CHAPTER 1

General Principles of Instrumentation

1.1. Introduction:
Instrumentation is a science of engineering of complete system designed to measure physical
quantities (variables) so as to obtain data (information), which are transmitted to display record
and control devices. Thus, Instrumentation as a system may be defined as an assembly or
arrangement or set up of various measuring instruments and other components
interconnected to indicate, compare, measure, analyze and control the electrical, thermal,
hydraulic and other non- electrical physical quantities. This system works together to provide
some form of output from a specified input (information). The main purpose of the measurement
system is to link the observer to the information generating process.

Fig.1.1. Purpose of measurement system.

We can now refer to the information variable as a measured variable. The input to the
measurement system is the true value of the variable and the system output is the measured
value of the variable. In an ideal measurement system, the measured value would be equal to the
true value. Some common information/measured variables are:

Acceleration Torque Density Temperature

Velocity Volume Viscosity Heat/Light flux
Displacement Mass Composition Current
Force–Weight Flow rate pH Voltage
Pressure Level Humidity Power

Structure of a Measurement System

The measurement system consists of several functional elements or stages. It is possible to

identify four main types of element, although in a given system one type of element may be
missing or may occur more than once. The main four types of functional elements of a
measurement system are shown in Fig.1.2 and can be defined as followed.

Fig 1.2.General Measurement System

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Sensing Element:

The first element in any measuring system is the sensing element (detector). A sensor receives
energy from the object being measured, and gives an output according to a well understood
relationship with (a function of) the measurand (the physical parameter being measured, which
forms the input to the generalized measurement system)
Examples: • Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
• Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
• Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.

If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with the process is
termed the primary sensing element, the others secondary sensing elements such as, detectors
(sensors) or transducers. A transducer is defined as a device, which when actuated by one form
of energy, is capable of converting it into another form of energy.

Signal Conditioning Element:

This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more suitable for further
processing to improve the quality of the output of a measurement system in some ways, usually a
d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency signal.
Examples: • Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change
• Amplifier which increases the amplitude of the processing signal.
• Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency voltage.

Signal Processing Element:

This takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form more suitable for
presentation.
Examples: • Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) which converts a voltage into a digital form
for input to a computer.
• Computer which calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming
digital data.

Data (Output) Presentation Element:

The last part of the measurement system is the output presentation element which enables an
observer to recognize the measured value. The option element in a measuring system is the
point where the measured signal is utilized. The information regarding measurand (quantity to be
measured) is to be conveyed to the workforce handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, controlling or analyzing purpose. The information conveyed must be in a form
understandable to the workforce. Such devices (read out or display) may be in analog or digital
format. The simplest form of display device is the common panel meter with some kind of
calibrated scale and pointer. In case, the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tape or
CDs may be used. For control and analysis purpose computers may be used.
Examples of output elements:

• Simple pointer–scale indicator

• Alphanumeric display
• Chart recorder
• Visual display unit (VDU).
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1.2. Basic Concepts of Measurement

Measurement is the process by which relevant information about a system of interest is
interpreted using the human thinking ability to define what is believed to be the new knowledge
gained. This information may be obtained for purposes of controlling the behaviour of the
system (as in engineering applications) or for learning more about it (as in scientific
investigations).

In other words, Measurement: is essentially an act or a process or a result of a quantitative

comparison between a given quantity (an accepted standard) and a quantity of the same kind
chosen as a unit (unknown quantity). The result of measurement is expressed by a number
representing the ratio of the unknown quantity to the adopted unit measurement. The physical
embodiment of the unit of measurement as well as that of its multiple or sub multiple values are
called standards.

Thus, measurement is a comparison of a value obtained from the measuring instrument and
an accepted standard.

Measuring Instrument: is a device used for comparing the unknown quantity which is the unit
of measurement or a standard quantity by either direct or indirect measurement.

In direct measurement methods, the unknown quantity is measured directly such as measurement
of current by an ammeter, voltage by a voltmeter and resistance by an ohmmeter, power by a
wattmeter etc.

Direct methods of measurement are of two types namely deflection methods and comparison
methods.

Deflection methods:

In deflection methods, the value of unknown quantity is determined by means of measuring

instruments having a scale graduated to the quantity under measurement directly such as
measurement of current with an ammeter. Deflection methods of direct measurement are most
widely used in electrical engineering practice being the most simple and least time consuming
with accuracy of not more than 0.2 to 10%.

