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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Fernando Ramírez
Josefina Santana

Environmental
Education and
Ecotourism
SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science
SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science present concise summaries of cutting-edge
research and practical applications across a wide spectrum of environmental fields,
with fast turnaround time to publication. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to 125
pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic. Monog-
raphs of new material are considered for the SpringerBriefs in Environmental Sci-
ence series.
Typical topics might include: a timely report of state-of-the-art analytical
techniques, a bridge between new research results, as published in journal articles
and a contextual literature review, a snapshot of a hot or emerging topic, an in-depth
case study or technical example, a presentation of core concepts that students must
understand in order to make independent contributions, best practices or protocols
to be followed, a series of short case studies/debates highlighting a specific angle.
SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science allow authors to present their ideas and
readers to absorb them with minimal time investment. Both solicited and
unsolicited manuscripts are considered for publication.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8868

Fernando Ramírez Josefina Santana
•

Environmental Education
and Ecotourism

123
Fernando Ramírez Josefina Santana
Independent Researcher School of Communication
Bogotá, Colombia Universidad Panamericana
Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico

ISSN 2191-5547 ISSN 2191-5555 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science
ISBN 978-3-030-01967-9 ISBN 978-3-030-01968-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01968-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018958360

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
The first author dedicates this book to his
Mother (Natalia) and Father (Fernando) and
to L. Marien.
Preface

Educators are calling for a move from traditional, classroom-based teacher-centred

practices to innovative learner-centred approaches. This is not just a fashion; rather,
the call obeys an understanding that, for learning to be meaningful, it must involve
the student holistically. Hands-on educational practices lead to deeper under-
standing and long-term learning.
On the other hand, fostering environmental awareness among newer generations
is crucial. The planet strains to accommodate the growing human population and its
activities. Thus, environmental education is imperative and it is not enough to
discuss the subject in the classroom. The learners must go out and experience nature
in a thoughtful, intentional manner.
Ecotourism is a sound and environmentally friendly field that currently offers
new perspectives to the tourism industry. The connection between ecotourism and
education is key for biodiversity conservation and caring for the environment.
The purpose of this Springer Brief is twofold. Firstly, it seeks to promote
environmental education by offering guidelines in ecotourism as a school subject.
Second, and more importantly, it seeks to raise awareness of the role we must play
in preserving our world.

Bogotá, Colombia Fernando Ramírez

Guadalajara, Mexico Josefina Santana
April 2018

vii
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Environmental Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Educating Visitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Educating the Local Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Educating Future Generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Environmental Education and Biodiversity Conservation . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3 Relevance of Ecotourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4 Education and Ecotourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5 Philosophy of Ecotourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6 National Parks and Biodiversity Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7 Indigenous Ecotourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8 Environmental Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

ix
x Contents

9 Wetland Ecotourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Abstract

Ecotourism is an important field of tourism that has bridged environmentally

friendly practices and the leisure industry worldwide. Today, ecotourism has
become an important revenue sector for stakeholders and communities. It has
provided numerous solutions as a suitable tourism type, but has also caused
environmental impacts. Recently, ecotourism has become important in developing
countries, offering a sustainable practice, i.e. ecologically friendly minimizing the
impacts caused by other tourism practices. Education is a key aspect for ecotourism
because it has provided a dialogue between communities, stakeholders, researchers,
citizens and ecotourists. Environmental education has provided a framework for
any ecotourism practice, because it encourages the basic know-how and principles
for a environmentally friendly practice. Environmental education is a core aspect in
ecotourism because it can provide the necessary momentum to encourage the
common citizen to become aware of ecotourism practices and perform responsible
ecotourism. This Springer Brief focuses on environmental education and eco-
tourism and analyses biodiversity conservation, philosophy, environmental impacts,
indigenous ecotourism and wetland ecotourism. Also, this book is supported by
recent publications from the authors.

xi
Chapter 1
Introduction

Worldwide ecotourism has become a new perspective for integrating nature, culture,
and the tourism sector. Though ecotourism has been touted as a “green”—that is,
ecologically sound—form of tourism, it can paradoxically lead to the degradation of
the environment.
A case in point is that of the “Pueblos Mágicos” of Mexico. These “Magic towns”
are little-explored culturally and aesthetically rich sites. They have been selected
by the Mexican Secretariat of Tourism based on several criteria—including natural
beauty—and they receive special promotion and funding. Currently, there are just
over one hundred such towns around the country, including the town of Tequila in
Jalisco, and its surrounding area (Fig. 1.1).
Being named a “Pueblo Mágico” brings the region needed funds, as well as
additional tourism. Unfortunately, the site is not always equipped to provide for the
influx of visitors. Hotels, restaurants, and other businesses spring up rapidly to cater
to tourists, and basic infrastructure such as waste management and traffic control are
strained. In consequence, the site ends up losing some of its original magic.
This example illustrates the paradox of ecotourism. The economic benefits include
jobs for the local population, reducing the need to emigrate. The downside is the loss
of traditional ways of life, and the destruction of some of the natural beauty of the
site.
This book posits that environmental education may be useful in balancing eco-
nomic benefits and sustainability in ecotourism.

1.1 Environmental Education

Environmental education can be understood as the process of gaining awareness of

the world around us, with its natural beauty and resources. Ideally, this understanding
should not be only theoretical. It should lead the individual to value nature and to
seek to preserve it.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1
F. Ramírez and J. Santana, Environmental Education and Ecotourism, SpringerBriefs
in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01968-6_1
2 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.1 Round pyramids at Guachimontones, near the magic town of Tequila, Jalisco. Photo by
Rafael Santana. Reproduced with permission

For environmental education to be effective in the context of ecotourism, it must

be directed to three distinct populations. The first is visitors to sites. They have a
unique opportunity to discover in situ the beauty and diversity offered by the site.
The second group is the local population, who must learn how to exploit their natural
resources in ways that are both productive and sustainable. Finally, future generations
should be taught the importance of conserving the environment and the best ways to
do so.
The following sections will discuss the current state of affairs in education among
these three groups.

1.2 Educating Visitors

Ceballos-Lascurain (1988), who coined the term ecotourism, insisted that one of its
specific goals was to study the scenery, the culture, the plants and the animals of the
region. However, it is not clear if participating in ecotourism can lead to increased
conservation practices. Sander (2012), for example, mentions that most participants
in ecotourism are already environmentally aware. Beaumont (2001) however, found
that ecotourism serves to reinforce this awareness, and that the greatest gains in
awareness are obtained by ecotourists with the least environmental knowledge.
It seems that just having information about the site available to visitors has an
impact on their knowledge, though this does not necessarily lead to changes in
behaviors (Sander 2012). Ideally, environmental education should inspire the learner
to take concrete actions toward conservation.
1.3 Educating the Local Population 3

1.3 Educating the Local Population

Another goal of ecotourism should be the education of the local population. They
need to know, not only how to conserve their natural resources, but how to trans-
mit knowledge of these resources to visitors. Sander (2012) mentions a partnership
between a university in the United States and the Kayapó indigenous group in Brazil.
The Kayapó functioned as guides and teachers to students from the university, but
ended up learning from the students, as well. The authors of the study, Zanotti and
Chernela, cited in Sander (2012) mention four benefits of the programme for the local
people. These are increased revenue; “the opportunity to control the presentation of
knowledge about themselves and their territories” (p. 394); the chance to practice a
new language; and the possibility of expanding their support network.
Any scheme to educate the local population must consider the perspective of
Indigenous Knowledge (IK). In Grenier’s 1998 definition, cited in Sillitoe et al.
(2005), this is “The unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and devel-
oped around specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geo-
graphic region” (p. 1). IK has been applied to many domains of study, but it is
of particular value in ecotourism, as the local population not only has the great-
est knowledge of the region under study, but is also the most important group of
stakeholders.

