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ENVIRONMENTAL
WASTE MANAGEMENT
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENVIRONMENTAL
WASTE MANAGEMENT
Edited by
Ram Chandra
Boca Raton London New York
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Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................. vii
Editor................................................................................................................................................ix
Contributors.....................................................................................................................................xi
1 The Use of PMDE with Sugar Industries Pressmud for Composting: A Green
Technology for Safe Disposal in the Environment..........................................................1
Ram Chandra and Sangeeta Yadav
2 Advances in the Treatment of Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater................................. 33

Sanjeev Gupta and Nishi Kant Bhardwaj
3 The Role of Cyanobacteria in the Biodegradation of Agrochemical Waste.............. 59

Surendra Singh and Pallavi Datta
4 Biomedical Waste: Its Effects and Safe Disposal............................................................ 81

Bamidele T. Odumosu
5 Biological Nitrogen Removal in Wastewater Treatment............................................... 95

Rima Biswas and Tapas Nandy
6 Bioconversion of Industrial CO2 Emissions into Utilizable Products...................... 111

Shazia Faridi and Tulasi Satyanarayana
7 The Role of Bioreactors in Industrial Wastewater Treatment.................................... 157

Ahmed ElMekawy, Gunda Mohanakrishna, Sandipam Srikanth, and Deepak Pant
8 Microbial Genomics and Bioremediation of Industrial Wastewater........................ 185

Atya Kapley, Niti B. Jadeja, Vasundhara Paliwal, Trilok C. Yadav,
and Hemant J. Purohit
9 Persistent Organic Pollutants and Bacterial Communities Present

during the Treatment of Tannery Wastewater............................................................... 217
Gaurav Saxena and Ram Naresh Bharagava
10 Microbial Degradation of Lignocellulosic Waste and Its Metabolic Products....... 249

Ram Chandra, Sheelu Yadav, and Vineet Kumar
11 Advanced Oxidative Pretreatment of Complex Effluents for Biodegradability

Enhancement and Color Reduction................................................................................. 299
Prachi Tembhekar, Kiran Padoley, Togarcheti Sarat Chandra, Sameena Malik, Abhinav
Sharma, Sanjeev Gupta, Ram Awatar Pandey, and Sandeep Mudliar
v
vi Contents
12 The Role of Microbes in Plastic Degradation................................................................ 341

Rajendran Sangeetha Devi, Velu Rajesh Kannan, Krishnan Natarajan, Duraisamy
Nivas, Kanthaiah Kannan, Sekar Chandru, and Arokiaswamy Robert Antony
13 Biodegradation of Chemical Pollutants of Tannery Wastewater............................... 371

Arumugam Gnanamani and Varadharajan Kavitha
14 Microbial Degradation Mechanism of Textile Dye and Its Metabolic

Pathway for Environmental Safety.................................................................................. 399
Rahul V. Khandare and Sanjay P. Govindwar
15 Isolation of Pure DNA for Metagenomic Study from Industrial Polluted

Sites: A New Approach for Monitoring the Microbial Community and
Pollutants............................................................................................................................... 441
Ram Chandra and Sheelu Yadav
16 Biotransformation and Biodegradation of Organophosphates

and Organohalides.............................................................................................................. 475
Ram Chandra and Vineet Kumar
17 Petroleum Hydrocarbon Stress Management in Soil Using Microorganisms

and Their Products.............................................................................................................. 525
Rajesh Kumar, Amar Jyoti Das, and Shatrohan Lal
18 Recent Advances in the Expression and Regulation of Plant Metallothioneins

for Metal Homeostasis and Tolerance............................................................................. 551
Preeti Tripathi, Pradyumna Kumar Singh, Seema Mishra, Neelam Gautam,
Sanjay Dwivedi, Debasis Chakrabarty, and Rudra Deo Tripathi
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 565

Preface
Rapid industrialization has resulted in the generation of huge quantities of hazard-

ous waste, both solid as well as liquid, from industrial sectors such as sugar, pulp and
paper, tanneries, distilleries and textiles, petroleum hydrocarbon and agrochemicals, etc.
However, the safe disposal and proper management and utilization of hazardous waste
present not only a challenge for the country but a threat to the scientific society as well.
The management and recycling of industrial waste are essential for the sustainable devel-
opment of society. Despite regulatory guidelines for pollution control measures, these
wastes are being dumped on land or discharged into water bodies without adequate treat-
ment, which causes environmental pollution and health hazards. In-depth knowledge
of the physicochemical properties of various industrial waste and their chemical com-
position and environmental health hazards are still riddles to research. Therefore, it is
essential to update knowledge and information regarding all hazardous industrial waste.
Keeping the facts above in mind, a number of experts from various universities, national
research laboratories, and industries have shared their specialized knowledge in environ-
mental microbiology and biotechnology for monitoring various industrial waste and envi-
ronmental pollutants in order to update the information available to students, scientists,
and researchers. The chapters in this book cover numerous topics including biocompost-
ing of press mud, treatment of pulp and paper mill wastewater, biodegradation of agro-
chemicals, and bioenergy production from industrial waste for safe recycling. The current
knowledge regarding the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) discharged from various
industrial wastes is also described in detail. This book emphasizes the relationship of
metagenomics with POPs present in the sugarcane molasses-based distillery waste and
pulp paper mill wastewater after secondary treatment. However, the fate of the metabolic
products of various hazardous pollutants is unknown. The role of bioreactors for indus-
trial wastewater treatment is presented, which currently is needed for the treatment of
complex industrial wastewater and optimization of treatment parameters. The microbes
for plastic degradation are pertinent to environmental pollution management nationally,
and it is a global concern. Furthermore, the health hazard of hospital waste is also a chal-
lenge due to the outbreak of diseases by pathogenic bacteria. The biodegradation of several
organophosphates and organohalides is still unknown. Moreover, the environmental fate
of metabolic products of organophosphates and organohalides is still a subject of research.
This book describes in detail the biotransformation and biodegradation of organophos-
phates and organohalides in the environment by different bacterial populations. The role
of metallothioneins for metal homeostasis and tolerance are discussed. This book will
benefit a wide range of readers including students, researchers, and consulting profession-
als in biotechnology, microbiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology. It will also be an
important tool in describing waste management techniques.
vii
Editor
Ram Chandra is currently head and senior principal sci-