Comparison methods:

In comparison methods, the unknown quantity is determined by direct comparison with standard
cell. Comparison methods include the null method, differential method and other methods. In
null methods of measurement, the action of the unknown quantity (or a functionally related
quantity) upon the instrument is reduced to zero by the counter- action of a known quantity of
the same kind, such as measurement of weight by a balance, measurement of resistance ,
inductance, capacitance by bridge circuits.
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Direct measurements have the advantage of introducing a smaller error than that achieved in
indirect measurements. The maximum possible error of measurement introduced in direct
measurement depends upon the accuracy class of the measuring instrument employed.

In indirect measurement methods, the unknown quantity is determined by measuring other

functionally related quantities by an appropriate instrument as a new quantity directly and the
result derived (calculating) from this new quantity by a given scientific law rather than
measuring it directly with an instrument.

Example: A resistance of a conductor may be determined by measuring the voltage across the
conductor and current flowing through the conductor, and then calculating it by
V
Ohm's law as R  .
I
Indirect measurement falls into several different categories such as:

 Measurement by conversion
 Measurement by substitution
 The application of null method

Measurement by conversion is that the measurand is converted into directly measurable quantity
which after being measured gives the required quantity via a theoretical relationship (See the
above example).

Measurement by substitution is that a quantity related to some electrical element by means of

standard. The element carrying the measurand is placed into the measuring device, and then
substituted by some accurately known standard and the measurand is measured in both cases.
The required quantity is obtained theoretically from the difference of the two results. Example:
weight of a person.

The application of null method is a zero value in several branches of electrical circuits. Bridge
methods use the null method which has a high degree of accuracy
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Standard Units or Quantities:

A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. Standard

quantities are accepted accuracy values levels in international, national, industrial and general
work shop areas. There are different types of standards of measurement on the basis of their
function and applications such as: International Standards, Primary Standards, Secondary
Standards and Working Standards.

International Standards: are defined by international agreement and they represent certain units
of measurement to the closest possible accuracy that production and measurement technology
allow. These standards are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in
terms of the fundamental scientific units. Such standards are maintained at the International
Bureau of Weight and Measure and are not available to the ordinary users of measuring
instruments for the purpose of comparison or calibration. They are used for checking the primary
standards.

Primary Standards; are maintained by National Standard Laboratories in different parts of the
world. These standards represent the fundamental units and some of derived mechanical and
electrical units. These are calibrated independently by absolute measurements at each of the
National Laboratories. The results of such measurements are compared against each other,
leading to a world average figure for the primary standards. Primary standards are not available
for use outside the national laboratories. Main function of primary standards is the verification
and calibration of secondary standards.

Secondary Standards: are the basic reference standards used in industrial measurement
laboratories. These standards maintained by the particular involved industry and are checked
locally against reference standards. Secondary standards available in the area are maintained as
its calibration is checked by that particular industrial laboratory. Such standards are calibrated
and compared against the primary standards in national standard laboratories on a periodic basis
and issue a certificate of their measured value in terms of the primary standards. These standards
are used for verification the accuracy of working standards.

Working Standards: are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory. These are used to
check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for accuracy and performance or to perform
comparison measurements in industrial applications.

In summary, working standards are used as measurement references on a day-to-day basis in

virtually all electronic laboratories. Secondary standards are more accurate than working
standards, and are used throughout industry for checking working standards and for calibrating
high-accuracy equipment. Primary standards are more accurate than secondary standards. They
are maintained to the highest possible accuracy by national institutions as references for
calibrating secondary standards. International standards are maintained by international
agreement, and may be used for checking primary standards.
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1.3. Performance Characteristics

1.3.1. Introduction

In the previous topics we saw that a measurement system consists of different types of functional
elements. The following topic discusses the characteristics that typical elements may possess and
their effect on the overall performance of the system. The performance characteristic is the input
and output relationship response (presentation) behavior of each element in an instrumentation
system.

Fig.1.3. Meaning of element characteristics.

There are two types of characteristics. Static and Dynamic.

Static Characteristics

It is concerned with static or steady-state characteristics; relationships which may occur between
the outputs (O) and the input (I) of an element when (I) is either at a constant value or changing
slowly. In static characteristics the changes of the input and output are related proportionally.

