‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُٔؤؿ‪٣ .ٖ٣ٍٞ‬يٍّ حُو‪٠‬خس ‪ٝ‬هخثغ حُو‪٤٠‬ش‬
‫‪٣ٝ‬ظْ اٍٗخى‪ ْٛ‬ر٘ؤٕ حُ٘وخ‪ ١‬حُوخٗ‪٤ٗٞ‬ش ٖٓ هزَ حٌُخطذ‪ٝ .‬حٌُخطذ ٓٔئ‪ ٍٝ‬ػٖ حُٔ‪ٜ‬خّ حإلىحٍ‪٣‬ش ُِٔلٌٔش‪ .‬طؼوي‬
‫اؿَحءحص ٓلٌٔش حُ‪ِٜ‬ق ك‪ٓ ٢‬لٌٔش ػِ٘‪٤‬ش‪ ,‬اال ػ٘يٓخ ‪٣‬ـِْ حُو‪٠‬خس ًـ " ه‪٠‬خس طلو‪٤‬ن‪".‬ػ٘ي حُـِ‪ً ّٞ‬و‪٠‬خس‬
‫طلو‪٤‬ن‪٣ ،‬و‪ ٕٞٓٞ‬ربؿَحء طلو‪٤‬وخص هزَ حُٔلخًٔش ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ هط‪َ٤‬س ٓطِ‪ٞ‬رش هزَ طوي‪ ْ٣‬حُٔظ‪ ْٜ‬اُ‪ٓ ٠‬لٌٔش أػِ‪٠‬‬
‫ُِٔلخًٔش‪٣ .‬ظْ طوي‪ ْ٣‬ؿٔ‪٤‬غ حُظ‪ ْٜ‬حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُزيح‪٣‬ش اُ‪ٓ ٠‬لخًْ حُ‪ِٜ‬ق‪٣ .‬ظْ رؼي ًُي ط‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ ٚ٤‬ط‪ ْٜ‬أًؼَ هط‪ٍٞ‬س‬
‫ُِٔلخًٔش ك‪ٓ ٢‬لٌٔش حُظخؽ‪.‬‬

‫طظٔظغ ٓلخًْ حُ‪ِٜ‬ق رِٔطش ٓلي‪ٝ‬ىس ُٔـٖ حُٔيػ‪ ٠‬ػِ‪ ٚ٤‬أ‪ ٝ‬طـَ‪ٌٛ٣.ٚٔ٣‬ذ حالٓظج٘خكخص ٖٓ ٓلٌٔش حُ‪ِٜ‬ق‬
‫اُ‪ ٠‬حُٔلٌٔش حُؼِ‪٤‬خ أ‪ٓ ٝ‬لٌٔش حُظخؽ‪ٝ .‬ط٘ظَ ٓلٌٔش حُ‪ِٜ‬ق أ‪٠٣‬خ ك‪ ٢‬ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حألكيحع حُٔظؼِوش رَػخ‪٣‬ش حأل‪١‬لخٍ‬
‫ى‪ ٖٓ ٕٝ‬حَُحرؼش ػَ٘س ‪ٝ‬حُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُٔظؼِوش رخأل‪١‬لخٍ حٌُ‪ ٖ٣‬طظَح‪ٝ‬ف أػٔخٍ‪ ْٛ‬ر‪ ٖ٤‬أٍرؼش ػَ٘ ‪ٓٝ‬زؼش ػَ٘‬
‫ػخٓخ ‪ ،‬رخٓظؼ٘خء ه‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُوظَ‪.‬‬

