Textbook Environmental Forensics Proceedings of The 2013 Inef Conference Robert D Morrison Ebook All Chapter PDF

Environmental Forensics Proceedings
of the 2013 INEF Conference Robert D

Morrison
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-forensics-proceedings-of-the-2013-inef
-conference-robert-d-morrison/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Proceedings of the 2013 National Conference on Advances

in Environmental Science and Technology 1st Edition
Godfrey A. Uzochukwu
https://textbookfull.com/product/proceedings-of-
the-2013-national-conference-on-advances-in-environmental-
science-and-technology-1st-edition-godfrey-a-uzochukwu/
Advances in Systems Science Proceedings of the

International Conference on Systems Science 2013 ICSS
2013 1st Edition Tadeusz Kaczorek (Auth.)
https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-systems-science-
proceedings-of-the-international-conference-on-systems-
science-2013-icss-2013-1st-edition-tadeusz-kaczorek-auth/
Robotic Sailing 2013 Proceedings of the 6th

International Robotic Sailing Conference 1st Edition
Cédric Anthierens
https://textbookfull.com/product/robotic-
sailing-2013-proceedings-of-the-6th-international-robotic-
sailing-conference-1st-edition-cedric-anthierens/
Ultrafast Magnetism I Proceedings of the International

Conference UMC 2013 Strasbourg France October 28th
November 1st 2013 1st Edition Jean-Yves Bigot
https://textbookfull.com/product/ultrafast-magnetism-i-
proceedings-of-the-international-conference-umc-2013-strasbourg-
france-october-28th-november-1st-2013-1st-edition-jean-yves-
Principles of Distributed Systems 17th International
Conference OPODIS 2013 Nice France December 16 18 2013
Proceedings 1st Edition Hein Meling
https://textbookfull.com/product/principles-of-distributed-
systems-17th-international-conference-opodis-2013-nice-france-
december-16-18-2013-proceedings-1st-edition-hein-meling/
Advances in Computer Entertainment 10th International

Conference ACE 2013 Boekelo The Netherlands November 12
15 2013 Proceedings 1st Edition Mathew Burns
https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-computer-
entertainment-10th-international-conference-ace-2013-boekelo-the-
netherlands-november-12-15-2013-proceedings-1st-edition-mathew-
burns/
Information Theoretic Security 7th International

Conference ICITS 2013 Singapore November 28 30 2013
Proceedings 1st Edition Kaoru Kurosawa
https://textbookfull.com/product/information-theoretic-
security-7th-international-conference-icits-2013-singapore-
november-28-30-2013-proceedings-1st-edition-kaoru-kurosawa/
Proceedings of the International Conference on

Frontiers of Intelligent Computing Theory and
Applications FICTA 2013 1st Edition Prabha Verma
https://textbookfull.com/product/proceedings-of-the-
international-conference-on-frontiers-of-intelligent-computing-
theory-and-applications-ficta-2013-1st-edition-prabha-verma/
Ambient Intelligence 4th International Joint Conference

AmI 2013 Dublin Ireland December 3 5 2013 Proceedings
1st Edition Serge Autexier
https://textbookfull.com/product/ambient-intelligence-4th-
international-joint-conference-ami-2013-dublin-ireland-
december-3-5-2013-proceedings-1st-edition-serge-autexier/
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:35.
Published on 01 July 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782628347-FP001
Environmental Forensics
Proceedings of the 2013 INEF Conference
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:35.
Published on 01 July 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782628347-FP001 View Online
View Online
Particle Science and Engineering

Proceedings of the 2013 INEF Conference
Edited by
Robert D Morrison
Morrison and Associates, Hawi, Hawaii 96719, USA
Email: RobertForensics@aol.com
Gwen O'Sullivan
Mount Royal University, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Email: gosullivan@mtroyal.ca
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:35.
View Online
The proceedings of International Network of Environmental Forensics Penn State

Conference 2013 held at Pennsylvania State University, USA on 10-12 June, 2013.
Special Publication No. 348
Print ISBN: 978-1-84973-944-3

Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:35.
PDF eISBN: 978-1-78262-834-7
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
© The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014
All rights reserved
Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of research or private study for non-commercial
purposes, or criticism or review as permitted under the terms of the UK Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may
not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior
permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry or the copyright owner, or in the case
of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued
by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning
reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemistry at
the address printed on this page.
The RSC is not responsible for individual opinions expressed in this work.
Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry,

Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road,
Cambridge CB4 0WF, UK
Registered Charity Number 207890
Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books
Printed in the United Kingdom by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY, UK
PREFACE
From June 10th to the 12th, the 3rd International Network of Environmental Forensics (INEF)
environmental forensics conference was held at the Pennsylvania State University at
University Park, Pennsylvania. The conference was attended by scientists, regulators,
academics and consultants from throughout the world. Given the advancement and refinement
of environmental forensic techniques and the academic recognition of environmental forensics
by universities throughout the world, this conference provided a forum for individuals to share
their experiences and research in an open and collaborative forum.
Since the first INEF conference held in Qingdao, China in 2008, significant advances in the
state of the art in environmental forensics have occurred, especially in the fields of compound
specific isotope analysis (CSIA), biological and petroleum hydrocarbon pattern recognition
and the use of advanced multivariate techniques for interpreting environmental forensics data.
Of note in these proceedings is the application of environmental forensic techniques to
examine contaminant issues associated with hydrofracking which has received considerable
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:39.
international attention in the past several years.
As with previous publication of INEF proceedings, our intent is to memorialize and document
the evolution of environmental forensic techniques for the international scientific community.
It is our intent that the information in these proceedings provides useful information to you in
your practice and inspires you to contribute to the future advancement of environmental
forensics.
Robert Morrison, Ph.D.

Gwen O’Sullivan, Ph.D.
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:39.
Author Biographies
Robert Morrison, Ph.D. Dr. Morrison has a B.S. in Geology, a M.S.

in Environmental Studies and a Ph.D. in Soil Physics from the
University of Wisconsin at Madison. Dr. Morrison has worked for 44
years as an environmental consultant on projects related to soil and
groundwater contamination, including site investigations and

remediation. Dr. Morrison currently specializes in the forensic review
and interpretation of scientific data for the purpose of identifying the
source and age of a contaminant release.
Gwen O’Sullivan, Ph.D., MRSC. Dr Gwen O’Sullivan is an

Assistant Professor of Environmental Science at Mount Royal
University. Dr O’Sullivan earned a B.Sc. in Environmental Science
from the University of Limerick and a Ph.D. in Environmental
Chemistry from Queen’s University of Belfast. Over the course of
her career, in industry, consultancy and academia, Dr. O’Sullivan has
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
developed technical expertise in the areas of environmental

chemistry, environmental forensics, air quality and contaminated
land and groundwater. She has worked on numerous research and
industrial projects including the development of technologies and
remedial actions plans for the treatment of petroleum hydrocarbons,
chlorinated solvents, and saline impacted sites. She has also designed and managed
environmental forensic investigations involving compounds of concerns including drilling
fluids, petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenlys,
polychlorinated dibenso-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, methane and nitrates. She has also
authored numerous scientific articles, edited books series and successfully competed for
research grant both nationally and internationally.
Chris Balouet, Ph.D. Chris is principal scientist at Environment
International, a French company he established in 1993. Trained as a
research scientist to the Paris Museum of Natural History and the
Smithsonian Institution, he has served governmental and
intergovernmental organisations, industry, law firms and NGOs on
complex environmental and forensic issues. His vocation started in
1967 when he did wet his short pants in Torrey Canyon oil slick. His experience is quite
diverse, ranging from paleontology to ozone layer, air quality issues in aerospace industry, oil
pollution in marine environment and polluted sites, but always at international level. Since
2002, he has been researching and developing environmental forensic methods based on trees,
known as phytoscreening and dendrochemistry, serving over 150 forensic cases worldwide,
and leading an international research program by ADEME, known as Pollution Investigation
by Trees (PIT). He also serves as judicial expert to the French Appeal Court of Amiens. Chris
enjoys serving environmental issues with best available science, even if new to the
beneficiaries, communicating as a teacher or a writer, and with a profound sense of team
collaborations.
View Online
viii Author Biographies
Frank L. Dorman, Ph.D. Frank Dorman is currently an Associate

Professor at The Pennsylvania State University in University Park,
PA. Frank is a member of the Forensics Science Program, and in the
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. In addition to
Undergraduate and Graduate student instruction, Frank continues to
pursue research interests in gas and liquid chromatography
fundamental characterization, instrumentation and column

development, and application to trace analysis in complex sample
matrices. Prior to joining the faculty at PSU, Frank was the Director
of Technical Development, at Restek Corporation, responsible for external research
collaborations, new technology identification, and product development. Frank has a B.S. in
Chemistry from Juniata College in Huntingdon, PA, and a Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry from
the University of Vermont, Prior to coming to Restek, he worked for Inchcape Testing
Services as Senior Chemist responsible for method development from 1991-96. Frank has
experience with both GC and LC separations, mass spectrometry, and atomic spectroscopy,
and has developed analytical methods for a variety of organic and organometallic compounds
in various sample matrices.
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
Mike Fowler, Ph.D. Mike Fowler is a geochemist with over 20

years teaching experience. He studied geology and mineral
chemistry at the Universities of Bristol and Birmingham, and
completed PhD research and an 1851 Research Fellowship at
Imperial College. He has worked for the British Geological Survey
in its regional geochemistry group and at the NERC Isotope
Geology Centre, before teaching geochemistry to geologists at
Oxford Brookes University for 13 years. From Oxford he moved
briefly to the University of Gloucestershire, but has been very happy at
the University of Portsmouth since 2006 where he is Principal Lecturer and Programme
Manager for Geoscience courses. His main research interests have been in crustal evolution
and environmental geochemistry, and more recently in chemical methods for source
attribution of industrial fugitive dusts with colleagues at DustScan Ltd. He has published forty
or so peer-reviewed papers on a variety of such topics, and written a roughly equivalent
number of consultancy reports. Mike likes all sports, and still plods around a squash court
from time to time.
John O. Goreham is a Project Manager at Matson & Associates,
Inc. in State College, Pennsylvania. He evaluates manufacturing
plants and other industrial facilities for compliance with industry
standards and regulations including RCRA, TSCA, and the CWA
concerning the use, handling, storage, treatment and disposal of
chemicals and chemical-contaminated waste streams. Mr.
Goreham’s expertise includes forensic investigation of a variety of
industrial operations and practices to identify sources, amounts, and
fate of chemical emissions resulting in environmental contamination. He conducts research on
hazardous and toxic substances including PCBs, arsenic, methane, perchlorate, and chlorinated
solvents and assists in preparing for deposition of fact witnesses and experts and in preparing
for direct and cross exams of trial experts.
View Online
Author Biographies ix
Alan W.A. Jeffrey, Ph.D. Alan Jeffrey is Senior Geochemist at

Pace Analytical/Zymax Forensics in Escondido, California. Dr.
Jeffrey has over 30 years of U.S. and international experience in
environmental and petroleum geochemistry. Much of his work has
focused on the use of geochemical and stable isotope techniques to
solve environmental problems, including sources of spilled
hydrocarbon fuels and chlorinated solvents, and fugitive methane

seeps.
Karl J. Jobst, Ph.D. Karl J. Jobst is a recent graduate of McMaster
University, where he received his Ph.D. (2011) with the guidance of
Professor Johan K. Terlouw. His thesis focused on the study of
catalysis in the chemistry of gas-phase organic ions using mass
spectrometry experiments and theoretical calculations. Some of this
research was relevant to the chemistry of interstellar space, but
following graduation, Karl pursued more Earth-oriented studies as a
postdoctoral fellow at Environment Canada. He is presently a
scientist at the Laboratory Services Branch of the Ontario Ministry
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
of the Environment. He also holds adjunct professor status in the Department of Chemistry
and Chemical Biology at McMaster University. Karl is currently interested in the development
and application of sophisticated mass spectrometry and (multidimensional) chromatography
techniques capable of tackling challenging environmental analytical problems.
Glenn W. Johnson, Ph.D. Dr. Glenn Johnson’s expertise is in the
area of environmental forensics, with a particular focus on
multivariate statistical methods and sources, fate and transport of
PCBs, dioxins and furans. Dr. Johnson spent seven years in
environmental consulting with Roux Associates, Inc. (West
Deptford, New Jersey) and McLaren/Hart Environmental
Engineering, Corp (Philadelphia, PA). He has been at the Energy &
Geoscience Institute (EGI) at the University of Utah since 1995,
where he has a faculty appointment in the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering. Dr. Johnson frequently consults, and
has served as an expert witness in a number of environmental
litigation matters involving multivariate statistics and environmental
chemistry.
Jun Lu, Ph.D. Dr. Lu has a BS in Geology from Hefei Polytechnic