Dynamic Characteristics

If the input signal (I) to an element is changed suddenly, from one value to another, then the
output signal (O) will not instantaneously change to its new value.

For example: if the temperature input to a thermocouple is suddenly changed from 25 °C to 100
°C, sometime will elapse before the e.m.f. output completes the change from 1 mV to 4 mV. The
ways in which an element responds to sudden input changes are termed its dynamic
characteristics, and are most conveniently summarised using a transfer function G(S). See
(Fig.1.6 and sec.1.3.3.). In dynamic characteristics the changes of the input and output are
related non-linearly.

The performance of any instrument depends upon both static and dynamic characteristics.
Instrumentation, therefore, will only give adequately correct information if we understand the
static and dynamic characteristics of both the measurand and the instrumentation. This, in turn,
allows us to then decide if the error arising is small enough to accept. The total system response
is obtained by combining both responses.

The static and dynamic response of the cascade of blocks is simply the multiplication of all
individual blocks. As each block has its own part for the static and dynamic behaviour, the
cascade equations can be rearranged to separate the static from the dynamic parts and then by
multiplying the static set and the dynamic set we get the overall response in the static and
dynamic states.
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1.3.2. Static Characteristics:

Static characteristics of an element in instrumentation are mostly analysed by using systematic

characteristics.

Systematic Characteristics:
Systematic characteristics are those that can be exactly quantified by mathematical or graphical
means. These are distinct from statistical characteristics which cannot be exactly quantified.

Range:
The input range of an element is specified by the minimum and maximum values of I, i.e. IMIN to
IMAX. The output range is specified by the minimum and maximum values of O, i.e. OMIN to
OMAX. Thus a pressure transducer may have an input range of 0 to 104 Pa and an output range of
4 to 20 mA; a thermocouple may have an input range of 100 to 250 °C and an output range of 4
to 10 mV.

Span:
Span is the maximum variation in input or output, i.e. input span is IMAX – IMIN, and output span
is OMAX – OMIN. Thus in the above examples the pressure transducer has an input span of 104 Pa
and an output span of 16 mA as well as the thermocouple has an input span of 150 °C and an
output span of 6 mV.

Ideal straight line (linearity):

An element is said to be linear if corresponding values of I and O lie on a straight line. The ideal
straight line connects the minimum point A (IMIN, OMIN) to maximum point B (IMAX, OMAX)
(Figure 1.4) and therefore has the equation.

The ideal straight line defines the ideal characteristics of an element. Non-ideal characteristics
can then be quantified in terms of deviations from the ideal straight line.
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Non-linearity:
In many cases the straight-line relationship is not obeyed and the element is said to be non-linear.
Non-linearity can be defined in terms of a function N (I) which is the difference between actual
and ideal straight-line behaviour, i.e.
N I   OACTUAL OIDEALL Or

Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the maximum non-linearity and expressed as a

percentage of full-scale deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a percentage of spans. Thus:

Where: Ń = N (I)

Fig.1.4. Definition of non linearity

Sensitivity:
This is the change ∆O in output O for unit change ∆I in input I, i.e. it is the ratio ∆O/∆I. In the
limit that ∆I tends to zero, the ratio ∆O/∆I tends to the derivative dO/dI, which is the rate of
change of O with respect to I. For a linear element dO/dI is equal to the slope or gradient K of
the straight line. For a non-linear element dO/dI = K + dN/dI, i.e. sensitivity is the slope or
gradient of the output versus input characteristics O(I). Fig.1.5. shows the e.m.f. versus
temperature characteristics E (T) for a typical thermocouple.

Fig.1.5. Thermocouple sensitivity

We see that the gradient and therefore the sensitivity vary with temperature. At 100 °C it is
approximately 35 μV/°C and at 200 °C approximately 42 μV/°C.
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Repeatability:
Repeatability is considered as statistical variations in the output of a single element with time.
Suppose that the input I of a single element, e.g. a pressure transducer, is held constant, say at 0.5
bar, for several days. If a large number of readings of the output O, say 1V are taken, then the
expected value of 1.0 volt is not obtained on every occasion.

A range of values such as 0.99, 1.01, 1.00, 1.02, 0.98, etc., scattered about the expected value, is
obtained. This effect is termed a lack of repeatability in the element. Thus repeatability is the
ability of an element to give the same output for the same (constant) input, when repeatedly
applied to it. Lack of repeatability is due to random effects in the element and its environment.