‫ٍحنَخ اىتبج‬
‫ٓلٌٔش حُظخؽ ‪ٓ ٢ٛ‬لٌٔش ‪٤ٓٝ‬طش أػِ‪ٓ ٖٓ ٠‬لخًْ حُ‪ِٜ‬ق ‪ٌُٜ٘ٝ‬خ أهَ ٖٓ ٓلٌٔش حُؼيٍ حُؼِ‪٤‬خ ‪ٓٝ‬لٌٔش‬
‫حالٓظج٘خف‪ .‬ط‪ٜ‬ظْ ٓلٌٔش حُظخؽ ك‪ ٢‬حُـخُذ رخُو‪٠‬خ‪٣‬خ حُـ٘خث‪٤‬ش‪ٝ .‬ط٘ظَ حُٔلٌٔش ك‪ ٢‬حُٔلخًٔخص حُٔظؼِوش رظ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٚ٤‬‬
‫حالط‪ٜ‬خّ ‪ ،‬ك‪٠‬ال ػٖ ا‪ٛ‬يحٍ حألكٌخّ ‪ٝ‬حالٓظج٘خكخص ٖٓ ٓلخًْ حُ‪ِٜ‬ق‪٘ٛ .‬خى ٓض ى‪ٝ‬حثَ ٓلٌٔش‪ :‬حُـ٘‪ٞ‬د‬
‫حَُ٘ه‪ٓ( ٢‬غ ُ٘يٕ ًًَِٔ اىحٍ‪ )١‬؛ ‪ٝ ِِ٣ٝ‬ط٘‪ٔ٤‬ظَ (ٓغ ًخٍى‪٣‬ق ًًَِٔ) ؛ حُـَر‪٤‬ش (رَ‪ٔ٣‬ظ‪ )ٍٞ‬؛ ٓ‪٤‬يالٗي‬
‫‪ٝ‬أًٔل‪ٍٞ‬ى (رَٓ٘ـ‪ٜ‬خّ) ؛ ٗٔخٍ َٗم (ُ‪٤‬يُ) ؛ ‪ٝ‬حُ٘ٔخُ‪٤‬ش (ٓخٗ٘ٔظَ)‪ .‬طو‪٠‬غ ٓلٌٔش حُظخؽ ُظ‪ٞ‬ؿ‪ٜ٤‬خص حُِ‪ٍٞ‬ى‬
‫ٍث‪ ْ٤‬حُو‪٠‬خس ‪ ،‬رٔ‪ٞ‬حكوش حُِ‪ٍٞ‬ى حُٔٔظ٘خٍ‪.‬‬

‫‪54‬‬
which have both original and appellate jurisdiction: the Chancery Division, presided
over by the lord chancellor, or vice chancellor, and dealing with land sales, estates,
and so on; the Queen’s Bench Division, presided over by the lord chief justice and
dealing mainly with contract and tort (the Admiralty Court and the Commercial Court
being both part of the Queen’s Bench Division); and the Family Division, headed by
a president, which deals with adoption, mat-rimonial proceedings, and other familial
matters.
Magistrates’ Court
The magistrates’ courts in England and Wales are inferior courts that are concerned
primarily with criminal jurisdiction over a wide range of offenses, from minor traffic
violations to more serious crimes like petty theft or assault. There are several hundred
such courts in England and Wales, presided over by a bench or panel of two or more
lay (not legally trained), unpaid magistrates. The magistrates study the facts of a case
and are advised on points of law by the clerk. The clerk is responsible for the
administra-tive functions of the court. Magistrates’ court proceedings are held in
open court, except when the magistrates sit as ―examining justices.‖ When sitting as
examining justices, they carry out inquiries prior to trial in serious mat-ters that are
required before the accused is committed to a higher court for trial. All criminal
charges are initially brought before magistrates’ courts. More serious charges are
subsequently committed for trial at the Crown Court.
The magistrates’ courts have limited authority to imprison or fine a defendant.
Appeals from a magistrates’ court go to the High Court or the Crown Court. The
magistrates’ court also hears juvenile cases involving care of children under the age
of fourteen years and cases involving children aged fourteen to seventeen, except for
homicide cases.
Crown Court
The Crown Court is an intermediary court that is above the magistrates’ courts but
below the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal. The Crown Court is
concerned mostly with criminal cases. It hears trials on indictment, as well as
sentencing and appeals from the magistrates’ courts. There are six court circuits:
Southeastern (with London as the administrative center); Wales and Chester (with
Cardiff as the center); Western (Bristol); Midland and Oxford (Birmingham);
Northeastern (Leeds); and Northern (Manchester). The Crown Court is governed
under the directives of the lord chief justice, with the agreement of the Lord
Chancellor.