entist at Environmental Microbiology Division, Indian
Institute of Toxicology Research (IITR), Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh, India. He earned his BSc (Hons) in 1984, and MSc
in 1987 from Banaras Hindu University, Uttar Pradesh,
India. Subsequently, he earned his PhD in 1994. He started
his career as Scientist B at the Industrial Toxicology
Research Centre, Lucknow in the field of biotechnology in
1989. He became a senior principal scientist (Scientist F) in
2009 in environmental microbiology at the Indian Institute
of Toxicology Research (IITR), Lucknow.
Dr. Chandra became a professor and head of the
Department of Environmental Microbiology (2011) at
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Central University,
Lucknow. His leading work includes bacterial degradation of lignin from pulp paper
mill waste and molasses melanoidin from distillery waste. He has published more than
90 original research papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals from
Elsevier-USA, Springer-USA, Taylor & Francis-USA, and John Wiley & Sons-USA. In addi-
tion, he has published 19 book chapters and 2 books. He has vast experience in strategic
R&D management preparation of scientific reports. Professor Chandra has earned awards
for writing 25 popular scientific articles in Hindi. He has presented more than 65 national
and international conference papers in microbiology, biotechnology, and environmental
biology. He is a life member of various scientific s ocieties. Dr. Chandra has also trained
scientists from Germany and Nigeria under the TWAS-CSIR Fellowship program. He
has chaired various scientific sessions in different scientific conferences and has been a
guest reviewer for various national and international journals in his discipline. He was a
member of the delegation team that visited Japan for a study on environmental protection
from industrial waste. Dr. Chandra is a member of the American Society for Microbiology
(ASM), USA and life member of the National Academy of Sciences, Allahabad, India
(NASI). Based on his outstanding contribution to the field of environmental microbiol-
ogy and environmental biotechnology, Professor Chandra has been named Fellow of the
Academy of Environmental Biology (FAEB), Fellow of the Association of Microbiologists of
India (FAMI), and Fellow of the Biotech Research Society of India (FBRSI).
ix
Contributors
Arokiaswamy Robert Antony Sekar Chandru

Department of Microbiology Department of Microbiology
Bharathidasan University Bharathidasan University
Tamil Nadu, India Tamil Nadu, India
Ram Naresh Bharagava Amar Jyoti Das

Department of Environmental Department of Environmental
Microbiology Microbiology
School for Environmental Sciences School for Environmental Sciences
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University
(A Central University) (A Central University)
Uttar Pradesh, India Uttar Pradesh, India
Nishi Kant Bhardwaj Pallavi Datta

Avantha Centre for Industrial Research & Department of Biological Science
Development Rani Durgavati University
Paper Mill Campus Madhya Pradesh, India
Haryana, India
Rajendran Sangeetha Devi
Rima Biswas Department of Microbiology
Wastewater Technology Division Bharathidasan University
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Tamil Nadu, India
Research Institute
Maharashtra, India Sanjay Dwivedi
Ecotoxicology and Bioremediation Division
Debasis Chakrabarty CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute
Ecotoxicology and Bioremediation Division Uttar Pradesh, India
CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute
Uttar Pradesh, India Ahmed ElMekawy
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
Ram Chandra Research Institute
Department of Environmental University of Sadat City
Microbiology Sadat City, Egypt
School for Environmental Sciences
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Shazia Faridi
(A Central University) Department of Microbiology
Uttar Pradesh, India University of Delhi South Campus
New Delhi, India
Togarcheti Sarat Chandra
Environmental Biotechnology Division Neelam Gautam
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Ecotoxicology and Bioremediation Division
Research Institute CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute
Maharashtra, India Uttar Pradesh, India
xi
xii Contributors
Arumugam Gnanamani Rajesh Kumar