University, China and MS and PhD in Geochemistry from Virginia
Tech. He is a California Professional Geologist, Certified
Hydrogeologist and Certified Engineering Geologist. Over the last
27 years of his professional career, he has been involved in various
scientific disciplines such as geology, hydrogeology and
geochemistry. He specializes in contaminant source characterization
for development and enhancement of conceptual site models for site
investigation and remediation. Dr. Lu has provided technical
support for legal teams for environmental liability related projects and
View Online
x Author Biographies
also serves as a “Subject Matter Expert” of groundwater hydrogeology for the State of
California Board of Professional Engineers and Land Surveyors. Dr. Lu’s experience extends
globally across petroleum refineries, terminals and pipelines, underground storage tanks, oil
fields, surface water spills, manufactured gas plants, chlorinated solvents and various other
industrial facilities. He is currently a Principal Technical Specialist of AECOM, a global
professional technical and management support service provider.
David Megson David Megson obtained a BSc in Environmental

Forensics and an MSc in Environmental Analysis and Assessment.
He has over four years experience working in the UK as an
environmental consultant, specializing in human health risk
assessment and contaminant fate and transport. He has undertaken
contaminated land assessments, remediation projects and forensic
investigations involving source identification. He has published
several papers and co-authored book chapters in the field of
environmental forensics focusing on POPs in the environment. Mr.
Megson is a member of the Royal Society of Chemistry and the
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
Society of Brownfield Risk Assessment. He is currently studying for

a PhD at Plymouth University (UK), using multidimensional
chromatography to create high resolution PCB signatures for use as an ecological monitoring
tool and to identify and age date human exposure to PCBs.
Carlo Monti, Ph.D. Dr. Carlo Monti specializes in the evaluation
of transport, fate, and effects of contaminants in aquatic habitats,
soil, sediment, and groundwater. He has managed and been the
principal investigator of field, laboratory, and theoretical
assessments of a wide variety of contaminants in lakes, rivers,
estuarine waters, ocean waters, and groundwater. Dr. Monti has
also directed ecological risk assessments, cost allocation studies,
and Environmental Liability assessments for sites involving soils,
sediments, and waters contaminated with dioxin, PCBs, DDT,
mercury, petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, and other
contaminants. He has conducted fate and transport modeling at the basin level in a variety of
river systems. Dr. Monti is an expert in environmental forensics. He has also conducted
environmental due diligence assessments at a variety of industrial facilities in Europe, Asia,
and Central and South America.
Steven Mudge, Ph.D. Dr. Stephen Mudge is a Managing Scientist
in Exponent’s Environmental Sciences practice. Dr. Mudge has been
a practicing environmental scientist for 28 years, gaining his Ph.D.
on the development of novel chemicals for use as non-toxic
antifouling paint additives. He spent almost 6 years at Lancaster
University as a post-doctoral research associate investigating the
geochemistry of radionuclides in the environment, especially
plutonium in estuaries and polonium-210 discharged from a metal
smelter. These studies were funded by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of
Pollution, the forerunner to the Environment Agency in the UK.
View Online
Author Biographies xi
From 1991 until 2008, Dr. Mudge was an academic at Bangor University, School of Ocean
Sciences, UK, where he developed the world’s first undergraduate programme in
Environmental Forensics. Dr. Mudge’s research has focused on identifying the sources of
contaminants in the environment and apportioning responsibility among potential polluters.
He has tracked sewage derived materials in marine and estuarine environments and has
published several papers and book chapters on the subject (23 directly or indirectly related to
sewage contamination). He has expanded the use of multivariate statistical methods such as
PCA and PLS in quantitative source apportionment and has contributed three papers
concerning the initial hydrocarbon source in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Dr. Mudge has
acted an expert witness for water companies in the UK in cases involving the blocking of
sewers with fats, oils, and greases. Other UK companies and agencies have used his services
in similar cases and for determining the source and fate of contaminants. He is a Fellow of the
Royal Society of Chemistry and one of the founders of the International Network of
Environmental Forensics.
Brian L. Murphy Dr. Murphy is a Principal Scientist in Exponent’s
Environmental Sciences practice. He has more than 25 years of
experience in modeling pollutant fate and transport in various media
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
both outdoors and indoors. He is the author of more than thirty

journal publications. He is also coeditor of the Academic Press text
Introduction to Environmental Forensics and is on the editorial
board of the journal Environmental Forensics. Dr. Murphy’s
practice focuses on: 1) application of environmental forensics
methods to assess liability; 2) dose reconstruction for toxic torts; 3)
use of risk assessment to set clean-up levels and as a cost allocation
tool, and 4) air dispersion modeling for risk assessment, litigation, and policy analysis
purposes. He serves as both a testifying and consulting expert in these areas and is a frequent
speaker to legal, trade, and professional groups on these topics. His experience includes
formulating challenges to other experts’ testimony under Rule 702 and similar state rules. Dr.
Murphy has been a consultant to the Economic Development Administration of the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, PEMEX, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, U.S.
Departments of Commerce and Defense, EPA, the National Academy of Sciences, and
numerous private companies. He has also been a Visiting Instructor at Harvard School of
Public Health and the University of South Florida. Prior to joining Exponent Dr. Murphy was
founding president of Gradient Corporation and vice-president of Sciences International, both
risk assessment consulting firms. Earlier in his career, Dr. Murphy he was general manager for
physical sciences at what is now ENSR.
Miren Pena-Abaurrea, Ph.D. Miren Pena-Abaurrea is a
postdoctoral researcher at the University of Toronto, working at the
Ontario Ministry of the Environment at Prof. Dr. Eric Reiner’s mass
spectrometry group. She obtained her PhD in Analytical Chemistry
from the Spanish National Research Council/University Autonoma of
Madrid in 2012. During her PhD she was working on the
development and optimization of green and alternative sample
preparation methods for the analysis of organic micropollutants in
environmental samples as well as on the use of multidimensional gas
View Online
xii Author Biographies
chromatography techniques. During her postdoctorate, she has been broadening her expertise
on the use of GC×GC-ToF MS for the identification of unknown and relevant new chemicals
in environmental samples. She is also working with state-of-the-art HRMS instruments for the
elucidation of the elemental composition of the novel unknown chemicals detected in the
investigated samples.
Paul R. Philp, Ph.D. Dr. R. Paul Philp is Professor of Petroleum
and Environmental Geochemistry at the University of Oklahoma.

He received his Ph.D. from the University of Sydney, Australia in
1972 and a D.Sc. from the same University in 1998 on the basis of
his research in geochemistry over the past 20 years. Prior to starting
at the University of Oklahoma in 1984 Dr. Philp was a Principal
Research Scientist, C.S.I.R.O., Sydney, Australia. His current
research interests center around petroleum, environmental and
forensic geochemistry with an emphasis on molecular and isotopic characterization of oils,
gases, rock extracts and contaminants for the purposes of source determination,
characterization of depositional environments, maturity, biodegradation and for correlation
purposes. Much of the current research activity in the area of forensic geochemistry involves
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
the use of stable isotopes for the purposes of fingerprinting contaminants in the environment
for correlation purposes; source determinations and evaluating whether or not natural
attenuation is active. This approach is particularly valuable in the case of refined products or
single component contaminants when the more traditional GC and GCMS techniques are of
little or reduced use. He has authored or co-authored over 340 articles and books and has
lectured extensively on petroleum and environmental geochemistry in SE Asia, South
America, Europe and Africa.
Angela Powley Ms Powley is a Project Geoscientist with
Environmental Standards Inc. She received a Bachelor of Science
Degree in Biology/Environmental Science from Edinboro
University of Pennsylvania in 2003 and a Master of Science Degree
in Environmental Health and Engineering from Gannon University
in 2005. Her primary responsibilities at Environmental Standards
Inc. include management of environmental site investigation and
remediation projects as well as the implementation of field work
associated with those projects. Ms. Powley is responsible for
managing projects, including tasks such as proposals and budgets,
development and implementation of work plans, assessment of field
and laboratory data, regulatory reporting, client and regulatory
interaction, and budget tracking and invoicing. Ms. Powley has eight
years of project experience with Pennsylvania Act 2 and underground storage tank (UST)
Phase I and Phase II environmental site assessments, UST investigations/removal in New
Jersey and Pennsylvania, Brownfields, New Jersey Industrial Site Recovery Act (ISRA), and
Pennsylvania and New Jersey indoor vapor intrusion investigations. Ms. Powley has submitted
numerous detailed technical and regulatory reports for review (e.g., environmental site
assessments, Pennsylvania Department of the Environment Underground Storage Tank (PA
DEP UST) site characterization reports, PA DEP UST remedial action completion reports, and
NJ DEP UST closure reports) that have obtained regulatory approval. In addition to her
View Online
Author Biographies xiii
reporting responsibilities, Ms. Powley provides oversight to subcontractors and conducts field
investigations that include hollow stem auger drilling, direct push advancement and sampling,
monitoring well installation, and groundwater and soil sample collection for analytical
analysis.
Cristiano Pozzi Mr. Pozzi has over 17 years of environmental
consulting experience in the fields of soil & groundwater
investigations and remediation (full scale and pilot test design),

groundwater modelling, risk assessments, Environmental Forensics,
Litigation Support, Liabilities quantification in particular concerning
industrial and petrochemical mega-sites more than 100 hectares large
and multiple properties scenarios (i.e. Italian National Priority Sites).
He worked for oil and gas companies developing a methodology for
contamination sources identification for environmental damage
quantification. His area of expertise include historical baseline
assessment of contamination, source identification and age dating
trough stable isotopes enrichment factor and fingerprinting analysis; plume dynamic behavior
assessment through saturated and unsaturated zone.
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
Leo M. Rebele, MS, Bsc. Mr. Rebele serves as Environmental

Services Manager for the West Region of Gannett Fleming, Inc.,
based in Irvine, California. For over 17 years, Mr. Rebele has been
supporting the private development community by positioning
contaminated properties and Brownfields throughout the Western
United States and Canada for redevelopment as commercial,
industrial and residential projects. His expertise involves working
with prospective purchasers, owners, cities, regulatory agencies, and
environmental attorneys to maximize the development potential of a
site, while minimizing remediation costs. He routinely employs innovative site
characterization tools in the assessment of contaminated properties and is a proponent of
applying environmental forensic techniques proactively during the site characterization stage
in order to reduce the potential for costly litigation among responsible parties. He is known
for applying innovative, green and cost-effective cleanup strategies to achieve solutions where
others have failed. Mr. Rebele also serves as part of an executive team that develops and
executes guaranteed, fixed-price remediation (GFPR) contracts in support of environmental
liability transfers on complex real estate transactions. Mr. Rebele holds a Bachelor of Science
(Honors) from the University of British Columbia and a Master of Science from Oregon State
University.
Eric J. Reiner, Ph.D. Eric J. Reiner is a senior mass spectrometry
research scientist at the Laboratory Services Branch of the Ontario
Ministry of the Environment. He also holds adjunct professor status
at the Department of Chemistry at the University of Toronto,
Department and University of Waterloo and Department of
Environmental Forensics at Pennsylvania State University. Eric
obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Toronto in 1986 in
View Online
xiv Author Biographies
Analytical Chemistry / Mass Spectrometry. He has been working in the field of ultra-trace
environmental analysis for more than 25 years and his research interests include the analysis
of dioxin-like and other emerging toxic organics including halogenated flame retardants,
perfluorinated compounds and industrial chemicals as well as advanced analytical techniques
such as Fast GC, 2 Dimensional GC, chemical ionization mass spectrometry, tandem mass
spectrometry and analytical automation.
Michale J. Wade Dr. Michael J. Wade, as Principal Scientist of