The most common cause of lack of repeatability in the output O is random fluctuations with time
in the environmental inputs IM, II: if the coupling constants KM, KI are non-zero, then there will
be corresponding time variations in O. Thus random fluctuations in ambient temperature cause
corresponding time variations in the resistance of a strain gauge or the output voltage of an
amplifier. Random fluctuations in the supply voltage of a deflection bridge affect the bridge
output voltage.

By making reasonable assumptions for the probability density functions of the inputs I, IM and II
(in a measurement system random variations in the input I to a given element can be caused by
random effects in the previous element), the probability density function of the element output O
can be found.

Fig.1.6. Normal probability density function with x  o

The most likely probability density function for I, IM and II is the normal or Gaussian distribution
function as shown above. The normal probability density function is expressed as below:
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1.3.3. Dynamic Characteristics

To properly appreciate instrumentation design and its use, it is now necessary to develop insight
into the most commonly encountered types of dynamic response and to develop the
mathematical modelling basis that allows us to make concise statements about responses.
If the transfer relationship for a block follows linear laws of performance, then a generic
mathematical method of dynamic description can be used. Unfortunately, simple mathematical
methods have not been found that can describe all types of instrument responses in a simplistic
and uniform manner.

If the behaviour is nonlinear, then description with mathematical models becomes very difficult
and might be impracticable. The behaviour of nonlinear systems can, however, be studied as
segments of linear behaviour joined end to end. Here, digital computers are effectively used to
model systems of any kind provided the user is prepared to spend time setting up an adequate
model.

Now the mathematics used to describe linear dynamic systems can be introduced. This gives
valuable insight into the expected behaviour of instrumentation, and it is usually found that the
response can be approximated as linear.

Transfer function G(s) for typical system elements

First-order elements

A good example of a first-order element is provided by a temperature sensor with an electrical

output signal, e.g. a thermocouple or thermistor. The bare element (not enclosed in a sheath) is
placed inside a fluid (Fig.1.7).

Fig.1.7.Temperature sensor in fluid

Initially at time t = 0− (just before t = 0), the sensor temperature is equal to the fluid temperature,
i.e. To = TFo . If the fluid temperature is suddenly raised at t = 0, the sensor is no longer in a
steady state, and its dynamic behavior is described by the heat balance equation as

rate of heat inflow - rate of heat outflow = rate of change of

sensor heat content

Assuming that TF > T, then the rate of heat outflow will be zero, and the rate of heat inflow (W)
in watts will be proportional to the temperature difference (TF − T).

From Newton’s law of cooling the convective heat flow (W) in watts between a sensor at T / °C
and fluid at TF /°C is given by:

W = UA (T - TF) Where: U is the overall (convection) heat transfer coefficient between fluid and sensor in W/m2 °C
A is the heat transfer area in m2
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The increase of heat content of the sensor is MC [T −To] joules.

Where: M is the sensor mass in kg and
C is the specific heat of the sensor material in J/ kg °C.
Thus, assuming M and C are constants:
rate of increase of sensor heat content = MC T  To
d
dt
Defining ΔT = T − To) and ΔTF = TF − TFo) to be the deviations in temperatures from initial
steady-state conditions, the differential equation describing the sensor temperature changes is

d T MC dT
UATF  T   MC or T F   T
dt UA dt
This is a linear differential equation in which dΔT/dt and ΔT are multiplied by constant
coefficients and the equation is first order because dΔT/dt is the highest derivative present.
Note! The quantity MC/UA has the dimensions of time:

kg x J x kg 1 x o C 1 J
1 o 1 2
  sec onds
W xm x C xm W

and is referred to as the time constant τ for the system. So that

dT
TF    T
dt
The differential equation is now linear first-order differential equation and describes the
dynamics of the sensor.

Second-order elements

The elastic sensor shown in Fig.1.8, which converts a force input F into a displacement output x,
is a good example of a second-order element.

Fig.1.8. Mass–spring–damper model of elastic force sensor

The diagram is a conceptual model of the element, which incorporates a mass m in kg, a spring
of stiffness k in N/m, and a damper of constant λ in N s/m. The system is initially at rest at a time
t = 0, so that the initial velocity vo = 0 m/s and the initial acceleration yo = 0 m/s2. The initial
input force Fo is balanced by the spring force at the initial displacement xo, i.e.