Microbiology Division Department of Environmental Microbiology
CSIR-CLRI (Central Leather Research School for Environmental Sciences
Institute) Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University
Tamil Nadu, India (A Central University)
Uttar Pradesh, India
Sanjay P. Govindwar
Department of Biochemistry Vineet Kumar
Shivaji University Department of Environmental Microbiology
Maharashtra, India School for Environmental Sciences
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University
Sanjeev Gupta (A Central University)
Avantha Centre for Industrial Research Uttar Pradesh, India
& Development
Paper Mill Campus Shatrohan Lal
Haryana, India Department of Environmental Microbiology
School for Environmental Sciences
Niti B. Jadeja Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University
Environmental Genomics Division (A Central University)
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Uttar Pradesh, India
Research Institute
Maharashtra, India Sameena Malik
Environmental Biotechnology Division
Kanthaiah Kannan CSIR-National Environmental Engineering
Department of Microbiology Research Institute
Bharathidasan University Maharashtra, India
Tamil Nadu, India
Seema Mishra
Velu Rajesh Kannan Ecotoxicology and Bioremediation Division
Department of Microbiology National Botanical Research Institute
Bharathidasan University (NBRI)
Tamil Nadu, India Uttar Pradesh, India
Atya Kapley Gunda Mohanakrishna

Environmental Genomics Division Separation & Conversion Technologies
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering VITO - Flemish Institute for Technological
Research Institute Research
Maharashtra, India Mol, Belgium
Varadharajan Kavitha Sandeep Mudliar

Microbiology Division Plant Cell Biotechnology Division
CSIR-CLRI (Central Leather Research CSIR-CFTRI
Institute) Karnataka, India
Tamil Nadu, India
Tapas Nandy
Rahul V. Khandare Wastewater Technology Division
Department of Biochemistry CSIR-National Environmental Engineering
Shivaji University Research Institute
Maharashtra, India Maharashtra, India

Contributors xiii
Krishnan Natarajan Tulasi Satyanarayana

Department of Microbiology Department of Microbiology
Bharathidasan University University of Delhi South Campus
Tamil Nadu, India New Delhi, India
Duraisamy Nivas Gaurav Saxena

Department of Microbiology Department of Environmental
Bharathidasan University Microbiology
Tamil Nadu, India School for Environmental Sciences
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University
(A Central University)
Bamidele T. Odumosu
Department of Biosciences and
Biotechnology
Babcock University Abhinav Sharma
Ilishan-Remo Ogun State, Nigeria Environmental Biotechnology Division
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute
Kiran Padoley
Maharashtra, India
Environmental Biotechnology Division
Research Institute Pradyumna Kumar Singh
Maharashtra, India Ecotoxicology and Bioremediation
Division
CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute
Vasundhara Paliwal Uttar Pradesh, India
Environmental Genomics Division
National Environmental Engineering
Surendra Singh
Research Institute
Department of Biological Science
Rani Durgavati University
Research Institute
Madhya Pradesh, India
Maharastra, India
Sandipam Srikanth
Ram Awatar Pandey Separation & Conversion Technologies
Environmental Biotechnology Division VITO - Flemish Institute for Technological
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research
Research Institute Mol, Belgium
Maharashtra, India
Prachi Tembhekar
Deepak Pant Environmental Biotechnology Division
Separation & Conversion Technologies CSIR-National Environmental Engineering
VITO - Flemish Institute for Technological Research Institute
Research Maharastra, India
Mol, Belgium
Preeti Tripathi
Hemant J. Purohit Ecotoxicology and Bioremediation
Environmental Genomics Division Division
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering National Botanical Research Institute
Research Institute (NBRI)
Maharastra, India Uttar Pradesh, India

xiv Contributors
Rudra Deo Tripathi Sheelu Yadav

Ecotoxicology and Bioremediation Division Department of Environmental Microbiology
National Botanical Research Institute School for Environmental Sciences
(NBRI) Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University
Uttar Pradesh, India (A Central University)
Sangeeta Yadav
Department of Environmental Microbiology Trilok C. Yadav
School for Environmental Sciences Environmental Genomics Division
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University CSIR-National Environmental Engineering
(A Central University) Research Institute
Uttar Pradesh, India Maharastra, India

1
The Use of PMDE with Sugar Industries
Pressmud for Composting: A Green Technology
for Safe Disposal in the Environment
Ram Chandra and Sangeeta Yadav
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................2
1.2 The Principles of the Composting Process..........................................................................6
1.3 Category of Composting........................................................................................................8
1.3.1 Microbial Composting/Thermophilic Composting..............................................8
1.3.1.1 Advantages of Composting........................................................................9
1.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Composting................................................................. 10
1.3.2 Vermicomposting...................................................................................................... 10
1.3.2.1 Advantages of Vermicomposting............................................................ 12
1.3.2.2 Disadvantages of Vermicomposting....................................................... 12
1.4 Methods of Composting...................................................................................................... 12
1.4.1 Aerobic Composting................................................................................................. 12
1.4.1.1 Passive Composting Piles......................................................................... 12
1.4.1.2 Windrow Composting............................................................................... 13
1.4.1.3 In-Vessel Systems....................................................................................... 16
1.4.2 Anaerobic Composting............................................................................................ 18
1.5 Microorganism in Compost................................................................................................ 19
1.5.1 Bacteria....................................................................................................................... 19
1.5.2 Fungi........................................................................................................................... 21
1.5.3 Actinomycetes...........................................................................................................22
1.5.4 Higher Organisms.................................................................................................... 23
1.5.5 Pathogens in Composting........................................................................................ 23
1.6 Factors Influencing Composting........................................................................................ 24
1.6.1 Nutrient Factors Influencing Composting............................................................ 25
1.6.1.1 Macronutrients and Micronutrients........................................................ 25
1.6.1.2 Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio (C:N).............................................................. 25
1.6.2 Environmental Factors Influencing Composting................................................. 26
1.6.2.1 Moisture...................................................................................................... 26
1.6.2.2 Oxygen and Temperature......................................................................... 26
1.6.2.3 Aeration....................................................................................................... 27
1.6.2.4 pH................................................................................................................. 28
1.6.2.5 Electrical Conductivity.............................................................................. 28
1
2 Environmental Waste Management
1.7 Use of Composed Distillery Waste and Pressmud for Enhancing