Wade Research, Inc.™, provides geochemical consulting services to
a variety of U.S. government agencies, industrial clients, and law
firms. Dr. Wade is an organic geochemist with experience in a
variety of research programs with special emphasis on study of
organic contamination in the environment. He has refined
quantitative field and laboratory investigation approaches designed
to establish time frames for the release of gasoline, kerosene, diesel
fuel and heavier fuel oils in subsurface petroleum contamination
cases. Further, Dr. Wade provides hyrdocarbon fingerprinting
services for petroleum products as well as chlorinated materials such
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
as dioxins/dibenzofurans and PCBs. Annually Dr. Wade conducts

20 to 30 such research programs. He regularly provides expert forensic
geochemical services both through the deposition process as well as testimony in U.S. Federal
and State Courts in the areas of environmental contamination, including assessment of sources
of contamination, identification of product types, fingerprinting, quantification of weathering
effects on products, and age-dating of product releases.
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
Group photo- International Network of Environmental Forensics Penn State Conference 2013 held at Penn State University,
University Park, PA, USA, 10–12 June 2013
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:38.
Brian E. McCarry
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:36.
July 7, 1946 - July 7, 2013

Professor,
Stephen A. Jarislowsky Chair in Environment & Health
B.Sc. (British Columbia), Ph.D. (Stanford), F.C.I.C.
We would like to dedicate these proceedings to Dr. Brian McCarry, who passed away
suddenly on the 7th July 2013. Brian was a dedicated environmental scientist and university
professor who was passionate about his work and collaborating with others. He held the
Stephen A. Jarislowsky Chair in Environment and Health at McMaster since 1999, and was
Director of the McMaster Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory from 2006-13.
He has served as Chair of Clean Air Hamilton continuously since 2000 and of the Hamilton
Air Monitoring Network since 2003, and has been involved in various capacities with the Bay
Area Restoration Council from 1997-2008, including a term on the Board of Directors. He was
the recipient of a Canadian Environment Award in Climate Change in 2005, and was named
the twenty-sixth recipient of the Victor Cecilioni Award for Hamilton Environmentalist of the
Year, also in 2005. Above all these achievements and allocates Brian was a good person and
will be sorely missed in the scientific community. We would like to extend our sympathy to
his family and loved ones for their untimely loss.
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:36.
Contents
A Forensic Analysis of Contaminant Releases from a Sewer Pipe 1

Robert D. Morrison
Interpreting Tar Patterns at Former Manufactured Gas Plants 26

Brian L. Murphy
Failures in the Historical Age Dating of Separated Phased Product Leaded 37

Gasoline Releases in the United States Forensic Geochemical Community
Michael J. Wade
Methane Vapor Intrusion Case Study: Interpretation of Complex Environmental 67

Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:36.
Data
John O. Goreham, Jack V. Matson and Wendy N. Pearson
NAPL Source Identification Utilizing Data from laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) 77
Screening Tools
Jun Lu, Randy St. Germain, and Trevre Andrews
Environmental Forensic Investigation for Identifying Sources of Polycyclic 98

Aromatic Hydrocarbons in a Stream
Melinda T-N. Pham and Frank L. Dorman
Modeled PCN Weathering Series in Principal Component Space: Consideration 117

for Multivariate Chemical Fingerprinting
Glenn W. Johnson and Michael J. Bock
Techniques to Age Date Human Exposure to PCBs 125

David Megson, Gwen O’Sullivan, Paul J. Worsfold, Sean Comber, and Maeve C.
Lohan
The Use of Compound Specific Isotope Analysis (CSIA) for Discerning Sources of 136
Trichloroethylene (TCE) and Perchloroethylene (PCE) within a Commingled
Groundwater Plume in California, USA
Leo M. Rebele and Alan W.A. Jeffrey
Source Attribution of Industrial Fugitive Dusts: Case Studies for the 146
Environment Agency, UK
Mike Fowler, Hugh Datson, Ben Williams and John Bruce
View Online
xx Contents
Strategies and Techniques for Identifying Unknown Compounds in 158

Environmental Samples
Karl J. Jobst, Miren Pena- Abaurrea and Eric J. Reiner
Defensible Data Begins with Proper Field Protocols 171

Angela Powley and Daniel P. Claycomb
Basic Fundamental Aspects of Environmental Forensics Investigations 176

R. Philp Paul
Phytoforensics: Sampling, Analytical Methods and Case Studies 200

Chris Balouet, Michel Chalot and Gwen O’Sullivan
Identifying the Sources of Chemical Contamination after the Fact 230

Stephen M Mudge, Carlo Monti and Cristiano Pozzi
Author Index 239

Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:36.
Subject Index 241

A FORENSIC ANALYSIS OF CONTAMINANT RELEASES FROM A SEWER PIPE
Published on 01 July 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782628347-00001
Robert D. Morrison1
1
P.O. Box 195, Hawi, HI 96719 USA
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:42.
1 INTRODUCTION
In 1992 an obscure 23 page report by the Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control
Board (RWQCB) titled Dry Cleaners – A Major Source of PCE in Ground Water by Victor
Izzo, an Associate Engineering Geologist with the RWQCB at the time, was published.1 The
report described the collection of wastewater samples at main sewer accesses just above and
below sixteen dry cleaners sewer laterals that entered the main sewers. As part of this
investigation, flush samples were obtained after stirring up bottom sediments by adding large
quantities of water and sampling from the flush water, using the later as an indication whether
PCE (perchloroethylene) liquids or sludges had accumulated in the sewer. Of the sixteen dry
cleaners, samples from 11 indicated that PCE sludges or liquids had accumulated in the sewers
next to the facility and were available for exfiltration. The report identified 215 municipal
wells in the Central Valley of California that were degraded by PCE with the source of PCE
identified in 21 of the wells, 20 of which were likely associated with dry cleaners. The report
included the following observation:
The main discharge point for dry cleaners is the sewer line. The discharge from
most dry cleaning units contains primarily water with dissolved PCE, but also
contains some pure cleaning solvent and solids containing PCE. Being heavier
than water, PCE settles to the bottom of the sewer line and exfiltrates through
it. This liquid can leak through joints and cracks in the line. PCE, being
volatile, also turns into gas and penetrates the sewer wall. Sewer lines are not
designed to contain gas. The PCE then travels through the vadose zone to the
ground water.
Based on their investigation, the staff of the RWQCB theorized that five likely methods
existed by which the PCE penetrated the sewer line: (1) through breaks or cracks in the sewer
pipe, (2) through pipe joints and other connections, (3) by leaching in liquid from directly
View Online
2 Environmental Forensics: Proceedings of the 2013 INEF Conference
through the sewer lines into the vadose zone, (4) by saturating the bottom of the sewer pipe
with a higher concentration of PCE-containing liquid and then PCE volatilizing from the outer
edge of the pipe into the soils and (5) by penetrating the sewer pipe as a gas. The report further
stated that: The literature indicates that all sewer lines leak to some extent. An unintended
consequence of this seemingly innocuous sentence and the findings in the report was the
realization that the owners and operators of sewers, especially municipalities, were potentially
liable for PCE releases via a sewer network. Forensic questions that inevitably arose in
association with primarily dry cleaning and PCE release litigation, included issues regarding
when the release first began and the mass released over time through the sewer as well as
factors that impacted the mass released.
While the exfiltration of liquid from sewers is a mature science to engineers designing
sanitary sewers, the application of this knowledge specific to forensic issues associated with
PCE releases from sewer piping is unique. This article provides insight regarding this issue,
especially its application to forensic issues that arise in litigation regarding PCE discharges
from sewers.
2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PCE EXFILTRATION FROM SEWER PIPES

Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:42.
PCE exfiltration (e.g., leakage from sewer pipe) from a sewer pipe is a continuous process and
is regarded as dynamic whereby the diurnal variation in sewage levels, sewer maintenance
routines, variations in sewage levels due to blockage and temperature variations affect the
volume of leakage. Once PCE has entered the sewer or other subsurface drainage pipe, it can
be transported into the underlying soil/groundwater column via exfiltration.
Exfiltration from sewers, especially older ones, is a common phenomenon and the
amount lost is typically reported in the range of some percent of the total amount of liquid
conveyed in the system. Older sewers are often constructed of vitrified clay pipe (VCP) or
brick and concrete while newer constructions consist of plastic, ductile iron, steel and
reinforced concrete. Early clay sewer pipes were generally butt jointed with the joint
sometimes sealed with clay.2 In the early 20th century, pipes with spigot and socket joints with
puddle clay seals were developed with tarred gaskets used to keep the pipe concentric.
Flexible joints between lengths of sewer pipes were developed in the 1959s.3
From about 1958, vitrified clay pipes with joints of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and other
plastic materials became commercially available. In the late 1990s, a survey for the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that included 13 sanitary sewer systems
indicated that material distributions of sewer materials consisted of vitrified clay (61%),
plastic of all times (20%), reinforced concrete (7%), unreinforced concrete (75%) and other
materials 5%.4 Over 50% of all force mains use ductile iron.†
Regardless of the construction material, the chemical characteristics and stability of the
soil environment are the principal factors that contribute to external pipe deterioration.
Specific factors affecting pipe deterioration were found to include pipe loading, soil pH, soil
sulfate and chloride concentrations, soil moisture and aeration.5 For clay sewers using cement
mortar, the mortar deteriorates over time due to its rigidity and potential corrosive conditions,
primarily associated with hydrogen sulfide.
†
Ductile iron is a type of cast iron invented in 1943 that has more impact and fatigue resistance than most
varieties of cast iron pipe which is often brittle.
View Online
Sewer joints are the most susceptible component of a sewer system for exfiltration
(and infiltration).6,7 The types and frequencies of defects which can lead to exfiltration in
sewers have been reported to include defects at lateral connections (5%), leaking joints (48)%,
and cracks (longitudinal, tension, circumferential) and fractures (45%).8 Prior to the 1950s,
sewer joints were commonly joined with cement mortar or bituminous materials whose
cohesion deteriorates over time; sewers of this construction and time can therefore be assumed
to leak.9 For a vitrified clay pipes 25 years or older with a cement mortar, for example, a
reasonable estimate of an average gap of each joint is around 0.02 inches which represents the
average gap size between pipe spigot and bell of a well-aligned clay pipe.10 For recently
installed vitreous clay pipes with plastic or rubber sealing, less gapping of joints is expected.
In a study of over 800 meters of sewer camera footage of different sewer pipes
installed in different types of backfill soils in Melbourne, Australia, a series of generic curves
describing the average defect area and joint separation width in sewer pipes were
constructed.11 Figure 1 is a generic curve for vitrified clay pipes installed in sandy soils from
this study. Of note is the commencement of joint displacement identified almost immediately
after installation along with the size of the defect increasing especially rapidly between 25 and
75 years after installation.
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:42.
The 1989, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency published their results from their
examination of exfiltration rates from vitrified clay pipes in California, Washington, D.C.,
Kentucky and Maryland. Exfiltration rates in from this study are summarized in Table 1. 12
Figure 1 Generic curves for vitrified clay sewer pipe in sandy soil in Melbourne, Australia
(Reproduced De Silva, Dhammika, Burn, S, Tjandraatmadja, G, Moglia, M, Davis,
P, Wolf, L, Held, I, Vollertsen, J, Williams, W & Hafskjold, L (2005) 'Sustainable
management of leakage from wastewater pipelines' Water Science & Technology,
vol. 52, 12, pp. 189-198 with permission from the copyright holders, IWA
Publishing)
View Online
Table 1 Summary of exfiltration rates from continuous flow monitoring in vitrified clay pipe
in four states in the United States (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1989.
Results of the evaluation of groundwater impacts of sewer exfiltration. Pb95-158358,
Washington, D.C.)
Location Pipe Material Exfiltration as a Average Exfiltration Rate (gallons