1.4 Educating Future Generations

In developing countries, studies into environmental education frequently start from

the stance of Social Representation Theory (SRT). D’Amato-Herrera (2012), for
example, cites important studies in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico which
use SRT to establish what learners believe about the world around us.
Social Representations are beliefs formed from a mixture of our culture and our
society, incorporated into our commonsense knowledge of the world. These social
representations (SR) then lead us to create our explanations of reality (Cuevas-Cajiga
2012). Taking SR as an object of study leads to the construction of knowledge which
will become the basis of action and interpretation of a community (D’Amato-Herrera
2012).
Meira Cartea (2013) states that “It is from these representations built individually
and socially that we can give sense and meaning to the world around us, share it with
others and guide our attitudes and behavior with respect to it” (p. 32). With regards
to environmental education, for example, SR are responsible for our beliefs about
natural resources: are they to be exploited for our benefit? Or are they to be cherished
and preserved?
Studies into the effectiveness of environmental education in schools have shown
mixed results. Among university students, Correa-López and Ortiz-Espejel (2012)
found that visits to actual sites, and volunteer work carried out among the local
4 1 Introduction

community were the most effective means to make an impact on learners. Otherwise,
the knowledge acquired in their classes is merely theoretical.
Calixto-Flores (2012) studied middle school students (12–15 year-olds) and found
that their SR tend to equate the environment exclusively with nature without consid-
ering social or cultural dimensions. This is true among teachers, as well.
Terrón-Amigón (2012) found that among teachers, knowledge was not uniform.
The SR she found in teachers were classified as simple, globalizing, anthropocentric,
integral, or critical. It is the latter two that lead to changes in perceptions of the
environment, but these SR were found in only a few of the teachers interviewed. The
author found that most teachers associate environmental education exclusively with
its physical facet, without regard for either social or cultural aspects.
Thus, even though class time is devoted to environmental issues, these are usually
seen in a superficial and theoretical way, and do not lead to changes in perception or
actions among the learners.
As Saylan and Blumstein (2011) express “Environmental education must go
beyond recycling programmes and teach us how to achieve measurable and increas-
ing impact by reducing our human footprint substantially in a lifelong endeavor…
Environmental education must clearly illustrate that there is only one earth, and we’re
all on it together” (p. 29).
This book hopes to contribute to this end.

References

Beaumont N (2001) Ecotourism and the conservation ethic: recruiting the uninitiated or preaching
to the converted? J Sustain Tourism 9(4):317–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580108667405
Calixto-Flores R (2012) Miradas de los estudiantes de educación secundaria sobre el medio ambi-
ente. In: Calixto R (ed) En la búsqueda de los sentidos y significados de la educación ambiental.
Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Mexico City, pp 107–128
Ceballos-Lascurain H (1988) The future of ecotourism. Mexico J 13–14
Correa-López MI, Ortiz-Espejel B (2012) Transformación de las RS a través de la educación
ambiental en el nivel universitario. In: Calixto R (ed) En la búsqueda de los sentidos y significados
de la educación ambiental. Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Mexico City, pp 191–214
Cuevas-Cajiga YM (2012) Apuntes sobre la teoría de representaciones sociales. In: Calixto R (ed)
En la búsqueda de los sentidos y significados de la educación ambiental. Universidad Pedagógica
Nacional, Mexico City, pp 21–44
D’Amato-Herrera G (2012) Las representaciones sociales y la psicología ambiental como
dinamizadores de la educación ambiental. In: Calixto R (ed) En la búsqueda de los sentidos
y significados de la educación ambiental. Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Mexico City, pp
45–56
Meira Cartea PA (2013) Problemas ambientales globales y educación ambiental: Una aproximación
desde las representaciones sociales del cambio climático. Revista Integra Educativa 6(3):29–64
Sander B (2012) The importance of education in ecotourism ventures: lessons from Rara Avis
ecolodge, Costa Rica. Int J Sustain Soc 4:389–404. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.049408
Saylan C, Blumstein D (2011) The failure of environmental education (and how we can fix it).
University of California Press, Los Angeles
References 5

Sillitoe P, Dixon P, Barr J (2005) Indigenous knowledge inquiries: a methodologies manual for
development. Practical Action Publishing, Rugby
Terrón-Amigón E (2012) Horizontes de la educación ambiental. Un estudio de representaciones
sociales. In: Calixto R (ed) En la búsqueda de los sentidos y significados de la educación ambiental.
Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Mexico City, pp 129–148
Chapter 2
Environmental Education
and Biodiversity Conservation

The term biodiversity refers to the wealth of life on Earth. The United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines it thus: “‘Biological diversity’
means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems” (CBD, n/d) (Fig. 2.1).
The 1970s brought about an increasing awareness of how humankind was caus-
ing irrevocable damage to these ecosystems. Clearing of forests for agricultural
purposes, overfishing, dam construction, and other human practices all take their toll
on the environment. These practices, designed to make human life more practical,

(a) (c) (d)

(b)

Fig. 2.1 The biodiversity rich cloud forest at La Aguadita, near Fusagasugá, Cundinamarca State,
Colombia. a, b Mountain view, c, d detail of forest with arborescent ferns. Photos by Fernando
Ramírez. Reproduced with permission

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 7

F. Ramírez and J. Santana, Environmental Education and Ecotourism, SpringerBriefs
in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01968-6_2
8 2 Environmental Education and Biodiversity Conservation

threaten, not only diverse animal and plant species, but humankind as well. It became
necessary to establish plans and protocols to protect the environment. At the same
time, it was necessary to consider that people have a right to earn their livelihood.
Reconciling these two seemingly contradictory needs gave rise to the notion of sus-
tainable development—preserving nature while accepting that people have the right
to development, understood in the economic sense (Bonnet 1999).
Because environmental problems tend to be based on lack of knowledge and
education (Valderrama-Hernandez et al. 2017), promoting biodiversity conservation
is an important goal of education worldwide (Ramadoss and Poyya Moli 2011). The
United Nations has taken on a leading role in promoting environmental education,
through diverse initiatives. One of these is the UN Conference of Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Three programs were proposed: education
for sustainable development, increased public awareness, and training of selected
people to monitor and manage the environment (Kassas 2002).
Educators were urged to include environmental education in their curricula, not
only in biology and natural science classes, but across the spectrum, as a topic to
be discussed in social sciences, and other school subjects. Kassas (2002) situates
education for biodiversity conservation on five “pivots”. These are:
• Scope. Environmental education has been a complex topic because it is difficult
to agree on the focus. Advocacy groups such as Greenpeace, scientists, and eco-
tourists all care about nature, but they view and value it in different ways.
• Perspectives. Here, the author mentions three different types of relationships: that
among different species, a personal relationship with nature, and a supportive
society that seeks to protect nature.
• Goals. These are aligned with the four “pillars” which should support environ-
mental education, as established by the United Nations Educational, Science and
Culture Organization (UNESCO) in its goals for sustainable development. The
first of these pillars is biophysical systems; that is, the interrelatedness of all living
things. The second pillar is economic systems, which include the local people’s
ability to sustain themselves. The third is social systems, and the final pillar is
political systems, which include the local people’s right to a say in regards to
environmental issues (Fien 2004).
• Themes. These are the issues which are of particular interest to a community or
region, or at a specific point in time.
• Assimilation. Kassas (2002) here talks about the need to evaluate how each actor
has taken on their corresponding roles.
The rest of this chapter will be organized according to these five pivots.

2.1 Scope

Though most people would agree that conservation of nature is a worthy goal, not
everyone agrees on how to accomplish that goal. Efforts in the past decade have
focused on sustainable development. UNESCO (2017), in its Agenda 2030, has
2.1 Scope 9

established this as its “first and foremost” objective “shifting the world on to a
sustainable and resilient path” (p. 3).
However, some authors (Ferreira 2002, for example), question whether sustain-
able development and nature conservancy might not be mutually exclusive. Bonnet
(1999) for his part, questions: what is to be sustained? Is it nature? Or economic
growth? Current lifestyles? It cannot be all of these. The author mentions that most
current programmes view environmental education from the viewpoints of science
and geography. Meanwhile, other equally important aspects, such as the social, eth-
ical, economic, aesthetic, political, cultural, and spiritual dimensions of ecology are
forgotten.

2.2 Perspectives

Costa Rica has established itself in the forefront for biodiversity conservation. It is
an environmentally rich and diverse country, and one of its main sources of income
is ecotourism. In 2005, the national government implemented a national strategy
for environmental education, intended to “increase awareness, knowledge, values,
skills, and goodwill to act for the natural, cultural, and spiritual resources conserva-
tion” (Jimenez et al. 2017, p. 223). These authors studied different local programmes
focused on Communication, Education, Public Awareness, and Participation Strate-
gies. They found that most programmes fall into two types, categorized by the authors
as vision of nature protection and vision of sustainability. The first of these is geared
towards schoolchildren and teaches them basic biological knowledge. The second
type of program focuses on adults, and focuses on “community-based management
of natural resource projects” (p. 235).
The programmes are delivered at schools or at environmental educations centers,
such as botanical gardens or wildlife preserves.

2.3 Goals

Biodiversity conservations strategies which focus efforts on developing countries are

unfair, as more developed countries are the greatest consumers of natural resources.
The principle of subsidiarity establishes that those who have greater power also have
greater responsibility (Francis 2015).
Any environmental protection programme needs to consider that biodiversity
includes not only plant and animal species, but humankind as well. Deforestation,
soil erosion, water pollution, and fish depletion are all grave environmental problems
which, in the long run, will affect the entire planet. However, first in the line of fire,
as it were, are the communities which are closest to natural resources, and whose
livelihood depends on them. Caring for natural resources is important, but human
10 2 Environmental Education and Biodiversity Conservation

lives are important, as well. Thus, true ecological programmes should also be social
programmes (Francis 2015).