Fo = kxo
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If the input force is suddenly increased at t = 0, then the element is no longer in a steady state
and its dynamic behavior is described by Newton’s second law, as:

resultant force mass xacceleration, i.e.

F − kx − λv = my and F = my + λv + kx

Defining ΔF and Δx to be the deviations in F and x from initial steady-state conditions:

ΔF = F – Fo, Δx = x − xo Δv = v, Δy = y

Thus, the differential equation now becomes:

mΔy + λΔv + kxo + kΔx = Fo + ΔF

Using equation, Fo = kxo, which reduces to:

m d 2 x  dx 1
mΔy + λΔv + kΔx = ΔF and finally 2
  x  F
k dt k dt k

This is a second-order linear differential equation in which Δx and its derivatives are multiplied
by constant coefficients and the highest derivative present is d2Δx/dt2.

1.4. Measurement Errors:

No electronic instrument is perfectly accurate; all have some error or inaccuracy. It is important
to understand how these errors are specified and how they combine to create even greater faults
in measurement systems.

An error is the lack of accuracy which may be defined as a difference between the measured
values (AM) and the standard quantity (true value) of the unknown quantity (AS). This error is
mainly known as the absolute (uncertainty) error A  of measurements.

Mathematically: A  AM  AS

The absolute error does not indicate the accuracy of measurements precisely. The quality of
measurement is thus, indicated preferably in terms of relative error  r  . The relative error is the
ratio of absolute error A  to the true (standard) value of the quantity to be measured.
A
Mathematically:  r 
AS

Note! No measurement can be carried out with a complete accuracy. Thus, a study of errors is
necessary in the study of measuring process. A study of errors is the first step in finding ways to
reduce them and such a study also allows in determining the accuracy of measurement results.
Measurement results are mostly stated as a numerical value, a unit and a level of uncertainty,
which is caused by the errors.

There are three general categories of errors in any measurement process, namely Gross Errors,
Systematic Errors and Random Errors.
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Gross Errors: are human errors, which are caused by misuse of equipment, the proper use of
incorrect or inadequate equipment, or the misrepresentations of data obtained. Learning how to
use a piece of equipment properly may eliminate many human errors. The technician should
know the magnitudes, units and significance of the data obtained or the data will be of no use.
The best way to acquire these skills is:

 Reading the operation manual thoroughly before any instrument is used.

 Following through a course or test in conjunction with a lab experience.
The more an instrument or equipment is used, the more familiar the technician becomes with it.

Systematic Errors: are equipment errors that result from mechanical weakness of an instrument.
Worn bearings on meter movement and nonlinear sweeps on oscilloscopes are the fault of the
instrument, not the technician. With an adequate understanding of these problems, the technician
can diagnose the situation correctly and repair or replace the defective equipment. In some cases,
recalibration or compensation for error may be a solution.

Random Errors: are errors whose cause cannot be directly established because they appear to be
accidental variations in the electrical parameters of the measuring system or the device under
test. A high-quality technician acknowledges their existence and compensate for them by
statistical methods. Random errors can be minimized by statistical means (taking a number of
readings and obtaining a mean value).

The aim is to normalize random errors. One way to handle the random errors is to calculate the
probable error and express the values as the average plus or minus this error.

To do this we find the standard deviation  S  and probable error  p E  though the following steps.


1. Calculate the arithmetic error x of the number of reading taken as:
   2   3  ......  n 
 1  n
n n

2. Find the deviation(d) from the mean (difference of the quantity being measured from the
mean: as d     Example: d1  1   , d 2   2   .........and so on
Deviation from the mean may have a positive or negative value, but the algebraic sum of
all the deviations is always zero.

3. Determine the average deviation as:

da 
d1  d 2  ...... d n

d .
n n

The result of the average deviation gives the indication of the precision of the instrument
used in carrying out measurements. Low average deviation shows the better precision of the
measuring instrument.
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4. Calculate the standard deviation  s  . The standard deviation of an infinite number of

data is the square root of the sum all the individual deviation squared, divided by the
number of readings

S 
d1  d 2  .....dn 2
2 2


d 2

.
n n

In practice the possible number of observation if infinite and the standard deviation of a
finite number of data is given by dividing (n-1).