% of Flow per inch diameter per mile)
California 6-8” VCP 34-56 5,283 – 5,649

Washington, DC 8” VCP 16 16.248
Kentucky 8-10”VCP 11-34 9,061-15,680
Maryland 8” VCP 49 63,312
Exfiltration measurements and estimates from other countries include the following examples.
x A 1997 study found water system losses ranging from 8% in Hong Kong, which is
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:42.
considered to have a relatively tight and high-quality system while a 20-25%

exfiltration range was reported in England, which has many old distribution systems. 13
x In 1994, an estimated net exfiltration rate from sewers of 397 gallons per day per mile
for the whole of Germany was reported.14
x In Linz, Austria, the anti-epileptic drug carbamazepine‡ (C15H12N20) was used as a
tracer for to examine sewer exfiltration rates; the exfiltration rate was estimated to be
on the scale of 1% of the dry weather flow.15
x A 1996 tracer study in Ronbjerg, Denmark found that 28% of all tested sewers had
exfiltration rates above 3 liters/meter/hour.16 Another tracer study along 1600 meters of
a sewer in Viby Denmark resulted in an estimated exfiltration rate of 10
liters/meter/hour.17
The question of when a sewer pipe begins leaking is challenging, especially given that direct
evidence is often lacking. In such cases, the design of the sewer system often provides a basis
for developing defensible leakage rate estimates; a common approach is to assume that a
sewer begins leaking immediately after coming into service, although this position is
frequently contested, especially in a litigation context. Of note is that the Department of Public
Works in Denver, Colorado has a maximum acceptable exfiltration/infiltration rate for any
section of 1000 feet of 18 foot length of mechanical joint or push-on joint pipe for sewer
piping not to exceed 200 gallons per day/inch diameter/mile for clay and concrete pipe and 50
gallons per day/inch diameter/mile for PVC pipe. Of note is that Denver uses the same rates
for both infiltration and exfiltration into the sewer pipe.18 These observations suggest that (a)
the infiltration rate of liquid into a sewer can be used as an approximate surrogate for the
exfiltration rate for the same system and (2) that sewer systems all leak to some extent, likely
at the beginning of operation.
‡
Also known as tegretol, carbamazepen, finlepsin, carbazepine, tegretal, epitol and carbamazepine.
View Online
Given the importance of determining the mass and when PCE was released through sewer
piping, it is not uncommon for intrusive investigations designed to examine the condition of
the piping and especially PCE soil profile sampling at areas of high leakage probability (e.g.,
joints, changes in pipe diameter, manholes, cracks identified in sewer camera, etc.) are
performed. Sewer related factors important to be identified prior to commencement of this
type of forensic sampling include the diameter of sewer line, the location of access manholes
or cleanouts, the age of the sewer system and construction material, the type and quality of
construction, especially joints, fittings, bedding and backfill, and the buried depth, gradient
and direction of flow within the piping.19,20
Absent the direct measurement of chlorinated solvents in sewer sediments and soil
samples beneath an identified break in a sewer pipe, indirect surrogate methods are available
to associate non-chlorinated contamination in groundwater (surrogates) with a sewer release.
Additional, mathematical methods are available to estimate the rate and volume of liquid
released from a pipe.
3 INDICATORS OF A PCE RELEASE FROM A SEWER SYSTEM

Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:42.
3.1 Surrogate Indicators of a Sewer Release
Absent direct measurements or knowledge of a PCE release from a sewer system, surrogate
indicators are often used. Examples of surrogate indicators to ascertain whether a joint has
leaked include the presence of detergent compounds (e.g., EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid), d-limonene (C10H16) and sulphur compounds), high total dissolved solids (TDS), high
total organic carbon (TOC), caffeine and the presence of biological indicators, and
pharmaceutical residues (endocrine disrupters, clofibric acid, etc).21,22 For example, an
excavated concrete sewer revealed the presence of E. coli and Clostridium Perfringens
beneath the leaks which can only survive when organic matter in wastewater is continuously
supplied as evidence of exfiltration from the sewer pipe.23
General categories of surrogate indicators used with their detection with PCE in soil as
indicators of their release from a sewer include:
x Trihalomethanes (THMs),
x Biological indicators,
x Physical and chemical measurements, and
x Isotopic measurements.
In addition to these four categories are standardized analytical tests developed exclusively for
the purpose of analyzing wastewater samples.
3.1.1 Trihalomethanes (THMs) The presence of trihalomethanes (THMs) with PCE in
soil, soil vapor and/or groundwater in the vicinity of sewer piping can provide corroborative
information regarding the release of liquid from a sewer pipe. A classic example is the
presence of THMs with PCE leaking from sewer lateral serving a dry cleaning facility. Absent
direct measurements of the THMs and chlorinated solvents in the sewer sediment and directly
under a break or crack in the piping, the presence of THMs in groundwater with chlorinated
can provide corroborative information regarding the sewer as a possible source. In order to
View Online
develop this causal relationship, background and other possible sources for the THMs other
than leakage from a sewer pipe, especially chloroform, need to be identified and evaluated.
Since 1974, chlorination by-products have been detected in chlorinated water as a
result of the haloform reaction that occurs when chlorine interacts with organic matter
dissolved in water. If bromide is present (at concentrations of about 100 micrograms per liter
(μg/L) or greater) in source waters, one or more of the three brominated THMs
(bromotrichloromethanes, bromodichloromethane and dibromochloromethane) may be
generated by the haloform reaction. Sodium hypochlorite, gaseous chlorine, and chloramines
(commonly used in public systems as disinfectants) and many organic chemicals contained in
household cleaning products may react with organic matter in water to generate chloroform
Chlorine is usually applied as chlorine gas, powdered calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2), or
liquid sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl; bleach).
The chlorine subsequently reacts with the organic matter, humic and fulvic acids and
bromide ions, as precursors form chlorine disinfection by-products including TMHs,
haloacetic acids, haloacetonitriles, haloketones, chloral hydrate, and chloropicrin. When
bromine exists, the chlorine oxidizes it to hypobromous acid/ hypobromite ions, to form
bromotrichloromethanes, bromodichloromethane, and dibromochloromethane. The primary
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:42.
by-products are trihalomethanes (THMs) including chloroform (CHCl3),

bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl2), dibromochloromethane (CHBr2Cl), trifluoromethane and
bromoform (CHBr3). Of these THMs, chloroform generally occurs at the greatest
concentrations and is most likely to be detected in an environmental sample.24 For example,
between 1985 and 2002, domestic wells sampled in the United States detected chloroform
with concentrations ranging from 0.002 to nearly 80 μg/L.25
The opportunity therefore exists to use the presence of chloroform as an indicator of a
sewer release because chloroform can be persistent in groundwater under oxic conditions and
because chloroform has a relatively low Henry’s Law Constant (~0.00358 atm-m3/mol) and
therefore remains in groundwater once it enters the water phase. In groundwater, restricted
volatilization and slow biodegradation (under anaerobic conditions) or no biodegradation
(under most aerobic conditions) means that chloroform may be quite persistent. Chemical
degradation in sediment is not rapid, except under anaerobic conditions.26
In groundwater at the Vellev industrial landfill site in Denmark, chloroform as old as
35 years was identified.27 A 2010 study performed by the Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory for the United States Department of Energy stated that the half-life of chloroform
via hydrolysis at pH 7-8 at the Hanford site in eastern Washington, at 16oC is 3000 years
which is generally consistent with >1000 year estimates in the literature.28–30 Chloroform can
also migrate substantial distances through the subsurface.31
The relative concentrations of trihalomethanes usually decrease with increasing
bromination from chloroform (CHCl3) > bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl2) >
dibromochloromethane (CHBr2Cl) > bromoform (CHBr3).32 Generally, chlorinated species
dominate over brominated species, although the opposite may be true in high-bromide waters
or soil. The decreasing trend of THMs with increasing bromination has been observed in
public and domestic wells. Bromodichloromethane and dibromochloromethane have no
known historical or current industrial production, and bromoform has only a small historical
production. Additionally, brominated THMs nearly always occur together, indicating a
common source. The occurrence of chloroform without the brominated THMs in some
View Online
samples may indicate an industrial/commercial source for those samples, although it may also
be a consequence of low-level detections of chloroform with concentrations of the brominated
THMs present below the detection limit. These observations suggests that this difference can
be a useful forensic indicator to distinguish between chlorinated treated water from other
sources of trihalomethanes in groundwater samples, especially when present with PCE.33
Potential sources of chloroform other than from its release from leaking sewers
requires examination in order to discriminate its origin from a leaking sewer from background
and/or other sources. Non-sewer possible sources include:
x As a product of the reaction of sodium hypochlorite and organic matter in the

subsurface. When sodium hypochlorite is released into the soil, it reacts with organic
matter to form chloroform which is affected by soil pH, temperature, contact time,
humic acid concentration and the presence and concentration of the hypochlorite
ion.34,35 Chloroform produced from a sodium hypochlorite release usually includes
other trihalomethanes composed of various amounts of bromine, although the actual
amount produced is highly variable, dependent on the concentration and ratio of the
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:42.
sodium hypochlorite to bromide ion. If no bromide is in the soil, then brominated

trihalomethanes are not produced.36 Hypochlorite is also used as a cleaning agent in
domestic and commercial cleaning/disinfectant applications (bleach),37 as a cleaning
solution to clean dairy equipment, as a disinfectant of chicken eggs, as a disinfectant in
drinking water mains, as a disinfectant in swimming pools (sodium hypochlorite), as a
disinfectant in cooling tower water and for the disinfection of sea water from
secondary oil recovery.38–40
x Naturally occurring sources, such as volcano emissions and plants such as barley,
lemon, orange, cedar, and moss, seaweeds and algae.41
x As by-products of the delignification of wood and cellulose pulps and the bleaching of
paper by chlorine in the pulp and paper manufacturing industry and its use in the
chemical and pharmaceutical industries as a solvent or process agent.42–44
x As a naturally formed compound produced in forest soils.45–47 For example, chloroform
in forest soils in Denmark were present at concentrations in soil vapor ranging from 20
to 120 ppb and in another site from 2-5 ug/l.48,49
x As indoor vapor from residential dishwashers and/or from the reaction of household
chlorine bleaches with organic compounds.50,51
A potential opportunity for discriminating between chloroform originating from a sewer pipe
release and industrial chloroform is the presence of stabilizers. Chloroform stabilizers include
absolute alcohol, methylated spirits, thymol, t-butyl phenol, and n-octyl phenol.52 If industrial
chloroform is discharged into a sewer which is suspected of leaking, this opportunity may not
have merit unless the chloroform is associated with other sewer related surrogate indicators.
3.1.2 Biological Indicators A significant body of scientific literature exists that
provides the forensic investigator with biological compounds associated with specific sources,
activities and products.53–56 The use of fecal indicator bacteria, such as Escherichia coli (e
coli), enterococcus and total coliform bacteria are the classical general indicators of
View Online
wastewater. Bacteria with more specific associations are available; an example is the human-
specific Bacteroidales used to trace the origin of the fecal material.57 Although fecal material
from other mammals, birds, and in some cases fish can produce low positive detections of
Bacteroidales and dilution, sorption, or other processes can cause Bacteroidales
concentrations to be reduced, even if present, human-specific Bacteroidales is considered to
be a reliable indicator of human fecal contamination.58 Another useful property of fecal
Bacteroidales reported in a study in Sweden is that it is recalcitrant in water is similar to other
bacteria traditionally used as indicators of fecal contamination.59