2.4 Themes

Climate change is a global concern, as its consequences affect the whole planet
(Ramírez and Kallarackal 2015, 2018). Other issues, such as the protection of the
Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, in the Michoacán region of Mexico are of
local concern. The local community of Michoacán relies greatly on ecotourism for
its income, but deforestation and illegal logging threaten the Reserve, where the
Monarch butterflies hibernate (Manzo-Delgado et al. 2014). Thus, educational efforts
in this region are focused on learning about the Reserve and its importance, and efforts
to protect it.
Another example of education of the local population also takes place in
Michoacán. Efforts to protect the critically endangered achoque amphibian
[Ambystoma dumerilii (Dugès, 1870)] are carried out by nuns at a local convent
(Frías-Alvarez et al. 2010). The achoque is used as a source of food and medicine
by the indigenous population. For centuries, the convent has produced a cough syrup
based on the amphibian’s skin, but water pollution in the achoque’s habitat was
rapidly decreasing the population of the amphibian. The nuns learned, with the help
of a biologist monk, how to breed the amphibians in captivity, and how to care for
them. Currently, their convent functions as a research unit focused on the conserva-
tion of the species, but providing also a source of income for the local population.
The nuns participate in research conferences and have written a book on the topic
(Pérez-Saldaña et al. 2006).

2.5 Assimilation

As established by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, in its

strategic plans for biodiversity 2011–2020, local communities and indigenous pop-
ulations are to be included in the development of these plans (CBD n/d). In the same
vein, environmental education programmes (EEP) should not be limited to abstract
content studied in classrooms; those first affected by environmental issues should be
targeted as well.
One such programme has been carried out in Nepal (Shrestha 2015). The study
looked at the effect of EEPs on wildlife conservation on behaviours and attitudes. It
found that local people who had attended the EEPs expressed a more positive attitude
toward conservation goals than those who had not attended. This was seen also in a
decrease in poaching incidents in the region under study.
Many authors agree that, for environmental education to be effective, it must
change behaviours and attitudes, and develop values (Arslan 2012; Zakharova et al.
2.5 Assimilation 11

2015, among others). Where there is less agreement is on what and how it is to be
taught. As this chapter shows, environmental education is a complex issue which
seems to raise more questions than can be answered simply. What can be said,
however, is that it is an issue which must be addressed, not only in the classroom,
but in the field, and in the family, and in religious and political institutions, and in
firms. In the care of the planet we are all stakeholders, and we must all work towards
protecting our common home.

References

Arslan S (2012) The influence of environment education on critical thinking and environmental
attitude. Proc Soc Behav Sci 55:902–909
Bonnet M (1999) Education for sustainable development: a coherent philosophy for environmental
education? Camb J Educ 29(3):313–324
Ferreira JG (2002) Biodiversity and environmental education: a contradiction? Koers J
67(3):259–269
Fien J (2004) Education for sustainability. In: Gilbert R (ed) Studying society and environment: a
guide for teachers. Cengage Learning Australia, Melbourne
Francis (2015) Encyclical letter Laudato si’ of the Holy Father Francis, 1st ed. Retrieved from
http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_
enciclica-laudato-si.html
Frías-Alvarez P, Zúñiga-Vega JJ, Flores-Villela O (2010) A general assessment of the conservation
status and decline trends of Mexican amphibians. Biodivers Conserv 19(13):3699–3742. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9923-9
Jimenez A, Monroe MC, Zamora N, Benayas J (2017) Trends in environmental education for
biodiversity conservation in Costa Rica. Environ Dev Sustain 19:221–238. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s10668-015-9734-y
Kassas M (2002) Environmental education: biodiversity. Environmentalist 22:345–351
Manzo-Delgado L, López-García J, Alcántara-Ayala I (2014) Role of forest conservation in less-
ening land degradation in a temperate region: the Monarch butterfly biosphere reserve, Mexico.
J Environ Man 138:55–66
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de cultivo de achoque (Ambystoma dumerilii) en cautiverio. Monasterio de Dominicas de Orden
Predicadores María Inmaculada de la Salud AR. Pátzcuaro, Michoacán
Ramadoss A, Poyya Moli G (2011) Biodiversity conservation through environmental education
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1:97–111. https://doi.org/10.18497/IEJEE-GREEN.99495
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land
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Shrestha S (2015) The role of environmental education for biodiversity conservation: a case study
in the protected areas of Nepal. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Arizona State University
UNESCO (2017) UNESCO moving forward the 2030 agenda for sustainable development.
Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002477/247785e.pdf
Valderrama-Hernandez R, Alcantara L, Limon D (2017) The complexity of environmental educa-
tion: teaching ideas and strategies from teachers. Proc Soc Behav Sci 237:968–974
Zakharova E, Liga M, Sergeev D (2015) Constructing philosophy of environmental education in
contemporary Russia. Proc Soc Behav Sci 214:1181–1185
Chapter 3
Relevance of Ecotourism

Today’s globalized world has an overproduction of goods and services. The tourism
sector offers multiple destinations, tours and attractions. In consequence, this has
caused major environmental problems i.e., sewage, garbage, land use, reduction
in forest cover, coastal modification, habitat loss for many species, etc. Today, eco-
tourism has provided a better way to manage resources and offers an environmentally-
based ideology. Also, it proposes important links between conservation and restora-
tion. Ecotourism can be applied successfully for ecosystem species and conservation
i.e. of critically endangered biodiversity (Bookbinder et al. 1998; Ghosh and Ghosh
2018; Wardle et al. 2018). Through economic incentives and revenues, ecotourism
has provided local guardianship by communities or villagers, while encouraging
effective resource management (Bookbinder et al. 1998; Eshoo et al. 2018). This
tourism field has been important in ecosystem conservation worldwide and particu-
larly in wetlands (Ramírez and Fennell 2014; Ramírez and Santana 2018) (Fig. 3.1),
deserts, rainforests (Fig. 3.2), and grasslands among other ecosystems.
Education is a fundamental aspect that needs to be analyzed in any ecotourism
discussion. Education has implications that permeate the ecotourism researcher, eco-
tourist, target communities, etc. This is because it teaches how to interact with nature
in harmony and consciously. Education plays an important role in biodiversity conser-
vation by defining the basic principles that rule the practice of ecotourism. Ecotourism
plays an important role and has great potential in environmental education and sus-
tainability (Kimmel 1999; Gilbert 2003; de Lima et al. 2018; Ramírez and Santana
2018). The relevance of education in ecotourism is an aspect that has been examined
in ecotourism ventures (Sander 2012; Mendoza-Ramos and Prideaux 2018), wetland
settings (Ramírez and Santana 2018), as a key aspect for the development of tourism
(Stergiou et al. 2008), core to its fundamental aspects, definitions and philosophy.
Ecotourism is an important field for conservation at both national and inter-
national levels. This field has generated important economic gains, and has also
provided ecological sustainable development in several places around the world
(Courvisanos and Jain 2006; Howitt and Mason 2018). Also, it has attracted the inter-
est of entrepreneurs, local communities, governments, non-governmental institutions
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 13
F. Ramírez and J. Santana, Environmental Education and Ecotourism, SpringerBriefs
in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01968-6_3
14 3 Relevance of Ecotourism

Fig. 3.1 Wetland ecosystems. Loretoyacu River in the Colombian Amazon (top photo) and The
Cuicocha Lagoon, Ecuador (bottom photo). Photos by Fernando Ramírez. Reproduced with per-
mission

and other stakeholders from the tourism sector. Ecotourism as a field is well estab-
lished in Australia, North America, and Europe. It is currently under development in
South America, parts of Central America, Asia and Oceania. Developing countries
are increasing programmes linking biodiversity conservation. This provides strong
thrust for caring for the environment. In Central America, Costa Rica provides a good
example of a successful ecotourism programme which has gained an international
reputation as a leader in environmental conservation. This is key for developing a
3 Relevance of Ecotourism 15