Vermicomposting.................................................................................................................. 28
1.8 Advantages and Prospects.................................................................................................. 29
1.9 Challenges of Composting/Research Needed/Work to Be Done................................. 29
References........................................................................................................................................ 31
1.1 Introduction
Composting is a sustainable waste management technique in developing countries. It
is an eco-friendly approach for bioconversion into value added products which may be
utilized as plant nutrients. It also reduces disposal and pollution problems arising from
distillery effluent. Composting is an aerobic, thermophilic, and controlled microbial bio-
oxidation process resulting in a product rich in humus which is used as a fertilizer. The
oxidation produces a transient thermophilic stage which is followed by a period of cool-
ing of degrading organic matter. The resulting material is held at ambient temperatures
for maturation purposes which results in a stable, volume-reduced, hygienic, humus-like
material which is beneficial to soil and plants. Composting is a popular option adopted
by several Indian distilleries attached to sugar mills with adequate land availability. The
wastewater of distilleries, that is, spent wash, either directly or after biomethanation is
sprayed in a controlled manner on sugarcane pressmud. The effluent discharged after the
biomethanation process is known as postmethanated distillery effluent (PMDE).
The rapid growth of distilleries in India has resulted in a substantial increase in the indus-
trial pollutant load. There are more than 315 distilleries in India producing 3.25 × 109 L of
alcohol and 4.04 × 1011 L of effluent each year. The industrial waste generated by various
distillery units is posing a serious threat to adjoining aquatic and terrestrial habitats due
to the practice of discharging waste into nearby wastewater courses and land. Distillery
effluents have a high-biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD),
phenols, and heavy metals. The color of the effluent persists even after anaerobic treat-
ment and causes a serious threat to environment. The water bodies receiving color waste
get colored and the penetration of light in aquatic ecosystems is reduced, which in turn
affects aquatic life. PMDE is an effective organic liquid fertilizer after appropriate dilution
(Bharagava et al., 2008; Chandra et al., 2009). PMDE could be recycled in agriculture both
as irrigation water and as a source of plant nutrients. It contains a large amount of organic
carbon, K, Ca, Mg, Cl, and SO4 and moderate amount of N and P and traces of Zn, Cu, Fe,
and Mn (Mahimairaja and Bolan, 2004).
There are a number of large-scale distilleries integrated with sugar mills in India. The
waste products from sugar mills comprise bagasse (the residue from sugarcane crush-
ing), pressmud (the mud and dirt residue from juice clarification), and molasses (the final
residue from the sugar crystallization section) as shown in Figure 1.1. Bagasse is used
in paper manufacturing and as fuel in boilers; molasses as raw material in distilleries
for alcohol production. These days pressmud has been used in the composting of waste-
water generated by distilleries in India because it is a source of nutrients. Pressmud is a
solid residue, obtained from sugarcane juice before the crystallization of sugar. It is a soft,
spongy, lightweight, amorphous, dark brown to black colored material (Figure 1.1a). About
3% pressmud is produced from a total quantity of crushed cane. Pressmud is a rich source
of organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphate, potassium (NPK), and other micronutrients. It gen-
erally contains 60%–85% moisture (w/w) and the chemical composition depends on the

The Use of PMDE with Sugar Industries Pressmud for Composting 3
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FIGURE 1.1
(See color insert.) View of byproducts of the sugar industries, pressmud (a) molasses (b), and bagasses
(c and d).
cane variety, soil condition, nutrients applied in the field, process of clarification adopted
and other environmental factors. Comparative physicochemical properties of pressmud
and distillery wastewater are shown in Table 1.1.
Pressmud from sugar factories typically contains 71% moisture, 9% ash, and 20% vola-
tile solids (VSs), with 74%–75% organic matter found on solids. Hence, it may be the best
source material for microbial growth and for use in the treatment of distillery waste. The
distillery effluent based compost can be prepared by using pressmud and the compost
can be enriched with the use of rock phosphate, gypsum, yeast sludge, bagasse, sugar-
cane trash, boiler ash, coir pith, and water hyacinth. First, the pressmud is spread in the
compost yard to form a heap of 1.5 m height, 3.5 m width, and 300 m length. Ten liters of
bacterial culture, diluted with water, in the ratio of 1:10 is sufficient for a tone of pressmud.
A consortium of efficient microbial decomposers, namely, Phanerocheate chrysosporium,
Trichurus spiralis, Pacelomyces fusisporus, Trichoderma spp., and so on, are sprayed on the
pressmud and mixed thoroughly using an aerotiller which makes the pressmud aerable
and enhances the process of decomposition.
After three days, distillery effluent is sprayed on the heaps to a moisture level of 60%
and the pressmud heaps are allowed to absorb the effluent for 4–5 h. The heaps are then
thoroughly mixed by an aerotiller as shown in Figure 1.2. When the moisture level drops
below 30%–40%, the effluent is sprayed again, mixed with pressmud, and the heaps are
once again formed.
Effluent can be sprayed once or twice in a week depending on the moisture content of
the pressmud heaps. Mixing of effluent and heap formation will be repeated for 8 weeks so