54
 ‫ٍحبمٌ اىعذه اىَينٍخ‬

‫طوغ ٓلخًْ حُؼيٍ حٌُِٔ‪٤‬ش ‪ ،‬حُظ‪ ٢‬طٔٔ‪ ٠‬أ‪٠٣‬خ ٓلخًْ حُوخٗ‪ ، ٕٞ‬ك‪ٓ ٢‬ز٘‪ ٢‬ه‪ ٢١ٞ‬ك‪ٌ٤‬ظ‪ٗ ٚٔٔٛ ١ٍٞ‬خٍع‬
‫ؿ‪ٍٞ‬ؽ اىٓ‪ٗٞ‬ي ‪ ،‬حٌُ‪ ١‬ط‪ٞ‬ك‪ ٢‬أػ٘خء ر٘خث‪٣ .ٚ‬وغ ك‪ُ٘ ٢‬يٕ ‪ ْ٠٣ٝ ،‬ػيس أرَحؽ ‪ٝ ،‬أًؼَ ٖٓ أُق ؿَكش ‪ٝ ،‬ى‪ٌٍٞ٣‬حص‬
‫‪ٓٝ‬لَ‪ٗٝ‬خص ِٓهَكش‪ .‬حُٔز٘‪ ٠‬ػزخٍس ػٖ ٓـٔغ ٖٓ هخػخص حُٔلخًْ ‪ٝ‬حُوخػخص ‪ٝ‬حٌُٔخطذ حُٔؼ٘‪٤‬ش ك‪ ٢‬حُٔوخّ‬
‫حأل‪ ٍٝ‬رخُظوخ‪ ٢ٟ‬حُٔيٗ‪( ٢‬ؿ‪ َ٤‬حُـ٘خث‪ .)٢‬ط‪ٟٞ‬غ طٔخػ‪ َ٤‬حُٔٔ‪٤‬ق ‪ٝ‬حُِٔي ِٓ‪ٔ٤‬خٕ ‪ٝ‬حُِٔي أُلَ‪٣‬ي ‪ ٠ٓٞٓٝ‬ك‪ٞ‬م‬
‫أر‪ٞ‬حر‪ٜ‬خ حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش‪٣ .‬زِؾ ‪ ٍٞ١‬حُوخػش حَُث‪٤ٔ٤‬ش ك‪ٞ‬حُ‪ 240 ٢‬هيٓخ ‪ٝ‬ػَ‪ٜٟ‬خ ‪ 80‬هيٓخ‪ .‬طٔض ا‪ٟ‬خكش ِٓلوخص اُ‪٠‬‬
‫حُٔز٘‪ ٠‬ك‪ ٢‬ػخٓ‪ . 1968 ٝ 1911 ٢‬حٗ‪ٜ‬خ طوغ ك‪ُ٘ ٢‬يٕ حٌُزَ‪ ٟ‬ر‪ٓٝ ٍٝٞ‬ظٔ٘ٔظَ ‪ ،‬ػِ‪ ٠‬حُلي‪ٝ‬ى ٓغ ٓي‪٘٣‬ش ُ٘يٕ‪.‬‬
‫طؼوي ىحهَ حُٔـٔغ ؿِٔخص ٓلٌٔش حالٓظج٘خف ‪ٓٝ‬لٌٔش حُؼيٍ حُؼِ‪٤‬خ ‪ٓٝ‬لٌٔش حُظخؽ‪.‬‬

‫‪55‬‬
Royal Courts of Justice

The Royal Courts of Justice, also called Law Courts, is housed in a Victo-rian
Gothic structure designed by George Edmund Street, who died during its
construction. Located in London, it includes several towers, more than a
thousand rooms, and ornate decorations and furnishings. The building is a
complex of courtrooms, halls, and offices concerned primarily with civil
(noncriminal) litigation. Statues of Christ, King Solomon, King Alfred, and
Moses are placed above its main doors. Its main hall is about 240 feet long and
80 feet wide. Extensions were added to the building in 1911 and 1968. It lies in
the Greater London borough of Westminster, on the boundary with the City of
London. Within the complex are held sessions of the Court of Appeal, the High
Court of Justice, and the Crown Court.

55