Fig. 3.2 Amazon rainforest near Puerto Nariño, Colombia. a, b Rainforest and c the colorful
Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Mart.) fruit. Photos by Fernando Ramírez. Reproduced with permission

reliable and profitable business (Courvisanos and Jain 2006). Ecotourism, has been
considered an important field for economic development and conservation (Honey
2008). Developing countries have been offering and promoting several ecotourism
brands. This includes countries such as Colombia, Bolivia, Dominica, Belize, Mon-
golia, Vietnam, Argentina, Bhutan, Fiji, Namibia, Indonesia, Peru, Senegal, Mada-
gascar, Ecuador, Cambodia, Thailand, Uganda, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada,
which are actively offering and providing interesting ecotourism destinations (Honey
2008).
Ecotourism has been practiced in environmentally pristine and protected areas
that are considered unique, characterized by their ecological interest and cultural
importance (Wearing and Neil 1999; Martin et al. 2018), but it can also be practiced
in human-influenced areas (Fennell 2013). Today, these areas have been established
by biodiversity conservation purposes that seek to preserve ecosystems (Wearing and
Neil 1999; Schulze et al. 2018), species, habitats, populations and communities. Eco-
tourism is an important field for establishing reliable and effective economic use of
protected areas (Higham 2007). Numerous regions and people have developed eco-
tourism as independent ideas connecting environmental awareness and ecology (Fen-
nell 1998). Worldwide the international conservation sector has generated projects,
programmes, and research related initiatives, that have been generating nature-based
tours encouraging ecotourism (Honey 2008). Moreover, international organizations
16 3 Relevance of Ecotourism

and aid agencies, have pushed forward nature related aspects such as local revenue
generation, biodiversity aspects, sustainable rural development, institutional orga-
nization, and consistent infrastructure by funding projects related to the tourism
sector, that are of the ecotourism nature (Honey 2008). This can be applied to dif-
ferent cultural contexts and places worldwide. Many developing countries are near
the Equatorial zone, characterized by a high diversity of species and ecosystems.
This is one of the major aspects attracting thousands of visitors from different lati-
tudes to visit tropical countries. For example, the Colombian Amazon provides one
of the most spectacular places for ecotourism. Leticia, the capital of the Amazon
State is a city of thousands of inhabitants. This city, is bordered by the Amazon
River (Fig. 3.3), which forms a series of oxbow lakes, remnants of the main chan-
nel. One of these lakes, Yahuarcaca, is home to numerous species, from the largest
scale fish, the Pirarucú (Aramaima gigas), to river dolphins, manatees, eagles, and
turtles (Fig. 3.4). Flowing into the seasonal Yahuarcaca Lake is the blackwater terra
firme Yahuarcaca stream (Fig. 3.5). In Amazonian streams, tree canopies prevent
light from reaching the water surface directly, nutrient salts are scarce, and aquatic
plant life is virtually non-existent. Furthermore, food webs are highly influenced by
resources coming from the nearby terrestrial environment (Lowe-McConnell 1987).
The Yahuarcaca stream is home to 171 fish species which have numerous dietary-
morphological specializations (Ramírez et al. 2015).
Due to the environmental relevance that ecotourism has gained, many countries are
including legislations that support ecotourism planning, development and enhance-
ment. Government policy has been used to push forward the necessary environmental
regulations, industry related aspects minimizing the negative impacts, providing and
proposing sound environmental practices for ecotourism (Wearing and Neil 1999).
Governmental policy planning has been an important tool for developing and building
reliable ecotourism projects (Wearing and Neil 1999). Nowadays, more governments
are using ecotourism as a key source to generate revenues (Wearing and Neil 1999).
This is particularly the case of countries in Central America such as Costa Rica and
Mexico. Legislation has to focus on aspects that regulate the ecotourism industry
such as carrying capacity, revenue collection, mechanism of control for tour opera-
tors, programme planning, infrastructure, communications media and international
cooperation. Legislators are at the heart of decision making. Although developed
countries have a consistent and robust framework for policy and integration with
ecotourism (see, for example, the case of the U.S.A. or Australia), developing coun-
tries tend to have serious cases of corruption which negatively impact any ecotourism
programme, as allocated funds are often misused or retained by politicians that exert
a powerful influence. Thus, individual interest overruns community interest leading
to corruption and environmental crises. According to Wearing and Neil (1999), an
ecotourism plan should ideally encompass the following steps:
• research preparation
• goal identification
• examination through surveys
• discussion
3 Relevance of Ecotourism 17

Fig. 3.3 Amazon River near Leticia, Colombia. Photos by Fernando Ramírez. Reproduced with
Permission

• policies and planning construction

• recommendations
• implementation and monitoring
Effective planning and legislations are key aspects for ecotourism development.
Strong legislations at local, national and international levels are also fundamental
aspects that are required for an operational ecotourism sector. Moreover, cooperative
aid between the parts involved provides an important point of departure for effective
success (Wearing and Neil 1999).
Philosophically, ecotourism is a tourism field distinguished by its environmental
concern and appreciation for nature. Caring for the environment has long been a major
18 3 Relevance of Ecotourism

Fig. 3.4 Birds from the Amazon region of Colombia. Photo by Fernando Ramírez

Fig. 3.5 The Yahuarcaca stream near Leticia, Colombia a detail and b, c characin fish species.
Photos by Fernando Ramírez. Reproduced with permission

premise that concerns nations and governments, as well as the local citizen. Today’s
globalized world proposes numerous links between cultures and, thus, a plethora of
possibilities for environmental change and consciousness. Well-founded ecotourism
ideas provide a framework for differentiating ecotourism practices from pseudo- or
non-ecotourism based ideologies. Purely economic and extractive practices are often
referred to as having a different objective from that of ecotourism. Sound ecotourism
practices require ideologies based on what is meant by ecotourism. Over the decades,
since the foundation of ecotourism, there has been a lot of debate over philosophical
and fundamental aspects of ecotourism. Currently, there is a need to reshape the
field of ecotourism in face of its fundamental philosophical basis. Few investigations
have delved into the philosophy of ecotourism and more research is clearly needed to
better understand its profound meaning and links to the environment, human beings,
tourism and other fields of knowledge.
References 19

References

Bookbinder MP, Dinerstein E, Rijal A, Cauley H, Rajouria A (1998) Ecotourism’s support of

biodiversity conservation. Conserv Biol 12:1399–1404
Courvisanos J, Jain AA (2006) A framework for sustainable ecotourism: application to Costa Rica.
Tourism Hospit Plann Dev 3:131–142
de Lima L, Dutra Neto L, de Holanda L (2018) programa de Ecoturismo e Educação Ambiental
do Projeto TAMAR - Fernando de Noronha: uma análise de 2013 a 2016. Rev Bras Ecoturismo
11:47–60
Eshoo PF, Johnson A, Duangdala S, Hansel T (2018) Design, monitoring and evaluation of a direct
payments approach for an ecotourism strategy to reduce illegal hunting and trade of wildlife in
Lao PDR. PLoS ONE 13:e0186133. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186133
Fennell DA (1998) Ecotourism in Canada. Ann Tourism Res 25:231–234
Fennell DA (2013) Contesting the zoo as a setting for ecotourism, and the design of a first principle.
J Ecotourism 12:1–14
Ghosh P, Ghosh A (2018) Is ecotourism a panacea? Political ecology perspectives from the Sun-
darban Biosphere Reserve, India. GeoJournal 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-018-9862-
7
Gilbert R (2003) Ecotourism and education for sustainability: a critical approach. Int Rev Environ
Strateg 4:75–83
Higham J (2007) Critical issues in ecotourism: understanding a complex tourism phenomenon.
Elsevier, Amsterdam
Honey M (2008) Ecotourism and sustainable development: who owns paradise? 2nd edn. Island
Press, Washington, DC
Howitt J, Mason C (2018) Ecotourism and sustainable rural development in Pérez Zeledón, Costa
Rica. J Rural Community Dev 13:67–84
IUCN (2008) What is a protected area? https://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/gpap_home/
pas_gpap/
Kimmel JR (1999) Ecotourism as environmental learning. J Environ Educ 30:40–44. https://doi.
org/10.1080/00958969909601869
Lowe-McConnell RH (1987) Ecological studies in tropical fish communities. Cambridge University
Press, London
Martin A, Myers R, Dawson NM (2018) The park is ruining our livelihoods. We support the park!
Unravelling the paradox of attitudes to protected areas. Hum Ecol 46:93–105. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s10745-017-9941-2
Mendoza-Ramos A, Prideaux B (2018) Assessing ecotourism in an Indigenous community: using,
testing and proving the wheel of empowerment framework as a measurement tool. J Sustain Tour
26:277–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2017.1347176
Ramírez F, Fennell D (2014) A comprehensive framework for ecotourism and wetland restoration:
the case of Bogotá, Colombia. J Ecotourism 13:128–151
Ramírez F, Santana JC (2018) Key lessons learned by teaching ecotourism to undergraduate stu-
dents in Bogotá’s urban wetlands. Appl Environ Educ Commun 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/
1533015x.2018.1454359
Ramírez F, Davenport TL, Mojica JI (2015) Dietary–morphological relationships of nineteen fish
species from an Amazonian terra firme blackwater stream in Colombia. Limnologica 52:89–102
Sander B (2012) The importance of education in ecotourism ventures: lessons from Rara Avis
ecolodge, Costa Rica. Int J Sustain Soc 4:389. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSSOC.2012.049408
Schulze K, Knights K, Coad L et al (2018) An assessment of threats to terrestrial protected areas.
Conserv Lett e12435. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12435
Stergiou D, Airey D, Riley M (2008) Making sense of tourism teaching. Ann Tourism Res
35(3):631–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.03.001
UNEP (2015) Mapping the world’s special places. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/featured-projects/
mapping-the-worlds-special-places
20 3 Relevance of Ecotourism