TABLE 1.1
Characteristics of Pressmud and Wastewater Generated from a Distillery
Pressmud
(Joshi and Distillery Spent Post-Methanated
Parameters Sharma, 2010) Wash Distillery Effluent
Color (Co–pt) — Dark brown (150,000) Dark brown (70,000)
Odor — Jaggery smell Mild sulfur smell
pH 7.66 ± 0.047 3.9 ± 0.25 8.3 ± 0.310
Temperature (°C) 44.5 ± 1.098 90 ± 2.0 35 ± 1.2
T.S. — 103,084 ± 5.50 34,317 ± 455
T.D.S. — 77,776 ± 3768 20,022 ± 438
T.S.S. — 25,308 ± 1201 14,276 ± 16
COD — 90,000 ± 231 58,018 ± 185
BOD — 42,000 ± 123 29,120 ± 265
Chloride — 2200 ± 105 1300 ± 60.5
Phenol — 4.20 ± 1.8 1.65 ± 0.76
Sulfate 2.297 ± 0.123 5,760 ± 260 13656 ± 21.23
Phosphate 1.80 ± 0.157 5.36 ± 0.168 1.16 ± 0.15
Total nitrogen 1.13 ± 0.095 2,800 ± 130 568 ± 23
Total organic carbon — 25,368 ± 1.060 10,904 ± 0.34
Water holding capacity 78.2 ± 1.323 — —
Moisture content 54.9 ± 8.993 — —
Carbon content 29.67 ± 1.058 — —
Organic matter 51.2 ± 1.827 — —
Electrical conductivity 1.77 ± 0.092 — —
(S/cm)
Metals — — —
Cadmium — 0.02 ± 0.00 2.281 ± 0.067
Chromium — 0.192 ± 0.008 0.440 ± 0.013
Iron — 6.312 ± 0.210 84.01 ± 1.980
Nickel — 0.1706 ± 0.006 1.241 ± 0.037
Copper — 0.961 ± 0.001 0.955 ± 0.022
Lead — 0.945 ± 0.002 4.446 ± 0.064
Zinc — 2.012 ± 0.001 4.631 ± 0.108
Manganese — 0.214 ± 0.001 2.112 ± 0.045
Note: Mean ± SD, n = 3. All values of distillery wastewater are reported in mg/L and pressmud in
% except pH, temperature, odor, and color. TS: total solid, TDS: total dissolve solid, TSS: total
suspended solid, COD: chemical oxygen demand, BOD: biological oxygen demand.
that the pressmud and effluent proportion reaches an optimum ratio of 1:3. The heaps are
then allowed to cure for a month. The compost obtained from this process is neutral in pH
with an electric conductivity (EC) of 3.12–6.40 dS/m. It contains 1.53% N, 1.50% P, 3.10% K,
300 ppm Fe, 130 ppm Cu, 180 ppm Mn, and 220 ppm Zn. The organic carbon and C:N ratio
reduces from 36% to 18% and from 28.12% to 16.3%, respectively. The technology of using
distillery effluent for the composting of pressmud, pressmud along with sugarcane trash
and coir waste, pressmud plus bagasse ash, and city garbage has been successfully used in
several places.
Composting involves the conversion of organic residues of distillery effluent into
manure. It is largely a microbiological process based on the activities of several bacteria,