Viruses are another potential surrogate indicator of fecal contamination from a sewer.
However, viral sources are more variable than wastewater tracer sources because of the
episodic nature of infections and fecal shedding but the volume of viruses per gram of feces of
an infected individual is substantial (> trillion infectious viruses per gram of feces). The
United States Environmental Protection Agency lists several viruses on the third drinking
water Candidate Contaminant List that provide an indication of septic releases and include
adenovirus (commonly associated with respiratory and gastrointestinal illness), caliciviruses
(includes norovirus and is associated with gastrointestinal illness), hepatitis A (associated with
liver disease and jaundice) and enterovirus (group of viruses including polioviruses,
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:42.
coxsackievie viruses and echoviruses that can cause mild respiratory illness).60
Analysis of an environmental sample for viruses may be preferred to use of standard
microbiological indicators of viruses (e.g., Escherichia coli, coliform bacteria) that can
provide false negative results, likely due to their larger size and physical straining relative to
viruses (27-75 nanometers).61
3.1.3 Chemical and Physical Indicators When using chemical and physical indicators
as representative of liquids released from a sewer, the optimum results occur when multiple
compounds representative of a sewer release are analyzed. Examples of groups of chemicals
used this purpose include stabilizers, total dissolve solids (TDS) and total nitrogen, caffeine,
sterols and stanols, detergent metabolites, flavors and fragrances, personal health care
products, flame retardants and pesticides, insecticides and herbicides.62,63
Traditional sanitary sewage markers, including TDS, total nitrogen, and methyl active
blue substance (MBAS) provide a qualitative marker for identifying septic releases, especially
if temporal sampling associated with high flow events is performed.64 In many cases, cost
effective traditional indicators of septic releases used in concert with unique markers
associated with businesses discharging into a trunk line can optimize the value of the resulting
information. For example, if a restaurant upgradient of a suspected sewer release is identified,
a more obscure tracer, such as the sweetener acesulfame, can provide solid corroborative
information along with the more traditional sewage markers.65 Other examples include
nicotine derivatives, and pharmaceutical compounds such as ibuprofen, clofibric acid and
diclofenac.66–68
Steam is often used to regenerate carbon filters. Water soluble stabilizers and some
solvent will remain with the water and eventually enter the sewer system.69 In 1977, it was
estimated that solvent discharges from steam condensate into the sewer could typically reach
about 35 gallons per year.70 This assumes solvent at a concentration of 900 ug/l in the
condensate and a total of about 40,000 gallons per year of steam condensate.
In addition to chlorinated compounds, steam condensate will contain small amounts of
solvent stabilizers. When the condensate is disposed of most of these stabilizers will
View Online

71
eventually evaporate. The highest sewer stabilizer emissions probably occur with methyl
chloroform (e.g., 1,1,1-trichloroethane) which requires considerable amounts of water soluble
stabilizers. Assuming a solvent recovery rate of about 2500 gallons per year, five percent
stabilizers in methyl chloroform blend and 40 percent of the stabilizer being water soluble, the
stabilizer effluent discharged to the sewer is about 50 gallons per year.
Caffeine is a classic anthropogenic indicator although it may not be persistent in the
environment because of the rapid degradation by bacteria.72,73,74,75 In study of indicator
bacterial in urban streams and ocean beaches in Santa Barbara, California, caffeine and
cholesterol were present in almost 60 percent of the environmental samples. Caffeine and
various sterols were positively correlated, and these compounds were positively correlated
with many personal-care products, flame retardants, flavors/fragrances, and d-limonene. The
study observed that caffeine and sterols were poorly correlated with most industrial and
asphalt-derived compounds.76
Sterols and stanols are indicators of fecal contamination.77,78 Sterols are a class of
steroids containing a hydroxyl group and are found in animal and plant tissue; stanols are
saturated steroid alcohols formed by the hydrogenation of an appropriate sterol. Stanols and
sterols have been used extensively as an indicator of sewage; for example, the fecal sterol
Downloaded on 24/07/2014 09:45:42.
coprostanol (C27H47OH), formed by the bacterial reduction of cholesterol in the intestines of