Wardle C, Buckley R, Shakeela A, Castley JG (2018) Ecotourism’s contributions to conservation:

analysing patterns in published studies. J Ecotourism 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/14724049.
2018.1424173
Wearing S, Neil J (1999) Ecotourism: impacts, potentials and possibilities. Reed Educational and
Professional Publishing Ltd., Boston
Chapter 4
Education and Ecotourism

Early cultures in human history used nature as a source of food, tools, habitat, shelter,
clothing, etc. After these basic needs for food, housing and clothing were fulfilled,
humans acquired an interest in nature: in its intrinsic value. This interest became
evident by early pictographic paintings on rocks at several locations worldwide and
early art manifestations. Later on, cultures such as the Babylonians, Egyptians and
Greeks applied observation to delve into the natural world. The observation of nature
provided the first tool to establish a link between humans and nature. As production
methods became more efficient (Arendt 2012), humans had more time for appre-
ciating the natural world. Tourism as a field became an important part of the early
link between the interest of studying cultures and nature. The interest of traveling
to nature-based destinations became appealing for tourists who became a grow-
ing sector in the world’s economy. This is the case of Villa de Leyva, Colombia,
considered an interesting location for tourism and nature-based activities due to its
Spanish historical background and nature-based destinations (Fig. 4.1). Other cases
of nature-based destinations are Curaçao and Cartagena, Colombia (Figs. 4.2 and
4.3).
The tourism industry is currently an important economic sector within the world
economy. This sector has generated large profits and services, but the tourism sec-
tor has positively and negatively influenced regions by physically transforming them
(Fennell 2008). Tourism has been considered a reliable source for long-term regional
development opportunities, but has also caused ecological damage and environmen-
tal issues, transforming regions completely (Fennell 2008). Moreover, mass tourism
has been considered controversial because it dominates tourism within a region and
by diverting revenues away from local to international destinations (Fennell 2008).
Due to the multiple environmental problems and lack of care for the environment
proposed by mass tourism, alternative forms of tourism have been generated. Alter-
native tourism focuses on minimising the negative effects generated by mass tourism
(Wearing and Neil 1999). This tourism type is characterized by reducing environ-
mental and cultural impacts that have not been considered by the other forms of
conventional tourism (Wearing and Neil 1999). Furthermore, Krippendorf (1982)
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 21
F. Ramírez and J. Santana, Environmental Education and Ecotourism, SpringerBriefs
in Environmental Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01968-6_4
Another random document with
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saddle. It was close to this that Omar laid the foundation of the
Mosque which, to this day, bears his name.[329]
Mahometan tradition gives no further
detail respecting this memorable visit. But Christian tradition regarding
we are told by Christian writers that Omar Omar’s visit to Jerusalem.
accompanied Sophronius over the city, visited the Jerusalem,
various places of pilgrimage, and graciously inquired into their
history. As the appointed hour came round, the Patriarch bade the
Caliph to perform his orisons on the spot where they chanced to be,
namely, the Church of the Resurrection. But he declined to pray
either there or in the Church of Constantine, where a carpet had
been spread for him—alleging, as the reason, that if he were to pray
there, his followers would deem it their duty to oust the Christians
and take possession of the church for ever afterwards, as a place
where Moslem prayer had once been offered up. He also visited
Bethlehem. There, having prayed in the Church of the Nativity, he
gave nevertheless a rescript to the Patriarch who accompanied him
on the pious errand, securing the Christians in possession of the
building, with the condition that not more than one Mussulman
should ever enter at a time; but the stipulation, we are told, was
disregarded, and a Mosque was eventually erected there, as well as
on the site of the porch of the Church of Constantine.[330]
Whatever truth there may be in these
traditions, Omar did not prolong his visit to Omar returns to Medîna.
Jerusalem or its environs. Having settled
the matter for which he came, he proceeded to divide Palestine into
two provinces; one of which he assigned to the government of
Jerusalem, and the other to that of Ramleh. He then returned by the
way that he came to Medîna.[331]
Thus was Syria, from the farthest north
to the border of Egypt, within the space of Causes which facilitated the
three years, lost to Christendom. One conquest of Syria.
reflects with wonder at the feeble resistance offered by the Byzantine
power, both military and naval, and by its many strongholds of
antiquity and renown, to this sudden inroad. The affinities of the
Syrian Bedouins to the Arabian nation facilitated no doubt the
conquest. There was also an element of weakness in the settled
population; for luxurious living had demoralised the effeminate race
and rendered it unable to resist the onset of the wild and fanatic
invaders. Still worse, they had no heart to fight. What patriotic vigour
might have still survived, was lost in religious strife. Sects rejoiced
each in the humiliation of the other; and, as is usual in such
controversies, the finer the distinction, the more inveterate the hatred
thereby engendered. Loyalty was thus smothered by bitter
jealousies, and there are not wanting instances even of active
assistance rendered to the enemy.[332] There may have been among
some, even a sense of relief in the equal though contemptuous
licence given, by the toleration or haughty indifference of the
conquerors, to all alike. But there was a still deeper cause, and that
was the growing decrepitude of the Roman empire. No vigour
remained to drive back the shock of barbarian invaders. And while
northern hordes could by degrees amalgamate with the nations
which they overran, the exclusive faith and the intolerant teaching of
Islam kept the Arabs a race distinct and dominant.
The conquerors did not spread
themselves abroad in Syria, as in The Arabs did not settle in
Syria to the same extent as
Chaldæa. They founded no such Arabian in Chaldæa.
towns and military settlements as
Bussorah and Kûfa. The country and climate were less congenial,
and the beautiful scenery, of the land of brooks of water and depths
springing out of valleys and hills, the land of vines and fig-trees and
pomegranates, the land of oil-olive and honey, offered fewer
attractions to the Arabian races than the heated sandy plains of the
Tigris and Euphrates, with their desert garb of tamarisk and groves
of the familiar date. They came to Syria as conquerors; and, as
conquerors, they settled largely, particularly the southern tribes, in
Damascus, Hims, and other centres of administration. But the body
of the native Syrians remained after the conquest substantially the
same as before; and through long centuries of degradation they
clung, as to some extent they still cling, to their ancestral faith.
 We read in later days of the Ordinance
of Omar, to regulate the conditions of Humiliation of Jews and
Christian communities throughout Islam. Christians.
But it would be a libel on that tolerant Ruler to credit him with the
greater part of these observances. It is true that the stamp of
inferiority—according to the Divine injunction, Fight against the
people of the Book, Jews and Christians, until they pay tribute with
their hands and are humbled[333]—was branded upon them from the
first; but the worst disabilities of that intolerant Ordinance were not
imposed till a later period. Introduced by degrees, these gradually
became, through practice and precedent, the law of the land. At the
first the exactions of the conquerors, besides the universal tribute,
were limited to the demand of a yearly supply of oil-olive and other
food, and the obligation to entertain Moslem travellers on their
journey for three days at a time. But when the Caliphate was
established at Damascus, its pomp and pride could no longer brook
the semblance even of social equality, and hence the badge of an
inferior race must be shown at every step. The dress of both sexes
and of their slaves must be distinguished by broad stripes of yellow.
They were forbidden to appear on horseback; and if they rode on
mule or ass, their stirrups must be of wood, and the saddle known by
knobs of the same material. Their graves must be level with the
ground, and the mark of the devil placed on the lintel of their doors.
Their children must be taught by Moslem masters; and the race,
however able or well qualified, was proscribed from aspiring to any
office of high emolument or trust. Besides the existing churches
spared at the conquest, no new building must be erected for the
purposes of worship; free entry into all their holy places must be
allowed at the pleasure of the Moslem; no cross must remain in view
outside, nor any church bells rung. They must refrain from
processions in the street at Easter and other solemn seasons; and in
short from anything, whether by outward symbol, word, or deed, in
rivalry or derogation of the royal faith. Such was the so-called Code
of Omar.[334] Enforced with less or greater stringency in different
lands and under different dynasties, it was, and still remains, the law
of Islam. One must admire the rare tenacity of the subject faith,
which, with but scanty light and hope, held its ground through weary
ages of insult and depression, and still survives to see, as we now
may hope, the dawning of a brighter day.
I have spoken of the loss of Syria as
the dismemberment of a limb from the The East cut off from the
Byzantine empire. In one respect it was West.
something more. For their own safety, the Romans dismantled a
broad belt of country on the borders of the now barbarian Syria. The
towns and fortresses were razed, and the inhabitants withdrawn.
And so the neutral zone became a barrier against travel to and fro.
For all ordinary communication, whether social, religious, or
commercial, the road was closed. The East was severed from the
West.
‘The abomination of desolation’ wept
over by Sophronius stood in the Holy Silence of Byzantine
Place. The cradle of Christianity, Zion the historians.
joy of the whole earth, was trodden under foot, and utterly cut off
from the sight of its votaries. And all is told by the Byzantine writers
in a few short lines. The pen of the Christian annalist might well
refuse to write the story of cowardice and shame.
 CHAPTER XXI.
RISING IN NORTHERN SYRIA.