FIGURE 1.2
(See color insert.) Mixing of effluent and pressmud with the help of an aerotiller.
actinomycetes, and fungi. During the composting of effluent with pressmud, microorgan-
isms that firstly colonize in the heap are mesophilic bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, and
protozoa. They grow between 10°C and 40°C and break down easily degradable com-
ponents such as sugars and amino acids. The degradation of fresh matter starts when
the heap is formed. Then due to the oxidative action of microorganisms the temperature
increases. Although there is a drop in pH at the very beginning of composting, caused by
the formation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs), the subsequent degradation of acids brings
about an increase in pH. When the temperature of a waste heap reaches 40–60°C, ther-
mophilic microorganisms replace mesophilic ones. The second phase is called the ther-
mophilic phase and can last several weeks. It is the active phase of composting: most of
the organic matter is degraded and consequently most oxygen is consumed in this phase.
The degradation of lignin and more persistent compounds also start during this phase.
Indeed, the optimum temperature for thermophilic micro-fungi and actinomycetes which
mainly degrade lignin is 40–50°C. Above 80°C, these microorganisms cannot grow and
lignin degradation is slowed down. After the thermophilic phase, the peak of degradation
of fresh organic matter, the microbial activity decreases, as does the temperature. This is
termed the cooling phase. The compost maturation phase then begins when the compost
temperature falls to that of the ambient air. During this phase, mesophilic microorgan-
isms colonize the compost heap and slowly degrade complex organic compounds such as
lignin. This last phase is important because a humus-like substance is produced in this
phase to form mature compost. The microbial succession in different steps of composting
is shown in Figure 1.3.
Compostable substrates (feedstocks) in effluents contain metabolizable carbon which
will enhance microbial diversity and activity during composting and will promote the
degradation of xenobiotic or persistent organic compounds, such as melanoidin (the brown
colored carbonyl-amino acid Maillard product of sugar industries), phenolics, and organo-
chlorines. Metallic pollutants are not degraded during composting but may be converted
into organic species that are less bioavailable. Selvamurugan et al. (2013) conducted a field
experiment to study the impact of biomethanated distillery spent wash and pressmud
biocompost with inorganic fertilizers in various proportions on the yield attributes, yield,
oil, and protein content of groundnut.
Results of the field experiment revealed that the yield of groundnut was improved by the
application of biomethanated distillery spent wash and pressmud biocompost compared
to recommended NPK as chemical fertilizers. Davamani et al. (2006) also reported that
biocompost significantly enhanced the yield and yield components and the juice quality

Mesophilic phase (20–40°C)

Bacteria and thermotolerant fungi
Initial thermophilic phase (40–60°C)

Thermophilic bacteria (e.g., Bacillus), actinomycetes
(e.g., Streptomyces), and fungi (e.g., Aspergillus)
Thermophilic phase (60–80°C)

• Thermophilic spore-forming bacteria (e.g., Bacillus spp.)
• Sulfur and hydrogen-oxidizing autotrophic
bacteria (e.g., Hydrogenobacter spp.)
• Heterotrophic, aerobic, nonspore-forming
bacteria (e.g., Themus spp.)
Cooling and maturation phases

• Bacteria involved in nutrient cycling
• Mesophilic/thermotolerant actinomycetes and fungi
FIGURE 1.3
Microbial succession during composting.
of sugarcane. Bhalerao et al. (2006) observed that increased nutrient uptake by sugarcane
is due to the use of spent wash and pressmud compost. The application of biomethana-
ted distillery spent wash and pressmud biocompost substantially increased the microflora
and enzyme activities of the soil throughout the crop growth period of sugarcane. The
increased microbial biomass and enzymatic activities in sugarcane grown soil expedited
mineralization of biomethanated distillery spent wash and biocompost, nutrient cycling
and formation of organic matter and soil structure. Thus, biocomposting not only solves
disposal problems but also helps in saving the cost of chemical fertilizers. Many workers
have studied the effect of spent wash as a source of plant nutrients; however, very little
information is available on the use of PMDE and sugarcane pressmud in composting.
1.2 The Principles of the Composting Process

Composting is the process by which complex organic materials are transformed into a
material with environmentally beneficial applications. As said earlier, the various micro-
organisms such as bacteria, actinomyces, and fungi are used to break down the organic
compounds into simpler substances. The composting process can transform large quan-
tities of organic material into compost in a relatively short time by properly managing

moisture, air and nutrients. During composting, the microorganisms consume oxygen
and feed on organic matter. Active composting generates a considerable amount of heat
and large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor are released into the air. The
CO2 and water losses can amount to half the weight of the initial organic materials, so
composting reduces both the volume and mass of the raw materials while transforming
them into a beneficial humus-like material.
Microbial metabolism
Organic compounds + O 2 → Stabilized organic waste
material + CO 2 + 2H 2O + Energy
This conversion is not achieved through a single reaction, but through a series of reac-
tions. These reactions serve not only to liberate significant quantities of energy, but also
to form a large number of organic intermediates that serve as starting points for other
synthetic reactions. The two possible modes of energy yielding metabolism for heterotro-
phic microorganisms are respiration and fermentation. Respiration can be either aerobic
or anaerobic. Aerobic respiration is preferred over anaerobic respiration and fermenta-
tion for composting because it is more efficient, generates more energy, operates at higher
temperatures, and does not produce odorous compounds. Aerobes can also use a greater
variety of organic compounds as a source of energy that results in more complete degrada-
tion and stabilization of the compost material. In anaerobic respiration, the microorgan-
isms use electron acceptors other than O2, such as nitrates (NO −3 ), sulfates (SO 2−4 ), and
carbonates (CO 2−3 ) to obtain energy. Their use of these alternate electron acceptors in the
energy-yielding metabolism produces odorous or undesirable compounds, such as hydro-
gen sulfide (H2S) and methane (CH4). Anaerobic respiration also leads to the formation of
organic acid intermediates that tend to accumulate and are detrimental to aerobic micro-
organisms. Aerobic respiration also forms organic acid intermediates, but these intermedi-
ates are readily consumed by subsequent reactions so that they do not pose as significant a
potential for odors as anaerobic respiration. Fermentation is the simplest means of energy
generation. It does not require oxygen and is quite inefficient. Most of the carbon decom-
posed through fermentation is converted to end-products, not cell substituent, while lib-
erating only a small amount of energy. In addition, nitrogenous organic residue is broken
down to obtain the nitrogen necessary for the synthesis of cellular material in heterotro-
phic microorganisms. Nitrogenous organic residues or proteins undergo enzymatic oxida-
tion (digestion) to form complex amino compounds through a process called aminization.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), energy, and other by-products are also produced.
Proteins + O 2 → Complex amino compounds + CO 2 + Energy + Other products
The complex amino compounds formed can then be synthesized into microorganisms
or undergo additional decomposition into simpler products. The products of the digestion
of proteins and complex amino acids can only be used in the synthesis of new cellular
material if sufficient carbon is available. If not enough carbon or energy is available to
incorporate these amino compounds into the cells, unstable nitrogen forms accumulate
through the process of ammonification. As the ammonia group is characteristic of amino
acids, ammonia (NH3) or ammonium ions (NH +4 ) accumulates. The ammonium compound
that is formed interconverts between the two forms depending on the pH and tempera-
ture of the heap. This interconversion between NH3 and NH +4 is described by the reaction