S 
d1  d 2  .....d n 2
2 2


d 2

n 1 n 1

5. Determine the final probable error  p E  as : p E   S ; where   o.6745

Thus, the final probable error p E  0.6745 S

1.5. Noise and Interferences

Unwanted signals may also be present in the measurement circuit; these can be classified as
either interference (deterministic) or noise (random).

The interconnection of two measurement system elements, could be represented by an equivalent

circuit in which either a Thévenin voltage source or a Norton current source is connected to a
load. In industrial installations, source and load may be typically 100 metres apart and noise
and/or interference voltages may also be present.

Effects of interference on measurement circuits are described below

Fig.1.9. below shows a voltage transmission system subject to series mode interference.

Fig.1.9. Voltage transmission – series mode interference

Here a noise or interference voltage VSM is in series with the measurement signal voltage ETh.
The current (i) through the load is:

and the corresponding voltage across the load is:

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Normally we make ZL > >RC + ZTh to obtain maximum voltage transfer to the load.
Under these conditions the load voltage equation becomes:

This means that with a voltage transmission system all of VSM is across the load. This affects the
next element in the system and possibly results in a system measurement error. To analyse this
interference effect, we define signal-to-noise or signal to interference ratio S/N in decibels by as:

S  ETh   WS 
 20 log 10    10 log 10   dB
N  VSM   WN 

Where: ETh and VSM are the r.m.s. values of the voltages, and WS and WN are the corresponding
total signal and noise powers. Thus, if ETh = 1V and VSM = 0.1V, the S/N = +20 dB.

Fig.1.10 below shows a current transmission system subject to the same series mode interference
voltage VSM.

Fig1.10. Current transmission – series mode interference

The Norton source current iN divides into two parts, one part through the source impedance ZN,
the other part through the load impedance ZL. Using the current divider rule, the current through
the load due to the source is:

In addition there is interference current through the load due to the interference voltage.

The total voltage across the load is therefore:

Normally we make RC + ZL<< ZN to obtain maximum current transfer to the load. Under these
conditions the load voltage equation becomes:
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Since ZL/ZN <<1, this indicates that with a current transmission system only a small fraction of
VSM is across the load. Thus, a current transmission system has far greater inherent (intrinsic)
immunity to series mode interference than a voltage transmission system.
In a thermocouple temperature measurement system, therefore, it may be better to convert the
thermocouple millivolt e.m.f. into a current signal prior to transmission, rather than transmit the
e.m.f. directly.

The third equivalent circuit representation system is a voltage transmission system subject to
common mode interference in which the potentials of both sides of the signal circuit are raised
by VCM relative to a common earth plane(Fig.1.11).

Fig.1.11. Voltage transmission – common mode interference

If, as above, ZL >>RC + ZTh, then current i → 0, so that the potential drops iRC/2, etc., can be
neglected. Under these conditions: Potential at B = VCM Potential at A = VCM + ETh and
VL = VB − VA = ETh
This means that the voltage across the load is unaffected by VCM.

NOISE SOURCES

Internal noise sources:

The random, temperature-induced motion of electrons and other charge carriers in resistors and
semiconductors gives rise to a corresponding random voltage which is called thermal or Johnson
noise. This has a power spectral density which is uniform over an infinite range of frequencies
(white noise) but proportional to the absolute temperature θ K of the conductor, i.e.

Ø = 4Rkθ W/Hz
Where: R is the resistance of the conductor and
k is the Boltzmann constant = 1.4 × 10−23 J K−1

The total thermal noise power between frequencies f1 and f 2 is:

W= = 4Rkθ ( f 2 − f 1) W.

The corresponding r.m.s. voltage is: VRMS = = V

Thus, if R 106 Ω, f2-f1=106 Hz and θ=300k, VRMS=130 μV and is therefore comparable with
low-level measurement signals such as the output from a strain gauge bridge.

A similar type of noise is called shot noise; this occurs in transistors and is due to random
fluctuations in the rate at which carriers diffuse across a junction. This is again characterised by a
uniform power spectral density over a wide range of frequencies.
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External noise and interference sources

The most common sources of external interference are nearby a.c. power circuits which usually
operate at 240 V, 50 Hz. These can produce corresponding sinusoidal interference signals in the
measurement circuit, referred to as mains pick-up or hum. Power distribution lines and heavy
rotating machines such as turbines and generators can cause serious interference. D.C. power
circuits are less likely to cause interference because d.c. voltages are not coupled capacitively
and inductively to the measurement circuit. However, switching often occurs in both a.c. and d.c.
power circuits when equipment such as motors and turbines is being taken off line or brought
back on line. This causes sudden large changes in power, i.e. steps and pulses, which can
produce corresponding transients in the measurement circuit.