A.H. XVII. A.D. 638.

In the sixth year of Omar’s Caliphate, a

desperate effort was made by the Rising in Northern Syria.
Byzantine power, and at one moment not
without some prospect of success, to shake off the Moslem yoke and
recover possession of Northern Syria.
The movement is attributed by tradition
to an appeal from the Christian tribes of Romans by sea support
Mesopotamia, which when the Roman attack of Mesopotamian
Bedouins. a.h. XVII. a.d.
army retired into Asia Minor, besought the 638.
Emperor to save them from falling under
his adversary’s sway. Although the Moslem frontier on the side of
Cilicia was tolerably secure, yet the seaboard to the west, and the
desert border on the east of Syria, were both vulnerable. Most of the
strongholds of Mesopotamia, it is true, had already fallen into the
hands of Sád;[335] but the wandering Bedouins were not controlled
by these, and with few exceptions the numerous Christian tribes still
looked for support to the Persian or the Roman empires. The
maritime power of the Romans was yet untouched. Cæsarea with its
naval supports remained proof against landward attack; and the
whole sea coast was kept unsettled by the hope, or by the fear, that
the Roman fleet might at any time appear. The Emperor now
promised the dwellers in Mesopotamia that he would second their
efforts by way of the sea. An expedition was accordingly directed
from the port of Alexandria upon Antioch; while the Bedouins
gathered in great hordes around Hims. Thus seriously threatened,
Abu Obeida called in Khâlid from Kinnisrîn, and every garrison that
could be spared from the south. But the enemy was still too strong to
be dispersed by the force at his disposal, and so he sent an urgent
summons for assistance to Medîna. Thereupon Omar ordered Sád
to despatch a strong column from Kûfa under Cacâa for the relief of
Hims without a day’s delay; and likewise to effect a diversion by
sending other columns against Rickka, Roha, Nisibîn, and such like
strongholds in Upper Mesopotamia. Meanwhile the Romans landed
from their ships. Antioch threw open her gates to them; and
Kinnisrîn, Aleppo, and all the chief towns in the north, were in full
revolt. Abu Obeida called a council of war; Khâlid was for giving
battle, but he was alone in that view. Abu Obeida, feeling too weak to
cope with the now combined forces of the Bedouins and Romans,
retired within the walls of Hims, and, hemmed in by enemies,
awaited the succour now advancing from Kûfa. So grave did Omar
himself regard the crisis that, quitting Medîna for the second time, he
journeyed to Jâbia, intending to march in person with the
reinforcements northwards. But while on the journey, a change had
already come over the scene. The vigorous movements in
Mesopotamia so alarmed the Bedouins for the safety of their homes
in the desert, that they began to forsake the Roman cause. Seeing
now his opportunity, Abu Obeida issued
from the fortress, and after a severe Abu Obeida puts the Romans
engagement routed the enemy, who fled in and Bedouins to flight.
such confusion that, even before the arrival of Cacâa, they were
totally dispersed. Omar returned from Jâbia to Medîna. He was
delighted at the result; and he specially commended the alacrity of
the Kûfa column:—‘The Lord reward them,’ he wrote to Sád, ‘for their
ready gathering and their speedy march to the succour of their
beleaguered brethren.’[336]
It was the last effort of Constantinople
to expel the invader from Syria, and the Campaign in Mesopotamia
yoke plainly now was not to be shaken off. and Asia Minor. a.h. XVII.
a.d. 638.
The expeditions undertaken for diverting
the nomad insurgents had also the effect of reducing Mesopotamia
to its uttermost limits. But not content with this, the infant faith,
becoming conscious of its giant strength, began to stretch itself
towards the north. The successes in Mesopotamia were followed up
by a campaign in Asia Minor, under distinguished leaders; and the
name of Iyâdh, the general-in-chief, under whom even Khâlid did not
disdain to serve, begins to figure in the brief Byzantine record.[337]
Nisibîn,[338] Amida, Harrân, Roha, and all the strong places lying
along the northern frontier were taken or recaptured, and even
Armenia was overrun.[339]
Most of the Bedouin tribes in
Mesopotamia embraced Islam. There were Christian tribes in
exceptions, and the story of the Beni Iyâdh Mesopotamia.
Iyâdh.
The Beni