shown below. Acidic conditions (pH < 7) promote the formation of NH +4 , while basic con-
ditions promote the formation of NH3. Elevated temperature also favors the formation of
NH3 and because of the low vapor pressure of NH3, it generally results in gaseous NH3
emissions from the heap. Another key chemical transformation of the composting process
is nitrification, the process by which ammonia or ammonium ions are oxidized to nitrates.
Nitrification is a two-step process. In the first step, NH +4 −N is oxidized to form nitrites (
NO −2 ) through the action of autotrophic bacteria that use the energy produced by this con-
version. The nitrites are then rapidly converted to nitrates (NO −3 ) by a different group of
microorganisms called nitrifying bacteria. The reactions are as follows:
NH +4 + 11/2O 2 → NO −2 + H 2O + 2H+ + Energy

NO 2 + 11/2O 2 → NO 3− + Energy
Nitrification occurs during the curing period. Since nitrites (NO −2 ) are toxic to plants
and nitrates (NO −3 ) are the form of nitrogen most usable in plant metabolism, enough time
must be allowed for the curing period so nitrates are the final nitrogen product in the com-
post. In addition, because nitrification requires oxygen, proper aeration of the compost pile
must be maintained during curing. Another important nitrogen transformation is denitri-
fication. Denitrification occurs in oxygen-depleted environments. It can be carried out by
either aerobic or anaerobic bacteria. If denitrification is carried out by aerobic bacteria, the
reaction is as follows:
NO −3 → NO −2 → N 2O → N 2 (gas)
If denitrification is carried out by anaerobic bacteria, the general reaction is
HNO −3 + H 2 → NH 2 + N 2O
As nitrous oxide (N2O) is an odorous compound and results in the loss of beneficial
nitrate–nitrogen, denitrification is not desired and can be avoided by maintaining aerobic
heap conditions. This is accomplished with proper aeration.
1.3 Categories of Composting

Composting and vermicomposting are two of the best-known processes for the biological
stabilization of organic wastes.
1.3.1 Microbial Composting/Thermophilic Composting

Composting involves the accelerated degradation of organic matter by microorganisms
under controlled conditions, in which the organic material undergoes a characteristic
thermophilic stage that allows sanitization of the waste by the elimination of pathogenic
microorganisms. It may call hot composting or thermophilic composting. Two phases can

FIGURE 1.4
View of thermophilic composting of pressmud.
be distinguished in composting: (i) the thermophilic stage, where decomposition takes

place more intensively and which therefore constitutes the active phase of composting and
(ii) the maturing stage which is marked by a decrease in temperature to the mesophilic
range and where the remaining organic compounds are degraded at a slower rate. A view
of thermophilic composting is shown in Figure 1.4.
The duration of the active phase depends on the characteristics of the waste (amount
of easily decomposable substances) and on the management of the controlling parame-
ters (aeration and watering). The extent of the maturation phase is also variable and it is
normally marked by the disappearance of the phytotoxical compounds. Loss of nitrogen
through volatilization of NH3 during the thermophilic stage of the process is one of the
major drawbacks of the process. Thermophilic composting involves an important heat-
ing stage. This heat is caused by microbial metabolism and is dependent on the size of
the heap, C:N ratio of the materials, moisture content, and aeration. During this heating
stage, temperatures will ideally be in the 140°F (60°C) range, but will often be higher or
lower. This type of composting typically follows the “batch” model—that is to say all the
materials for the heap are piled up at one time and no more is added. In order to estab-
lish a sustained heating phase a “critical mass” of materials is required. Composting can
be achieved when materials in the heap have a C:N of between 20:1 and 40:1, but ideally
it should be between 25:1 and 30:1. A list of the important abiotic parameters associated
with the success of the composting process and the range in which they should preferably
remain, is presented in Table 1.2.
1.3.1.1 Advantages of Composting

1. Proceeds relatively quickly under ideal conditions.
2. Weed seeds and pathogens are killed during the process.
3. Proceeds easily in cold weather on a large scale.