higher animals, was used to trace sewage contamination New York as early as 1979 in a study
to examine the amount of sewage-derived organic matter in environmental samples.79 As a
major sterol in feces, coprostanol (5β-cholestan-3β-ol), is appropriate as a qualitative indictor
for the presence of fecal material as it is unaffected by chlorination, aeration, and persists in
anaerobic environments.80,81 Other sterols used as tracers of fecal contamination include
cholesterol, β-sitosterol, 3β-coprostanol, and stigmastanol, β and a-cholestanone, campesterol,
stigamasterol and epicoprostanol.82 Cholesterol is associated with wide range of sources,
including human dietary cholesterol, but is not necessarily fecal in origin. The fecal sterol 3β-
coprostanol is produced in the gut of some mammals (including humans, pigs, and cats) by the
microbially mediated reduction of cholesterol under anaerobic conditions.
The presence of sterols and stanols can provide detailed information regarding the
potential dischargers into the sewer that leaked. For example, in the human digestive tract,
sterol cholesterol is converted to 5β-coprostanol. This reaction occurs in higher mammals and
most major animal groups, with several exceptions. Herbivores which consume terrestrial
plants that are enriched in sitosterol, the 24 ethyl derivative of cholesterol, produce 24 ethyl
copropostanol in preference to 5β-coprostanol. The ratio between the 24 ethyl coprostanol and
5β-coprostanol has been used to differentiate between herbivore and human wastes as human
wastes are considerably higher in 5β-coprostanol.83
Another example is 3-beta-coprostanol. Although the sterol content of bird feces is
highly variable, they do not generally contain the proper bacteria to reduce cholesterol to 3-
beta-coprostanol.84 β-sitosterol occurs in some plants and, as a consequence, in human dietary
cholesterol and in the gut of birds. Sterols and stanols can also be used to distinguish between
the release of feces containing swine and cow waste.85 The specificity of steroids as a means
to differentiate cow feces from pig slurries is available by considering the fecal stanol profile,
notably, the six most diagnostic stanol compounds, which are 5β-cholestan-3β-ol
(coprostanol), 5β-cholestan-3α-ol (epicoprostanol), 24-methyl-5α-cholestan-3β-ol
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
we passed a large brook running from north to south towards the
castle of Hasné. This castle, commanded by an aga, is a halting-
place to the caravan from Mecca to Damascus: the water is excellent
for drinking, and we filled our skins with it. This was a necessary
precaution, for we found no more on our seven hours’ march from
thence to Saddad. We arrived there at sunset. Naufal took us to the
sheik, Hassaf Abu Ibrahim, a venerable old man, and father of nine
children, all married, and living under the same roof. He received us
most kindly, and presented us to all his family, which, to our great
astonishment, amounted to sixty-four persons. The sheik having
asked us if we wished to establish ourselves in the village, or travel
into other countries, we told him we were merchants; that war
between the powers having interrupted the communication by sea
with Cyprus, we had been desirous of settling at Aleppo, but finding
in that city richer merchants than ourselves, we had determined to
carry our goods to less frequented places, hoping to make larger
gains. Having then told him in what our merchandise consisted,
“These articles,” said he, “are only useful to the Arabs of the desert; I
am sorry to tell you so, but it will be impossible to get to them; and
even if you should, you run the risk of losing everything, even your
lives. The Bedouins are greedy and audacious; they will seize your
goods, and, if you offer the least resistance, will put you to death.
You are people of honour and delicacy; you could never put up with
their grossness; it is for your sake that I speak thus, being myself a
Christian. Take my advice: expose your goods here, sell all that you
can, and then return to Aleppo, if you would preserve your property
and your lives.” He had hardly left off speaking, when the principal
people of the village, who had assembled to see us, began telling us
alarming stories. One of them said, that a pedler coming from
Aleppo, and going into the desert, had been plundered by the
Bedouins, and had been seen returning quite naked. Another had
learned that a merchant from Damascus had been killed. All agreed
as to the impossibility of penetrating amongst the hordes of
Bedouins, and endeavoured by every possible means to deter us
from the dangerous enterprise.
I saw that M. Lascaris was vexed; he turned to me, and said in
Italian, not to be understood by the others, “What say you to this
account, which has much discouraged me?” “I do not believe,” said I,
“all these stories; and even if they were true, we ought still to
persevere in our project. Ever since you announced to me your
intention to go among the Bedouins, I have never hoped to revisit my
home. I regarded the thirty days you allowed me at Aleppo to enjoy
myself, as my last farewell of the world; I consider our journey as a
real campaign; and he who goes to war, being well resolved, should
never think of his return. Let us not lose our courage: though Hassaf
is a sheik, and has experience, and understands the cultivation of
land and the affairs of his village, he can have no idea of the
importance of our business: I therefore am of opinion that we should
speak to him no more of our journey into the desert, but place our
trust in God, the protector of the universe.” These words produced
the effect upon M. Lascaris, who embraced me tenderly, and said,
“My dear son, I put all my hope in God and in you; you are a man of
resolution, I see; I am most satisfied with the strength of your
character, and I hope to attain my object by the aid of your courage
and constancy.” After this conversation, we went to sleep, equally
satisfied with one another.
We passed the next day in walking about the village, which contains
about two hundred houses and five churches. The inhabitants,
Syrian Christians, fabricate machlas and black abas, and pay little
attention to agriculture, from want of water, which is sensibly felt.
There is only one little spring in the village, the distribution of the
water being regulated by an hour-glass. It scarcely suffices to water
the gardens, which, in a climate where it seldom rains, are
unproductive without watering. Some years there does not fall a drop
of rain. The produce of the soil is hardly enough for six months’
consumption; and, for the remainder of the year, the inhabitants are
obliged to have recourse to Homs. In the middle of the village there
arises an ancient tower of prodigious height. It dates from the
foundation of a colony whose history the sheik told us. The founders
were natives of Tripoli in Syria, where their church still exists. At the
most flourishing period of the Eastern empire, the Greeks, full of
pride and rapacity, tyrannised over the conquered people. The
governor of Tripoli overwhelmed the inhabitants with exactions and
cruelty; these, too few to resist, and unable to bear the yoke,
concerted together to the number of three hundred families; and
having secretly collected together all the valuables they could carry
away, they departed without noise in the middle of the night, went to
Homs, and from thence moved towards the desert of Bagdad, where
they were overtaken by the Greek troops sent in pursuit of them by
the governor of Tripoli. They made an obstinate and sanguinary
resistance; but too inferior in numbers to conquer, and resolved on
no account to submit any longer to the tyranny of the Greeks, they
entered into negotiation, and obtained permission to build a village
on the spot of the battle, agreeing to remain tributary to the governor
of Tripoli. They established themselves at this place, at the entrance
of the desert, and called their village Saddad (obstacle.) This is all
that the Syrian chronicle contains worthy of remark.
The inhabitants of Saddad are brave, but gentle. We unpacked our
goods, and spent some days with them, to prove that we were really
merchants. The women bought much of our red cotton cloth, to
make chemises. The sale did not detain us long, but we were
obliged to await the arrival of the Bedouins in the environs. One day,
having been told that there was four hours from the village a
considerable ruin, and very ancient, in which was a natural vapour
bath, the wonder excited our curiosity; and M. Lascaris, desirous of
seeing it, begged the sheik to give us an escort. After marching four
hours to the southeast, we arrived in the midst of an extensive ruin,
in which there remains only one habitable room. The architecture is
simple; but the stones are of prodigious size. On entering the room,
we perceived an opening two feet square, from which issued a thick
vapour; we threw into it a handkerchief, and in a minute and a half,
by the watch, it was thrown out and fell at our feet. We repeated the
experiment with a shirt, which, at the end of ten minutes, returned
like the handkerchief. Our guides assured us that a machlas, which
weighs ten pounds, would be thrown up in the same manner.
Having undressed, and placed ourselves around the opening, we
were in a short time covered with perspiration, which trickled down
our bodies; but the smell of the vapour was so detestable, that we
could not remain a long time exposed to it. After half an hour we put
on our clothes, and experienced a most delightful sensation. We
were told that the vapour was really very sanative, and cured
numbers of sick. Returning to the village, we supped with an
excellent appetite; and never, perhaps, did I enjoy a more delicious
sleep.
Having nothing more to see at Saddad, or the neighbourhood, we
determined to set out for the village of Corietain. When we spoke of
this to Naufal, he advised us to change our names, as our own
would create suspicion in the Bedouins and the Turks. From that
time M. Lascaris took the name of Sheik Ibrahim el Cabressi (the
Cyprian,) and gave me that of Abdallah el Katib.
Sheik Hassaf having given us a letter of recommendation to a Syrian
curate named Moussi, we took leave of him and our friends at
Saddad, and set off early. After four hours, we came between the
two villages of Mahim and Haourin, ten minutes apart: each contains
about twenty houses, mostly ruined by the Bedouins, who come from
time to time to plunder them. In the midst of these villages is a lofty
tower of ancient construction. The inhabitants, all Mussulmans,
speak the language of the Bedouins, and dress like them. After
having breakfasted and filled our water-bottles, we continued our
journey for six hours, and about nightfall arrived at Corietain, at the
curate Mouss’s, who afforded us hospitality. The next day he
conducted us to the Sheik Selim el Dahasse, a distinguished person,
who received us very kindly. Having learned the motive of our
journey, he made the same observation as the Sheik of Saddad. We
answered him, “that, aware of the difficulties of the enterprise, we
had given up the idea of penetrating into the desert, and should be
satisfied with going to Palmyra, to dispose of our
merchandise.”—“That will be still too difficult,” added he, “for the
Bedouins may still meet you and pillage you.” He then began, in his
turn, to repeat a thousand alarming things about the Bedouins. The
curate confirming all he said, contributed to damp our spirits; when
breakfast was served, which changed the conversation, and gave us
time to recover.
Sheik Selim is one of those who are bound to supply the wants of
the great caravan to Mecca, in conjunction with the Sheik of
Palmyra: and his office gives him some influence over the Arabs: his
contingent consists of two hundred camels and provisions. On our
return home, Sheik Ibrahim, addressing me, said, “Well, my son,
what do you think of all we have heard from Sheik Selim?”—“We
must not,” said I, “pay too much regard to all that the inhabitants of
these villages tell us, who are always at war with the Bedouins; there
cannot exist much harmony between them. Our position is very
different; we are merchants,—we go to sell them our goods, and not
to make war: by acting honourably towards them, I do not apprehend
the least danger.” These words reassured Sheik Ibrahim.
Some days after our arrival, in order to support our character of
merchants, we opened our bales in the middle of the village, before
the doors of the sheik: I sold to the women some articles, which were
paid for in money. The idle people were standing around us to talk;
one of them, very young, named Hessaisoun el Katib, helped me to
take the money, and settle the accounts with the women and
children: he showed great zeal for my interests. One day, finding me
alone, he asked me if I was able to keep a secret. “Be careful,” said
he; “it is a great secret that you must trust to nobody, not even to
your companion.” Having given him my word, he told me that one
hour from the village was a grotto, in which was a large jar filled with
sequins; he gave me one, assuring me that he could not employ the
money, which was not current at Palmyra. “But you,” continued he,
“are going from city to city, and can change it easily; you have a
thousand ways of profiting by the treasure that I have not: however, I
will not give you the whole, but I shall leave the division to your
generosity: you shall come with me to reconnoitre the spot; we can
remove the gold by degrees and in secret, and you shall give me my
share in the current coin.” Having seen and handled the sequin, I
believed in the truth of the story, and gave him a meeting early the
following morning outside the village.
The next morning by daylight I arose, and went from the house as if
to walk. At some paces from the village I found Hessaisoun, who
was waiting for me: he was armed with a gun, a sabre, and pistols; I
had no other arms than a long pipe. We proceeded onwards for an
hour. With what impatience did I look out for the grotto!—at last I
perceived it. We soon entered: I looked on all sides to discover the
jar; and not seeing any, I turned towards Hessaisoun—“Where is the
jar?” said I,—I saw him grow pale—“Since we are here,” exclaimed
he, “learn that thy last hour is come. Thou shouldst have been dead
already, were I not afraid of soiling thy clothes with blood. Before I kill
thee, I will despoil thee; so give me thy bag of money: I know thou
hast it about thee: it must contain more than twelve hundred
piastres, which I counted myself, the price of the goods sold. Thou
shalt see no more the light of day.”
“Give me my life,” said I, in a supplicating tone, “and I will give thee a
much larger sum than that in the sack, and will tell no one of what
has passed—I swear to thee.”—“That cannot be,” said he; “this
grotto shall be thy grave. I cannot give thee thy life without exposing
my own.”
I swore to him a thousand times that I would be silent: I offered to
give him a bill for whatever sum he should fix;—nothing could move
him from his fearful project. At length, tired by my resistance, he
placed his arms against the wall and darted upon me like an enraged
lion, to undress me before killing me. I entreated him again—“What
harm have I done you?” said I,—“what enmity is there between us?
You do not know, then, that the day of judgment is at hand—that
God will demand the blood of the innocent?”—But his hardened
heart listened to nothing. I thought of my brother, my parents, my
friends; all that was dear to me came to my mind;—desperate, I no
longer prayed for protection but from my Creator. “O God! protector
of the innocent! help me! give me strength to resist!” My assassin,
impatient, snatched my clothes: although he was much bigger than I,
God gave me strength to struggle with him for more than half an
hour: the blood flowed abundantly from my face—my clothes were
torn to rags. The villain, seeing me in this state, endeavoured to
strangle me, and raised his arm to grasp my neck. I took advantage
of the liberty this movement allowed me, to give him with both fists a
violent blow in the stomach: I knocked him backwards, and seizing
his arms, I darted out of the grotto, running with all my might. I could
scarcely believe the happiness of being saved. Some moments
afterwards I heard a running after me: it was the assassin. He called
to me, begging me to wait in the most conciliating tone. Having all
his arms, I no longer feared to stop, and turning towards him,
“Wretch,” said I, “what is it you ask?—you would have assassinated
me in secret; but it is you who will be strangled in public.” He
answered me by affirming with an oath, that it had all been a jest on
his part; that he had wanted to try my courage, and see how I would
defend myself. “But I see,” added he, “that you are but a child, since
you take it so.”—I answered, raising the gun, that if he came a step
nearer I would shoot him. Seeing that I was determined to do it, he
fled across the desert, and I returned to the village.
In the meantime, Sheik Ibrahim, the curate, and Naufal, not finding
me return, began to be alarmed. Sheik Ibrahim above all, knowing
that I never went to a distance without acquainting him, after two
hours’ delay went to the sheik, who, participating in his anxiety, sent
out all the village in search of me. At last Naufal, perceiving me,
cried out: “There he is!” Selim thought he was mistaken. I drew
nearer: they could with difficulty recognise me. M. Lascaris
embraced me and wept: I was unable to speak. They took me to the
curate’s, bathed my wounds and put me to bed. At length I found
strength to relate my adventure. Selim sent horsemen in pursuit of
the assassin, giving to the negro the rope that was to strangle him;
but they returned without being able to overtake him, and we soon
learned that he had entered the service of the Pacha of Damascus.
He never returned to Corietain.
At the end of a few days my wounds began to heal, and I soon
recovered my strength. Sheik Selim, who had conceived a great
friendship for me, brought me a telescope that was out of order,
telling me I should be a clever fellow if I could mend it. As there was
only a glass to replace, I restored it and brought it to him. He was so
pleased with my skill, that he gave me the surname of “the
industrious.”
In a short time we learnt that the Bedouins were approaching
Palmyra: some were seen even in the environs of Corietain.
Presently there came one, named Selame el Hassan. We were at
Selim’s when he entered: coffee was brought, and while we were
taking it, many of the inhabitants came to the sheik, and said: “Eight
years ago, at such a place, Hassan killed our relative; and we are
come to demand justice.” Hassan denied the fact, and asked if they
had witnesses. “No,” they replied; “but you were seen passing alone
on the road, and a little after we found our relative lying dead. We
know that there existed a cause of hatred between you: it is
therefore clear that you are his assassin.” Hassan still denied the
charge: and the sheik, who from fear was obliged to exercise caution
with the Bedouins, and besides had no positive proof in the case,
took a piece of wood and said, “By Him who created this stem,
swear that you have not killed their relation.” Hassan took the wood,
looked at it some minutes, and bent down his head; then raising it
towards his accusers, “I will not have,” said he, “two crimes on my
heart,—the one of being the murderer of this man, the other of
swearing falsely before God. It is I who have killed your kinsman:
what do you demand for the price of his blood?”[A] The sheik, from
policy, would not act according to the full rigour of the law; and the
persons present being interested in the negotiation, it was decided
that Hassan should pay three hundred piastres to the relations of the
dead. When it came to the payment of the money, he said he had it
not about him, but that he would bring it in a few days; and as some
difficulty was made of letting him go without security, “I have no
pledge,” said he, “to give; but He will answer for me whose name I
would not profane by a false oath.” He departed; and four days
afterwards returned with fifteen sheep, each worth above twenty
piastres.—This trait of good faith and generosity at once charmed
and surprised us. We wished to make acquaintance with Hassan:
Sheik Ibrahim invited him, gave him a few presents, and we became
intimate friends. He told us that he belonged to the tribe El-Ammour,
whose chief was Sultan el Brrak. This tribe, composed of five
hundred tents, is considered as constituting part of the country,
because it never quits the banks of the Euphrates when the great
tribes retire. They sell sheep, camels, and butter, at Damascus,
Homs, Hama, &c. The inhabitants of these different cities have often
a concern in their flocks.
We one day said to Hassan that we were desirous of going to
Palmyra to sell our remaining merchandise, but that we had been
alarmed by the dangers of the road. Having offered to conduct us, he
made a note before the sheik, by which he made himself responsible
for all the disasters that might happen. Being satisfied that Hassan
was a man of honour, we accepted his proposal.
Spring was come, and the desert, lately so arid, was all at once
covered with a carpeting of verdure and flowers. This enchanting
spectacle induced us to hasten our departure. The night before, we
deposited at the curate Moussi’s a part of our goods, in order not to
awaken either curiosity or cupidity. Naufal wished to return to Homs,
and M. Lascaris dismissed him with a liberal recompense; and the
next day, having hired some moukres, with their camels, we took
leave of the people of Corietain, and having provided water and
provisions for two days, we departed betimes, carrying a letter of
recommendation from Sheik Selim to the Sheik of Palmyra, whose
name was Ragial el Orouk.
After a ten hours’ march, always towards the east, we stopped at a
square tower, extremely lofty and of massive construction, called
Casser el Ourdaan, on the territory El Dawh. This tower, built in the
time of the Greek empire, served for an advanced post against the
Persians, who came to carry off the inhabitants of the country. This
bulwark of the desert has preserved its name till these times. After
having admired its architecture, which belongs to a good period, we
returned to pass the night at our little khan, where we suffered much
from the cold. In the morning, as we were preparing to depart, M.
Lascaris, not yet accustomed to the movements of camels, mounted
his without care; which rising suddenly, threw him down. We ran to
him: his leg appeared to be dislocated; but, as he would not be
detained, after having done what we could, we replaced him on his
seat, and continued our route. We proceeded for two hours, when
we observed at a distance a cloud of dust approaching us, and soon
were able to distinguish six armed horsemen. Hardly had Hassan
perceived them, when he threw off his cloak, took his lance and ran
to meet them, crying out to us not to go forward. Having come up to
them, he told them that we were merchants going to Palmyra, and
that he had engaged before Sheik Selim and all his village to
conduct us thither in safety. But these Bedouins, of the tribe El
Hassnnée, without listening to him, came up to us: Hassan threw
himself forward to stop the road; they attempted to drive him back,
and a battle began. Our defender was known for his valour, but his
opponents were equally brave. He sustained the attack for half an
hour, and at length, wounded by a lance which pierced his thigh, he
retired towards us, and soon fell from his horse. The Bedouins were
beginning to plunder us, when Hassan, extended on the ground, the
blood flowing from his wound, apostrophised them in these terms:—
“What are you about, my friends?—will you then violate the laws of
Arabs, the usages of the Bedouins? They whom you are plundering
are my brethren—they have my word; I am responsible for all that