is singular. They migrated to the north and

found an asylum in Roman territory. But Omar, nettled at their
disappearance, and fearing lest they should remain a thorn in his
side, demanded their extradition from the Byzantine Court, on pain of
the expulsion of all the Christian tribes living under his protection.
And the Emperor, unwilling to expose these to ill-treatment, complied
with the demand.[340] Equally remarkable is the tale of the Beni
Taghlib. They tendered their submission to
Welîd ibn Ocba, who, solicitous for the Beni Taghlib allowed to pay
adhesion to Islam of this great and famous tithe.
race, pressed them with some rigour to abjure their ancient faith.
Omar was much displeased at this,—‘Leave them,’ he wrote, ‘in the
profession of the Gospel. It is only within the bounds of the
Peninsula, where are the Holy Places, that no polytheist tribe is
permitted to remain.’ Welîd was removed from his command; and it
was enjoined on his successor to stipulate only that the usual tribute
should be paid, that no member of the tribe should be hindered from
embracing Islam, and that the children should not be educated in the
Christian faith. The tribe, deeming in its pride the payment of ‘tribute’
(jazia) an indignity, sent a deputation to the Caliph:—They were
willing, they said, to pay the tax if only it were levied under the same
name as that taken from the Moslems. Omar evinced his liberality by
allowing the concession; and so the Beni Taghlib enjoyed the
singular privilege of being assessed as Christians at a ‘double Tithe,’
instead of paying Jazia, the obnoxious badge of subjugation.[341]
The last place to hold out in Syria was
Cæsarea. It fell a last in the fifth year of Fall of Cæsarea. a.h. XVII.
a.d. 638.
Omar’s Caliphate. Amru had sat long
before it. But, being open to the sea, and the battlements landward
strong and well manned, it resisted all his efforts; and although Yezîd
sent his brother Muâvia with reinforcements from Damascus, the
siege was prolonged for several years. Sallies persistently made by
the garrison, were driven back with equal constancy. In the end, as
we are told, by the treachery of a Jew, a weak point was discovered
in the defences. The city was carried by storm, with prodigious
carnage of the wretched inhabitants. Four thousand prisoners, of
either sex, were despatched as part of the prey to Medîna, and there
distributed in slavery.[342]
Khâlid had again the misfortune to incur
the displeasure of Omar. He came back Khâlid brought to trial. a.h.
from the campaign of Iyâdh greatly XVII. a.d. 638–9.
enriched with the spoils of war. In expectation of his bounty, many of
his old friends from Irâc flocked to him on his return to his
government at Kinnisrîn; and amongst these was Asháth, chief of the
Beni Kinda, to whom he gave the princely largess of one thousand
pieces of gold. Again, at Amida in the east, Khâlid had indulged in
the luxury of a bath mingled with wine, the odour whereof as he
came forth still clung about him. On both charges he was now
arraigned. About the second, there could be no question; the use of
wine, even externally, was a forbidden thing, and Khâlid forswore the
indulgence in it even thus. The other offence was graver in the
Caliph’s eyes. Either the gift was booty of the army; or, if Khâlid’s
own to give away, he was guilty, even on that supposition, of
culpable extravagance. Whichever was the case, he deserved to be
deposed from his command. In such terms a rescript was addressed
to Abu Obeida, and sent by the hands of a courier charged to see
that the command was fully carried out. Khâlid was to be accused
publicly; his helmet[343] taken off; his hands bound with his head-
kerchief; and so arraigned he was to declare the truth.
With Abu Obeida this was an
ungracious task; for to the now degraded Khâlid arraigned at Hims for
warrior he was beholden for all his victories malversation;
in Syria. But the Caliph’s word was law. And so he summoned Khâlid
from his seat of government, proclaimed an assembly in the great
Mosque of Hims, and, standing in the pulpit, placed Khâlid in the
midst. Then the courier put his master’s question—From whence the
money given to Asháth came? Khâlid, confounded at the unexpected
charge, made no reply. Pressed by his friends, still he remained
silent. Abu Obeida stood himself embarrassed, and a painful pause
ensued. At last Bilâl, privileged as the Muedzzin of the Prophet,
stepped forth, and with stentorian voice cried, ‘Thus and thus hath
the Commander of the Faithful said, and it is incumbent on us to
obey;’ so saying, he unwound the kerchief from the head of Khâlid,
bound his hands therewith, and took off his helmet. The great
warrior, to whom Islam owed its conquests, stood as a felon before
the congregation. Bilâl repeated the question, and Khâlid at length
replied, ‘The money was my own.’ At once Bilâl unbound his hands,
and, replacing the helmet on his head, wound the kerchief around it
as before, and said, ‘We honour thee still, even as we did honour
thee before, one of our chiefest captains.’ But Abu Obeida was
silent; and Khâlid, stunned by the disgrace, stood speechless and
bewildered. Abu Obeida had not the heart to tell him of his
deposition; but, without sending him back to his seat of government,
spoke kindly to him as to one who still had his confidence. Omar
understood the delicacy of Abu Obeida’s position, and himself
summoned Khâlid to Medîna. Prompt to
obey, though sore at heart, Khâlid first summoned to Medîna,
returned to Kinnisrîn; and both there and at
Hims, bidding adieu to his friends and to the people, he complained
openly and bitterly of the ingratitude of a prince who scrupled not to
use him in his times of difficulty, but cast him aside when, through his
aid, he had reached the summit of his power. Arrived at Medîna, he
reproached the Caliph: ‘I swear that thou hast treated despitefully a
faithful servant to whom thou owest much; and I appeal from thee to
the whole body of the Faithful.’ ‘Whence came that money?’ was
Omar’s only answer. The question was repeated day by day; till at
last, galled by the charge of unfaithfulness, Khâlid made answer
thus: ‘I have nought but the spoil which the Lord hath given me in the
days of Abu Bekr, as well as in thine own. Whatever thou findest
over 60,000 pieces, hath been gained in thy Caliphate; take it if thou
wilt.’ So his effects were valued, and the estimate reaching 80,000,
Omar confiscated the difference. But he
still affected to hold the great general in and there mulcted and
honour and regard. Accordingly, he sent a deposed.
rescript to the various provinces, announcing that he had deposed
Khâlid, not because of any tyranny or fraud, but because he deemed
it needful to remove a stumbling-block out of the way of the people,
who were tempted to put their trust in an arm of flesh, instead of
looking alone to the Giver of all victory.
So closed the career of Khâlid. The first
beginning of Omar’s alienation was the Khâlid dies in neglect. a.h.
affair of Mâlik ibn Noweira, followed by acts XXI.
of tyranny in Irâc, which grated on his sense of clemency and justice.
But these acts had long since been condoned; and therefore his
conduct now was ungenerous and unjust. He used the ‘Sword of
God’ so long as he had need of it, and when by it victory was
secured, he cast it ungratefully away. Khâlid retired to Hims, and did
not long survive. His manner of life when in the full tide of prosperity
may be gathered from the brief notice that in the Plague (of which
mention will soon be made) forty of his sons were carried off. The
remainder of the family took refuge, like many others, in the desert.
Soon after, in the eighth year of Omar’s Caliphate, the great general
died. In his last illness he kept showing the scars which thickly
covered his body all over—marks of his bravery and unflinching
prowess. ‘And now,’ he said, ‘I die even as a coward dieth, or as the
camel breatheth its last breath.’ His end illustrates forcibly the
instability of this world’s fame and glory. The hero who had borne
Islam aloft to the crest of victory and conquest, ended his days in
penury and neglect.[344]
 CHAPTER XXII.
EXPULSION OF JEWS AND CHRISTIANS FROM ARABIA. THE
CIVIL LIST OF OMAR. SLAVES OF ARAB BLOOD MADE FREE.

A.H. XIV., XV. A.D. 635, 636.