The air in the surrounding area of high voltage power circuits can become ionised and a corona
discharge results. Corona (circle of light) discharge from d.c. circuits can result in random noise
in the measurement circuit and that from a.c. circuits results in sinusoidal interference at the
power frequency or its second harmonic.

Fluorescent lighting is another common interference source; arcing occurs twice per cycle so that
most of the interference is at twice the power frequency.

Radio-frequency transmitters, welding equipment and electric arc furnaces can produce r.f.
interference at frequencies of several MHz.

Methods of reducing effects of noise and interference

1. Physical Separation

Since mutual inductances and coupling capacitances between measurement and power circuits
are inversely proportional to the distance between them, this distance should be as large as
possible.

2. Electromagnetic Shielding

The simplest way of reducing the effects of inductive coupling to an external interference source
is shown in Fig.1.12 just below.

Fig.1.12. Reduction of electromagnetic coupling by twisted pairs

The two conductors A and B of the measurement circuit are twisted into loops of approximately
equal area. This arrangement is commonly known as twisted pairs. The magnitude of the
interference voltage induced in a given loop is proportional to the area of the loop and the rate of
change of the external magnetic field.
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The sign of the induced voltage depends on the orientation of conductors A and B. Thus if a
voltage VXY is induced in the jth loop between points X and Y, then an opposing voltage VYZ is
induced in the ( j + 1)th loop between Y and Z. In the ideal case of both loops having the same
area and experiencing the same magnetic fields, |VXY | = |VYZ |, i.e. there is a zero resultant
induced voltage between X and Z.

This process is repeated for the whole length of the twisted pair, giving a reduced overall
interference voltage.

3. Use of Differential Amplifiers

Common mode interference voltages can be successfully rejected by the use of a differential
amplifier (fig.1.13). An ideal differential amplifier has an output:

Fig.1.13. Use of differential amplifier

i.e.only the sensor voltage ETh is amplified. The output of a practical amplifier contains a
contribution proportional to VCM; we have:

The common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) of the amplifier is the ratio of differential voltage
gain to common mode voltage gain and should be as large as possible to minimise this effect.
Thus if we have ETh = 1 mV, R1 = 1 kΩ, RF = 1 MΩ, VCM = 1 V and CMRR = 105 (100 dB)
then:
VOUT ≈ −1.0 + 0.01 V

i.e. the resultant series mode interference is only 1%.

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4. Filtering

A filter is an element which transmits a certain range (or ranges) of frequencies and rejects all
other frequencies. An analogue filter is an electrical network, consisting usually of resistors,
capacitors and operational amplifiers, which conditions continuous signals. A digital filter is
usually a digital computer programmed to process sampled values of a signal. Provided that the
power spectrum of the measurement signal occupies a different frequency range from that of the
noise or interference signal, then filtering improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
Fig.1.4. shows the basic arrangement principle of filtering system.

Fig.1.14. Filtering system

Filters are commonly classified according to the filter function they perform. The basic functions
are: low-pass, high-pass, band pass, and band stop. If a filter passes frequencies from zero to its
cutoff frequency  c and stops all frequencies higher than the cutoff frequencies, then this filter
type is called an ideal low pass filter. In contrast, an ideal high-pass filter stops all frequencies
below its cutoff frequency and passes all frequencies above it. Frequencies extending from  1
up to  2 are passed by an ideal band pass filter, while all other frequencies are stopped. An
ideal band stop filter stops frequencies from  1 up to  2 and passes all other frequencies.
Fig.1.15 (a – d) show the use of low pass, high pass, band pass and band stop filters in
rejecting noise.

Fig.1.15. Use of filtering to reject noise

The diagrams show the amplitude ratio |G (jω)| for each filter and the power spectral densities φ
(ω) for signal and noise. In order to transmit the measurement signal without distortion the
transfer function G(s) of the filter must satisfy the conditions of |G (jω)|=1 and arg G (jω) = 0 for
all the frequencies present in the measurement signal spectrum.