may befall them, and you are robbing them!—is this according to
honour?”
“Why,” said they, “did you undertake to convey Christians to
Palmyra? Know you not that Mehanna el Fadel (the sheik of their
tribe) is chief of the country? Why did you not ask his permission?”
“I know,” replied Hassan; “but these merchants were in haste;
Mehanna is far from this. I have pledged my word—they believed
me; they know our laws and our usages, which never change. Is it
worthy of you to violate them, by despoiling these strangers, and
leaving me wounded in this manner?”
At these words the Bedouins, ceasing their violence, answered, “All
that you say is true and just; and as it is so, we will take from thy
protégés only what they choose to give us.”
We made all haste to offer them two machlas, a cloak, and a
hundred piastres. They were satisfied, and left us to pursue our
route. Hassan suffered a great deal from his wound; and as he could
not remount his horse, I gave him my camel, and took his mare. We
proceeded for four hours; but the sun being set, we were obliged to
halt at a place called Waddi el Nahr (Valley of the River.) However,
there was not a drop of water in it, and our skins were empty: the
attack in the morning had detained us three hours, and it was
impossible to go further that night.
Notwithstanding all we had to suffer, we were still very happy at
having escaped the Bedouins, and preserved our clothes, which
secured us a little from the cold wind, that affected us sensibly. In
short, between pleasure and pain, we watched with impatience for
the dawn of day. Sheik Ibrahim suffered from his foot, and Hassan
from his wound. In the morning, having disposed of our sick in the
best manner we could, we again set forward, and still towards the
east. At an hour and a quarter from Palmyra we found a
subterraneous stream, the spring of which is entirely unknown, as
well as the place where it is lost. The water is seen to flow through
openings of about five feet, forming a sort of basins. It is
unnecessary to say with what delight we quenched our thirst:—the
water appeared excellent.
At the entrance of a pass formed by the junction of two mountains,
we at length perceived the celebrated Palmyra. This defile forms for
a quarter of an hour an avenue to the city; along the mountain on the
south side extends for almost three hours a very ancient rampart.
Facing you to the left is an old castle, built by the Turks after the
invention of gunpowder. It is called Co Lat Ebn Maâen.—This Ebn
Maâen, a governor of Damascus in the time of the Khalifs, had built
the castle to prevent the Persians from penetrating into Syria.—We
next arrived at a vast space, called Waddi el Cabour (Valley of the
Tombs.) The sepulchres that cover it appear at a distance like
towers. On coming near, we saw that niches had been cut in them to
enclose the dead. Every niche is shut up by a stone, on which is
carved a portrait of its occupant. The towers have three or four
stories, communicating by means of a staircase, commonly in good
preservation. From thence we came into a vast enclosure inhabited
by the Arabs, who call it the Castle. It contains, in fact, the ruins of
the Temple of the Sun. Two hundred families reside in these ruins.
We immediately presented ourselves to Sheik Ragial el Orouk, a
venerable old man, who received us well, and made us sup and
sleep with him. This sheik, like the sheik of Corietain, furnishes two
hundred camels to the great caravan of Mecca.
The following day, having hired a house, we unpacked our goods. I
attended to the foot of Sheik Ibrahim, which was in reality dislocated.
He had long to suffer the pain. Hassan found friends at Palmyra who
took care of him; and being soon recovered, he came to take leave
of us, and went away delighted with the manner in which we
recompensed him.
Being obliged to keep at home for several days on account of Sheik
Ibrahim’s foot, we set about selling some articles, to confirm our
mercantile character. But as soon as M. Lascaris was in a fit state to
walk, we went to visit the temple in all its minutiæ. Other travellers
have described the ruins: therefore we will only speak of what may
have escaped their observation relating to the country.
We one day saw many people engaged in surrounding with wood a
beautiful granite column. We were told it was to burn it, or rather to
cause it to fall, in order to obtain the lead which was in the joinings.
Sheik Ibrahim, full of indignation, addressing me, exclaimed, “What
would the founders of Palmyra say if they beheld these barbarians
thus destroying their work? Since chance has brought me hither, I
will oppose this act of Vandalism.” And having learned what might be
the worth of the lead, he gave the fifty piastres they asked, and the
column became our property. It was of the most beautiful red granite,
spotted with blue and black, sixty-two feet in length, and ten in
circumference. The Palmyrians, perceiving our taste for monuments,
pointed out to us a curious spot, an hour and a half distant, in which
the columns were formerly cut, and where there are still some
beautiful fragments. For ten piastres three Arabs agreed to take us
there. The road is strewed with very beautiful ruins, described, I
presume, by other travellers. We observed a grotto, in which was a
beautiful white marble column cut and chiselled, and another only
half finished. One might say that Time, the destroyer of so much
magnificence, was wanting to place up the first, and to finish the
second.
After having been into several grottoes, and visited the
neighbourhood, we came back by another road. Our guides pointed
out a beautiful spring, covered with blocks of stone. It is called Ain
Ournus. The name struck Sheik Ibrahim. At last, calling me, he said:
“I have discovered what this name Ournus means. Aurelianus, the
Roman emperor, came to besiege Palmyra and take possession of
its riches. It is he probably who dug this well for the wants of his
army during the siege, and the spring may have taken his name,
changed by the lapse of time into Ournus.” According to my feeble
knowledge of history, Sheik Ibrahim’s conjecture is not without
foundation.
The inhabitants of Palmyra are but little occupied about agriculture.
Their chief employment is the working of a salt-mine, the produce of
which they send to Damascus and Homs. They also make a great
deal of Soda. The plant that furnishes it is very abundant: it is burnt,
and the ashes are also sent to those towns to make soap. They are
even sent sometimes as far as Tripoli in Syria, where there are many
soap manufactories, and which supply the Archipelago.
We were one day informed of a very curious grotto; but the entrance
to it, being dark and narrow, was hardly practicable. It was three
hours from Palmyra. We felt a wish to see it; but my adventure with
Hessaisoun was too recent to commit ourselves without a strong
escort: therefore we begged Sheik Ragial to furnish us with trusty
people. Astonished at our project, “You are very curious,” said he:
“what does the grotto signify to you? Instead of attending to your
business, you pass your time in this trifling. Never did I see such
merchants as you.”—“Man always profits,” said I, “by seeing all the
beauties that nature has created.” The sheik having given us six men
well armed, I provided myself with a ball of thread, a large nail, and
torches, and we set out very early in the morning. After two hours’
march we reached the foot of a mountain. A great hole that they
showed us formed the entrance of the grotto. I stuck my nail into a
place out of sight, and holding the ball in my hand, followed Sheik
Ibrahim and the guides who carried the torches. We went on,
sometimes to the right, sometimes to the left, then up and then
down; in short, the grotto is large enough to accommodate an entire
army. We found a good deal of alum. The vault and the sides of the
rock were covered with sulphur, and the bottom with nitre. We
remarked a species of red earth, very fine, of an acid taste. Sheik
Ibrahim put a handful into his handkerchief. The grotto is full of
cavities cut out with a chisel, whence metals were anciently taken.
Our guides told us of many persons who had lost themselves in it
and perished. A man had remained there two days in vain looking for
the outlet, when he saw a wolf: he threw stones at him; and having
put him to flight, followed him, and so found the opening. My length
of cord being exhausted, we would not go further, but retraced our
steps. The charm of curiosity had, without doubt, smoothed the way,
for we had infinite difficulty in gaining the outlet.
As soon as we were out, we hastened our breakfast, and took the
road to Palmyra. The sheik, who was expecting us, asked us what
we had gained by the journey. “We have learned,” said I, “that the
ancients were more skilful than we; for it may be seen by their works
that they could go in and out with ease, whilst we had great difficulty
in extricating ourselves.”
He set up a laugh, and we quitted him to go and rest ourselves. At
night Sheik Ibrahim found the handkerchief, in which he had put the
red earth, all in holes and rotten. The earth had fallen into his pocket.
He put it into a bottle,[B] and told me that probably the ancients had
obtained gold from this grotto. Chemical experience proves that
where there is sulphur there is often gold; and besides, the great
works we had remarked could not have been made merely to extract
sulphur and alum, but evidently something more precious. If the
Arabs had suspected that we were going to search for gold, our lives
would not have been safe.
From day to day we heard of the approach of the Bedouins, and
Sheik Ibrahim was as rejoiced as if he was about to see his
countrymen. He was enchanted when I announced to him the arrival
of the great Bedouin prince, Mehanna el Fadel. He wished
immediately to go to meet him: but I represented to him, that it would
be more prudent to wait a favourable opportunity of seeing some one
of the emir’s (prince’s) family. I knew that, ordinarily, Mehanna sent a
messenger to the Sheik of Palmyra to announce to him his
approach. In fact, I witnessed the arrival one day of eleven Bedouin
horsemen, and learned that the Emir Nasser was amongst them, the
eldest son of Mehanna. I ran to carry the intelligence to Sheik
Ibrahim, who seemed at the height of joy. Immediately we went to
Sheik Ragial, to present us to the Emir Nasser, who gave us a kind
reception. “These strangers,” said Ragial to him, “are honest
merchants, who have goods to sell useful to the Bedouins; but they
have so frightened them, that they dare not venture into the desert
unless you will grant them your protection.”
The emir, turning towards us, said:—“Hope for all sorts of prosperity:
you shall be welcome; and I promise you that nothing shall befall you
but the rain which descends from heaven.” We offered him many
thanks, saying, “Since we have had the advantage of making your
acquaintance, and you will be our protector, you will do us the
honour of eating with us?”
The Arabs in general, and above all the Bedouins, regard it as an
inviolable pledge of fidelity to have eaten with any one—even to
have broken bread with him. We therefore invited him, with all his
suite, as well as the sheik. We killed a sheep, and the dinner,
dressed in the manner of the Bedouins, appeared to them excellent.
At dessert we offered them figs, raisins, almonds, and nuts, which
was a great treat to them. After coffee, when we began to speak of
different things, we related to Nasser our adventure with the six
horsemen of his tribe. He wished to punish them and restore our
money. We earnestly conjured him not to do so, assuring him we
attached no value to what we had given. We would have departed
with him the next day, but he induced us to await the arrival of his
father, who was at eight days’ distance. He promised to send us an
escort, and camels to carry our merchandise. For a greater security,
we begged him to write by his father, which he engaged to do.
The second day after, there arrived at Palmyra a Bedouin of the tribe
El Hassnnée, named Bani; and some hours after, seven others of
the tribe El Daffir, with which that of Hassnnée is at war. These
having learned that there was one of their enemies in the city,
resolved to wait for him out of the town to kill him. Bani having been
told this, came to us, tied his mare to our door, and begged us to
lend him a felt. We had several which wrapped our merchandise; I
brought him one. He put it to soak in water for half an hour, and then
placed it, wet as it was, on his mare’s back, underneath the saddle.
Two hours afterwards she had a strong diarrhœa, which lasted all
the evening, and the next day seemed to have nothing in her body.
Bani then took off the felt, which he returned, well girthed his seat,
and departed.
About four hours after noon we saw the Bedouins of the tribe El
Daffir return without booty. Some one having asked them what they
had done with the mare of Bani, “This,” said they, “is what has
happened to us. Not wishing to commit an insult towards Ragial, a
tributary of Mehanna, we abstained from attacking our enemy in the
city. We might have waited for him in a narrow pass; but we were
seven to one: we therefore resolved to wait for him in the open plain.
Having perceived him, we ran upon him; but as soon as he was in
the midst of us, he uttered a loud cry, saying to his horse, ‘Jah
Hamra!—It is now thy turn,’—and he flew off like lightning. We
followed him to his tribe without being able to catch him, astonished
at the swiftness of his mare, which seemed like a bird cleaving the
air with its wings.” I then told them the history of the felt, which
caused them much wonder, having, said they, no idea of such
sorcery.
Eight days after, three men came to us from Mehanna el Fadel: they
came to us with the camels, and put into our hands a letter from
himself; these are the contents:—
“Mehanna el Fadel, the son of Melkhgem, to Sheik Ibrahim and
Abdalla el Katib, greeting. May the mercy of God be upon you! On
the arrival of our son Nasser, we were informed of the desire you
have to visit us. Be welcome! you will shed blessing upon us. Fear
nothing; you have the protection of God, and the word of Mehanna;
nothing shall touch you but the rain of heaven! Signed, Mehanna el
Fadel.”
A seal was appended by the side of the signature. The letter gave
great pleasure to Sheik Ibrahim: our preparations were soon made,
and early the next morning we were out of Palmyra. Being arrived at
a village watered by an abundant spring, we filled our skins for the
rest of the route. This village, called Arak, is four hours from
Palmyra. We met a great number of Bedouins, who, after having
questioned our conductors, continued their road. After a march of ten
hours, the plain appeared covered with fifteen hundred tents: it was
the tribe of Mehanna. We entered into the tent of the emir, who
ordered us coffee at three different intervals; which, amongst the
Bedouins, is the greatest proof of consideration. After the third cup,
supper was served, which we were obliged to eat a la Turque: it was
the first time this had occurred, so that we burnt our fingers.
Mehanna perceived it.
“You are not accustomed,” said he, “to eat as we do.”—“It is true,”
replied Sheik Ibrahim; “but why do you not make use of spoons? it is
always possible to procure them, if only of wood.”—“We are
Bedouins,” replied the emir, “and we keep to the customs of our
ancestors, which, besides, we consider well founded. The hand and
the mouth are the parts of the body that God has given us to aid
each other. Why then make use of a strange thing, whether of wood
or of metal, to reach the mouth, when the hand is naturally made for
that purpose?” We were obliged to approve these reasons, and I
remarked to Sheik Ibrahim that Mehanna was the first Bedouin
philosopher that we had encountered.
The next day the emir had a camel killed to regale us, and I learned
that that was a high mark of consideration, the Bedouins measuring
the importance of the stranger by the animal they kill to welcome
him. They begin with a lamb, and finish with a camel. This was the
first time we had eaten the flesh of this animal, and we thought it
rather insipid.
The Emir Mehanna was a man of eighty years of age, little, thin,
deaf, and very ill-clothed. His great influence among the Bedouins
arises from his noble and generous heart, and from being the chief
of a very ancient and numerous family. He is entrusted by the Pacha
of Damascus with the escort of the grand caravan to Mecca, for
twenty-five purses (twelve thousand five hundred piastres,) which
are paid him before their departure from Damascus. He has three
sons, Nasser, Faress, and Hamed, all married, and inhabiting the
same tent as their father. This tent is seventy-two feet long, and as
many wide; it is of black horsehair, and divided into three partitions.
In the further one is kept the provisions, and there the cookery is
performed; the slaves, too, sleep there. The middle is kept for the
women, and all the family retire to it at night. The fore part is
occupied by the men: in this strangers are received: this part is
called Rabha.
After three days devoted to enjoying their hospitality, we opened our
bales, and sold many articles, upon most of which we lost more or
less. I did not understand this mode of dealing, and said so to Sheik
Ibrahim. “Have you then forgot our conditions?” said he. I excused
myself, and continued to sell according to his pleasure.
One day we saw arrive fifty well-mounted horsemen, who, having
stopped before the tents, dismounted and sat on the ground. The
Emir Nasser, charged with all the affairs since his father had become
deaf, went to join them, accompanied by his cousin Sheik Zamel,
and held a conference with them for two hours, after which the men
remounted their horses and departed. Sheik Ibrahim, anxious about
this mysterious interview, knew not how to ascertain the motive of it.
Having already been often with the women, I took a coral necklace,
and went to Naura, the wife of Nasser, to present it to her. She
accepted it, made me sit near her, and offered me in her turn dates
and coffee. After these reciprocal acts of politeness, I came to the
object of my visit, and said, “Excuse my importunity, I entreat you,
but strangers are curious and timid; the little merchandise we have
here is the remnant of a considerable fortune, which misfortunes
have deprived us of. The Emir Nasser was just now holding
conference with strangers—that excites our apprehension; we would
know the subject.”—“I will satisfy your curiosity,” said Naura; “but on
condition that you will keep my secret, and appear to know nothing.
Know that my husband has many enemies among the Bedouins,
who hate him for humbling the national pride by exalting the power of
the Turks. The alliance of Nasser with the Osmanlis greatly
displeases the Bedouins, who hate them. It is even contrary to the
advice of his father, and the heads of the tribe, who murmur against
him. The object of this meeting was to concert a plan of attack. To-
morrow they will assail the tribe El Daffir, to take their flocks, and do
them all the mischief possible: the God of battle will give the victory
to whom he pleases: but as to you, you have nothing to fear.” Having
thanked Naura, I withdrew well satisfied with having gained her
confidence.
Sheik Ibrahim, informed by me of all the wife of Nasser had told me,
said that it caused him the greatest vexation. “I was endeavouring,”
added he, “to attach myself to a tribe hostile to the Osmanlis, and
here I am with a chief allied to them.” I did not dare ask the meaning
of these words, but they served to set me thinking.
About sunset three hundred horsemen assembled beyond the
encampment, and marched early in the morning, having at their
head Nasser, Hamed, and Zamel. Three days afterwards a
messenger came to announce their return. A great number of men
and women went out to meet them; and when they had reached
them, they sent up on both sides loud shouts of joy, and in this
manner made their triumphal entry into the camp, preceded by a
hundred and eighty camels, taken from the enemy. As soon as they
had alighted, we begged them to recount their exploit.
“The day after our departure,” said Nasser, “having arrived about
noon at the place where the shepherds feed the flocks of Daffir, we
fell upon them, and carried off a hundred and eighty camels:
however, the shepherds having fled, gave the alarm to their tribe. I
then detached a part of my troops to conduct our booty to the camp
by another road. Aruad-Ebn-Motlac, the chief of the tribe El Daffir,
coming to attack us with three hundred horsemen, the battle lasted
two hours, and night alone separated us. Every one then returned to
his tribe, the enemy having lost one of his men, and we having two
men wounded.”
The tribe of Nasser feigned a participation in his triumph, whereas in
reality they were very dissatisfied with an unjust war against their
natural friends, to please the Osmanlis. Nasser, having visited all the
chiefs, to recount his success, came to Sheik Ibrahim and addressed
him in Turkish; Sheik Ibrahim having observed to him that he spoke
only Greek, his native tongue, and a little Arabic, Nasser began to
extol the language and customs of the Turks, saying it was not
possible to be truly great, powerful, and respected, without being on
a good footing with them. “As for me,” added he, “I am more Osmanli
than Bedouin.” “Trust not the promises of the Turks,” replied Sheik
Ibrahim, “any more than their greatness and magnificence: they
favour you that they may gain you over, and injure you with your
countrymen, in order to employ you to fight against the other tribes.
The interest of the Turkish government is to destroy the Bedouins:
not strong enough to effect this themselves, they wish to arm you
against each other. Take care that you have not some day cause to
repent. I give you this advice as a friend who takes a lively interest in
you, and because I have eaten your bread and partaken of your
hospitality.”
Some time after, Nasser received from Soliman, the pacha of Acre
and Damascus, a message, engaging him to come and receive the
investiture of the general command of all the desert, with the title of
Prince of the Bedouins. This message overwhelmed him with joy,
and he departed for Damascus with ten horsemen.
Mehanna having ordered the departure of the tribe, the next morning
by sunrise not a single tent was to be seen standing; all was folded
up and loaded, and the departure began in the greatest order.
Twenty chosen horsemen formed the advanced guard, and served
as scouts. Then came the camels with their loads, and the flocks;
then the armed men, mounted on horses or camels; after these the
women; those of the chiefs carried in howdahs, (a sort of palankin,)
placed on the backs of the largest camels. These howdahs are very
rich, carefully lined, covered with scarlet cloth, and ornamented with
different coloured fringe. They hold commodiously two women, or a
woman and several children. The women and children of inferior
rank follow directly after, seated on rolls of tent-cloth, ranged like
seats, and placed on camels. The loaded camels, carrying the
baggage and provision, are behind. The line was closed by the Emir
Mehanna, mounted on a dromedary by reason of his great age, and
surrounded by his slaves, the rest of the warriors, and the servants,
who were on foot. It was truly wonderful to witness the order and
celerity with which the departure of eight or nine thousand persons
was effected. Sheik Ibrahim and I were on horseback, sometimes
ahead, sometimes in the centre, or by the side of Mehanna. We
proceeded ten hours successively: all at once, three hours after
noon, the order of march was interrupted; the Bedouins dispersed
themselves in the midst of a fine plain, sprang to the ground, fixed
their lances, and fastened their horses to them. The women ran on
all sides, and pitched their tents near their husbands’ horses. Thus,
as if by enchantment, we found ourselves in a kind of city, as large