I must now revert to one or two matters

of domestic interest, which, not to break Domestic events. a.h. XIV.,
XV.
the story of external conquest, I have
refrained from noticing before.
Arabia, as the nursery of the legions
destined to wage the wars of Islam, must Expulsion of Jews and
be purged of strange religions. And Christians from Arabia.
accordingly, so soon as victory was secured in Syria and Irâc, Omar
proceeded to signalise his reign by an act of harshness, if not of
questionable equity.
In the centre of Arabia lies the province
of Najrân, inhabited from of old by a Christians removed from
Najrân,
Christian people. Mahomet had concluded
a treaty with their chiefs and bishops, by which the annual tribute of
2,000 suits of raiment secured them safety in the undisturbed
profession of their ancestral faith. Throughout the rebellion they
remained loyal to their engagements, and Abu Bekr renewed the
treaty. Worthy descendants of a martyr race, they resisted the
blandishments of Islam; and as a penalty they must now quit their
native soil, consecrated, in the persecution of Dzu Nowâs, by the
ashes of their forefathers.[345] They were ordered to depart and
receive lands in exchange elsewhere. Some migrated to Syria; but
the greater part settled in the vicinity of Kûfa, where the colony of
Najrânia long maintained the memory of Mahometan intolerance.
The rights, however, conferred upon them by the Prophet’s treaty, so
far as their expatriation might admit, were respected by successive
rulers; and their tribute, with decreasing numbers, lightened sensibly
from time to time. After their removal, no
long time elapsed before the Jews of and Jews from Kheibar.
Kheibar, a rich vale two or three days’
journey north of Medîna, met a similar fate. Their claim was not so
strong as the Christians’; for, conquered by Mahomet, they had been
left on sufferance in possession of their fields at a rent of half the
produce. In return for this partial right from which they now were
ousted, they received a money payment, and then departed for
Syria. Various pretexts are urged for the expatriation in either case.
But behind them all we find the dogma—supposed dying behest of
Mahomet—In Arabia there shall be but one religion. The recruiting
field of Islam must be sacred ground.[346]
The Arabian nation was the champion
of Islam; and to fight its battles every Arab The Arabs as a nation share
was jealously reserved. He must be the the spoils of war.
soldier, and nothing else. He might not settle down in any conquered
province as cultivator of the soil; and for merchandise or other
labour, a busy warlike life offered but little leisure. Neither was there
any need. The Arabs lived on the fat of the conquered lands, and
captive nations served them. Of the booty taken in war, four parts
were distributed to the army in the field; the fifth was reserved for the
State; and even that, after discharging public obligations, was shared
among the Arabian people. In the reign of Abu Bekr this was a
simple matter. But in the Caliphate of Omar the spoil of Syria and of
Persia began in ever-increasing volume to pour into the treasury of
Medîna, where it was distributed almost as soon as received. What
was easy in small beginnings, by equal sharing or discretionary
preference, became now a heavy task. And there began, also, to
arise new sources of revenue in the land assessment and the poll
tax of subject countries, which, after defraying civil and military
charges, had to be accounted for to the Central Government;—the
surplus being, like the royal Fifth, the patrimony of the Arab nation.
At length, in the second or third year of
his Caliphate, Omar determined that the New rule of distribution by
classes of merit.
distribution should be regulated on a fixed
and systematic scale. The income of the Commonwealth was to be
divided, as heretofore, amongst the Faithful as their heritage, but
upon a rule of precedence befitting the military and theocratic
groundwork of Islam. For this end three points only were considered:
priority of conversion, affinity to the Prophet, and military service.
The widows of Mahomet, ‘Mothers of the Faithful,’ took the
precedence with an annual allowance of 10,000 pieces each; and all
his kinsmen were with a corresponding liberality provided for.[347]
The famous Three Hundred of Bedr had 5,000 each; presence at
Hodeibia and the Pledge of the Tree[348] gave a claim to 4,000; such
as took part in quelling the Rebellion had 3,000; and those engaged
in the great battles of Syria and Irâc, as well as sons of the men of
Bedr, 2,000; those taking the field after the actions of Câdesîya and
the Yermûk, 1,000. Warriors of distinction received an extra grant of
500. And so they graduated downwards to 200 pieces for the latest
levies. Nor were the households forgotten. Women had, as a rule,
one-tenth of a man’s share. Wives, widows, and children had each
their proper stipend; and in the register, every infant, as soon as
born, had the title to be entered with a minimum allowance of ten
pieces, rising with advancing age to its proper place. Even Arab
slaves (so long as any of that race remained) had, strange to say,
their portion.
Thus every soul was rated at its worth.
But the privilege was confined most strictly All other nations a lower
to those of Arab blood. A few exceptions, class.
indeed, were made of distinguished Persian chiefs; but the mention
of them only proves the stringency of the general rule.[349] The
whole nation, every man, woman, and child of the militant Arab race,
was subsidised. In theory, the rights of all believers were the same.
‘Ye are one brotherhood,’ said Mahomet at the Farewell pilgrimage;
and as he spake he placed two fingers of one hand upon his other
hand, to enforce the absolute equality.[350] But in point of fact, the
equality was limited to the Arab nation. The right of any brother of
alien race was a dole of food sufficient for subsistence, and no more.
[351]
 A great nation dividing thus amongst
them their whole revenues, spoil, and Principle adopted by Omar
conquests, first on the principle of equal disarms Arabian jealousies.
brotherhood, and next on that of martial merit and spiritual
distinction, is a spectacle probably without parallel in the world. The
rule itself was well conceived. In no other way would it have been
possible to reconcile the jealous susceptibilities of tribal rivalry.[352]
Safwân, Soheil, and other great chiefs of the Coreish, who fell into a
lower class because they had not joined the Prophet till after the
capture of Mecca, refused at first any allowance but the highest: ‘We
know of none nobler than ourselves,’ they said; ‘and less than any
other we will not take.’ ‘Not so,’ answered Omar; ‘I give it by priority
of faith, and not for noble birth.’ ‘It is well,’ they replied; and no
reason but this, unanswerable because already axiomatic among the
Moslems, would have satisfied them. Apart from tribal jealousy, there
were two other sources of danger: first, the rivalry between the
Bedouin tribes, on the one hand, and the ‘Companions,’ or men of
Mecca and Medîna, on the other; and, second, between the Beni
Hâshim (the Prophet’s family), the Omeyyads, and the Coreish at
large;—jealousies which by-and-by developed into large proportions,
and threatened the very existence of the Caliphate; but which, held
in check by the strong arm of Omar, were now for a time avoided by
assuming a spiritual test as the main ground of precedence.
The Arabian aristocracy thus created
was recognised by the whole Moslem Omar perpetuates military
world. The rank and stipend now assigned organisation of Arabs.
descended in the direct line of birth. Even rewards given for special
gallantry in the field were heritable.[353] By making thus the revenues
of Islam the heritage of the nation militant, their martial genius was
maintained, and their employment perpetuated as the standing army
of the Caliphate. The ennobled nation, pampered by indulgence,
factious and turbulent when idle, were indeed too often a serious
element of sedition and intrigue. But they were nevertheless the
backbone of Islam, the secret of its conquests, and the stay of the
Caliphate. The crowded harems multiplied the race with marvellous
rapidity; and the progeny were, by Omar’s organisation, kept
sedulously distinct, so as never to mingle with the conquered races.
Wherever they went they formed a class distinct and dominant—the
nobles and rulers of the land. The subject peoples, even if they
embraced Islam, were of a lower caste; and as clients of some Arab
chief or tribe, courted their patronage and protection. Thus the
fighting nation was set apart for the sacred task of subjugating
nations and of propagating Islam; and even after the new-born zeal
of the Faith had to some extent evaporated, the martial fire of the
Arabs as a whole and undivided people was, owing mainly to Omar’s
foresight, kept alive in full activity for two centuries and a half. The
nation was, and continued, an army mobilised; the cantonment, not
the city, their home; their business, war and the camp;—a people
whose hereditary calling it was to be ready to march on warlike
expeditions at a moment’s notice.
To carry out this vast design, a Register
had to be drawn and kept up of every man, Register of all Arabs entitled
woman, and child, entitled to a stipend to a stipend.
from the State—in other words, of the whole Arab race employed in
the interests of Islam. This was easy enough for the higher grades,
but a herculean task for the hundreds of thousands of ordinary
fighting men and their families who kept streaming forth from the
Peninsula; and who, by the extravagant indulgence of polygamy,
were multiplying rapidly. But the task was simplified by the strictly
tribal composition and disposition of the forces. Men of a tribe, or
branch of a tribe, fought together; and the several corps and
brigades being thus territorially arranged in clans, the Register
assumed the same form. Every soul was entered under the stock
and tribe and clan whose lineage it claimed. And to this exhaustive
classification we owe in great measure the elaborate genealogies
and tribal traditions of Arabia before Islam.
The Register itself, as well as the office
for its maintenance and for pensionary The Dewân of Omar.
account, was called the Dewân or
Department of the Exchequer. The State had by this time, as we
have seen, an income swollen by the tribute of conquered cities, the
poll-tax of subjugated peoples, the land and other regular
assessments, the spoil of war, and the tithes. The first charge was
for the revenue and civil administration; the next for military
requirements, which began soon to assume a sustained and
permanent form; the surplus remained (as has been now set forth)
for pensionary and eleemosynary distribution. The whole revenues
of Islam were thus expended as soon, almost, as received; and
Omar took a special pride in seeing the treasury, in accord with this
principle, emptied to the last dirhem.[354] The accounts of the various
provinces were at the first kept by natives of the country in the
character to which they were accustomed—in Syria by Greeks, and
in Irâc by Persians. At Kûfa the use of Pehlevi was maintained till the
time of Hajjâj, when, an Arab assistant having learned the art from
the chief treasurer, the Arabic system of record and notation was
introduced.
We are not told the numerical result of
the Dewân of Omar, but the population of Vast extent of Arab exodus.
Kûfa and Bussora may give us a standard
to judge of the vast exodus in progress from Arabia, and the rapid
strides by which the crowded harems multiplied the race. Arab
ladies, as a rule, married only Arab husbands; but the other sex,
besides unlimited indulgence in servile concubinage, were free to
contract marriage with the women of conquered lands, whether
converts or ‘people of the Book;’ for marriage is lawful between a
Moslem and females of the Jewish and Christian faith. And although
the wives of Arab blood took precedence in virtue of rank and birth,
the children also of every Arab father, whether the mother were slave
or free, Moslem, Jew, or Christian, were equal in legitimacy. And so
the nation multiplied. Looking to these considerations and to the new
drain upon Arabia to meet the conquests in Egypt and Persia (of
which anon), we shall not greatly err if we assume that before
Omar’s death the number of Arabs beyond the limits of Arabia
proper, reached to Half a million, and eventually doubled, perhaps
quadrupled.
Civil administration followed in the
wake of conquest. In Chaldæa, the great Provincial administration.
network of canals was early taken in hand.
The long-neglected embankments of the Euphrates were placed
under charge of a special officer, and those of the Tigris under
another. Syria and Irâc were measured field by field; and the
assessment of the lands, both crown and provincial, established on a
uniform system. In Irâc, the agency of the Dihcâns, or great
landholders, was taken advantage of, as under the Sassanide
dynasty, to aid in the police and revenue administration.
In addition to the armies in the field,
Omar arranged that a reserve of cavalry Reserves of cavalry.
should be maintained at the head-quarters
of the several provinces, in proportion to their resources, ready to be
called out upon emergency. The corps at Kûfa numbered 4,000
lances, and there were eight such centres. Reserves for forage were
also everywhere set apart; and the cost of these measures formed a
first charge upon provincial revenue.
The various Suras and fragments of the
Corân had by this time been compiled into Corân; how ‘collected.’
a single volume. The ‘collecting’ of these
was begun in the reign of Abu Bekr, at the suggestion of Omar, who
was alarmed at the loss of so many of those, who had the Revelation
by heart, in the battle of Yemâma. ‘I fear,’ he said to Abu Bekr, ‘that
slaughter may again wax hot amongst the Reciters of the Corân in
other fields of battle, and that much may be lost of the divine text;
now, therefore, give orders speedily for its collection.’ The
commission was given to Zeid ibn Thâbit, who, as the Prophet’s
amanuensis, had written down much of the revelation from the
Prophet’s lips. At first he scrupled to do what Mahomet himself had
left undone. At last he accepted the task; and seeking out the Suras
and scattered fragments and verses from every quarter, ‘gathered
them together from date leaves, shreds of leather and parchment,
shoulder blades, tablets of white stone, and the breasts of men.’ By
the labours of Zeid, these confused materials were reduced to the
comparative order and sequence in which we now find them; but in
its obscurity and incoherence, the collection still bears traces in
almost every page of the haphazard way in which the pieces, thus
rudely dovetailed, were compiled. The original copy was committed
to the custody of Haphsa, Omar’s daughter, one of the Prophet’s
widows; and during Omar’s Caliphate this exemplar continued to be
the standard and authoritative text of the Corân.[355]