Textbook Environmental Forensics Proceedings of The 2013 Inef Conference Robert D Morrison Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Textbook Environmental Forensics Proceedings of The 2013 Inef Conference Robert D Morrison Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Environmental Forensics Proceedings

of the 2013 INEF Conference Robert D

Proceedings of the 2013 National Conference on Advances

Advances in Systems Science Proceedings of the

Robotic Sailing 2013 Proceedings of the 6th

Ultrafast Magnetism I Proceedings of the International

Advances in Computer Entertainment 10th International

Information Theoretic Security 7th International

Proceedings of the International Conference on

Ambient Intelligence 4th International Joint Conference

Particle Science and Engineering

The proceedings of International Network of Environmental Forensics Penn State

Special Publication No. 348

Print ISBN: 978-1-84973-944-3

PDF eISBN: 978-1-78262-834-7

© The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014

All rights reserved

Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry,

Registered Charity Number 207890

Visit our website at www.rsc.org/books

international attention in the past several years.

Robert Morrison, Ph.D.

Robert Morrison, Ph.D. Dr. Morrison has a B.S. in Geology, a M.S.

groundwater contamination, including site investigations and

Gwen O’Sullivan, Ph.D., MRSC. Dr Gwen O’Sullivan is an

developed technical expertise in the areas of environmental

viii Author Biographies

Frank L. Dorman, Ph.D. Frank Dorman is currently an Associate

fundamental characterization, instrumentation and column

Mike Fowler, Ph.D. Mike Fowler is a geochemist with over 20

Alan W.A. Jeffrey, Ph.D. Alan Jeffrey is Senior Geochemist at

hydrocarbon fuels and chlorinated solvents, and fugitive methane

Jun Lu, Ph.D. Dr. Lu has a BS in Geology from Hefei Polytechnic

David Megson David Megson obtained a BSc in Environmental

Society of Brownfield Risk Assessment. He is currently studying for

both outdoors and indoors. He is the author of more than thirty

xii Author Biographies

and Environmental Geochemistry at the University of Oklahoma.

Author Biographies xiii

investigations and remediation (full scale and pilot test design),

Leo M. Rebele, MS, Bsc. Mr. Rebele serves as Environmental

xiv Author Biographies

Michale J. Wade Dr. Michael J. Wade, as Principal Scientist of

as dioxins/dibenzofurans and PCBs. Annually Dr. Wade conducts

July 7, 1946 - July 7, 2013

A Forensic Analysis of Contaminant Releases from a Sewer Pipe 1

Interpreting Tar Patterns at Former Manufactured Gas Plants 26

Failures in the Historical Age Dating of Separated Phased Product Leaded 37

Methane Vapor Intrusion Case Study: Interpretation of Complex Environmental 67

Environmental Forensic Investigation for Identifying Sources of Polycyclic 98

Modeled PCN Weathering Series in Principal Component Space: Consideration 117

Techniques to Age Date Human Exposure to PCBs 125

Strategies and Techniques for Identifying Unknown Compounds in 158

Defensible Data Begins with Proper Field Protocols 171

Basic Fundamental Aspects of Environmental Forensics Investigations 176

Phytoforensics: Sampling, Analytical Methods and Case Studies 200

Identifying the Sources of Chemical Contamination after the Fact 230

Author Index 239

Subject Index 241

2 Environmental Forensics: Proceedings of the 2013 INEF Conference

2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PCE EXFILTRATION FROM SEWER PIPES

A Forensic Analysis of Contaminant Releases from a Sewer Pipe 3

4 Environmental Forensics: Proceedings of the 2013 INEF Conference