TABLE 1.2
Key Parameters That Influence the Composting Process and Their Optimum Values
Parameter Optimum Value for Composting
C:N ratio of the feed 25:1 to 35:1
Particle size 10 mm for agitated systems and forced aeration, 50 mm for long
heaps and natural aeration
Moisture content 50%–60% (higher values when bulking agents are used)
Air flow 0.6–1.8 m3 air/day/kg volatile solids during thermophilic stage, or
maintain oxygen level at 10% or higher
Temperature 55–60°C held for 3 days
Agitation No agitation to periodic turning in simple systems and short bursts of
vigorous agitation in mechanized systems
pH control Normally not necessary
Heap size Any length, 1.5 and 2.5 m wide for heaps using natural aeration
With forced aeration, heap size depends on need to avoid overheating
Activators Use of efficient cellulolytic fungi and biofertilizers
1.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Composting

1. Requires attention and is labor intensive.
2. May require some stock-piling until sufficient materials are available for a “batch.”
3. Heating can lead to considerable nitrogen loss.
4. Heat can kill off many beneficial microbes.
1.3.2 Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting is a simple biotechnological process of composting, in which certain
species of earthworms is used to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce
a better end product. Vermicomposting is somewhat similar to thermophilic compost-
ing, but one of the major differences is that it involves the joint action of earthworms and
microorganisms (whereas the other process relies solely on microbes). Although it is the
microorganisms that biochemically degrade the organic matter, earthworms are the cru-
cial drivers of the process, as they aerate, condition, and fragment the substrate, thereby
drastically altering the microbial activity. Figure 1.5 shows the vermicomposting.
Vermicomposting is also a much cooler process working best at 59–86°F (15–30°C). The
relationship between temperature and time in thermophilic and vermicomposting is shown
in Figure 1.6. Vermicomposting typically follows the “continuous” composting model that
is to say materials are added continuously (usually in smaller amounts). Earthworms act
as mechanical blenders and by comminuting the organic matter they modify its physical
and chemical status by gradually reducing the ratio of C:N and increasing the surface area
exposed to microorganisms—thus making conditions much more favorable for microbial
activity and further decomposition.
Therefore, two phases can also be distinguished: (i) an active phase where the earth-
worms process the waste modifying its physical state and microbial composition and (ii) a
maturation-like phase marked by the displacement of the earthworms toward fresher lay-
ers of undigested waste, where the microbes take over in the decomposition of the waste.
As in composting, the duration of the active phase is not fixed and will depend on the

FIGURE 1.5
(See color insert.) View of vermicomposting.
species and density of earthworms, the main drivers of the process, and their ability to
ingest the waste (ingestion rate). Vermicomposting is not fully adapted to the industrial
scale and since the temperature is always in the mesophilic range, pathogen removal is not
ensured, although some studies have provided evidence of suppression of pathogens. In
some cases, organic residues require pretreatment before vermicomposting as they may
70
Thermal
Thermophilic
compost
40 I. Mesophilic II. Thermophilic III. Cooling IV. Curing

Mesophilic
Vermicompost
10 I. Acclimatization II. Hydrolytic III. Curing

T (°C)
Time
FIGURE 1.6
Time versus temperature curves for thermophilic composting and vermicomposting. Phases for thermal com-
post are adapted from Chefetz et al. (1996) and those for vermicompost are adapted from Benitez et al. (2000).

contain substances that are toxic for earthworms, such as acidic compounds. The combina-
tion of composting and vermicomposting has recently been considered as a more appro-
priate technique to treat complex wastewater.
1.3.2.1 Advantages of Vermicomposting
1. Is less labor-intensive—no turning/aerating necessary (worm activity helps to

mix, fragment, and aerate materials).
2. Higher moisture content not an issue.
3. Cooler temperatures help to conserve nitrogen.
4. Under ideal conditions, waste can be processed very quickly.
5. Materials can be constantly added (no need to stock pile in preparation for next
“batch”).
6. Size of system unimportant—ideally suited for both indoors and outdoors.
1.3.2.2 Disadvantages of Vermicomposting
1. More space required to process similar amounts as thermophilic composting—

need to be careful with amount added (since excess heat will kill worms).
2. Outdoor systems much more limited by cold weather.
3. Worms need to be separated from compost.
4. Worms (although quite resilient) do require some attention and proper care.
1.4 Methods of Composting

1.4.1 Aerobic Composting
Various methods are available for composting of waste which are described below. The
method chosen is dependent on the quality, capital, labor and time investment, and land
and raw material availability. The four broad methods of composting developed for use
in large-scale composting are passive piles, windrows, aerated static piles, and in-vessel
systems.
1.4.1.1 Passive Composting Piles

The passive composting pile method consists of mixtures of raw material made into a pile
(Figure 1.7). The pile may be turned periodically to rebuild the porosity. Aeration is accom-
plished through the passive movement of air through the pile. This requires that the pile
be small enough to allow for passive air movement.
If the pile is too large, anaerobic zones form which increase the odor problem. Hence,
special attention should be given to the mixing of the raw material. The mix must be capa-
ble of maintaining the necessary porosity and structure for adequate aeration throughout
the entire composting period. The passive composting method requires minimal labor
and equipment. This method is often used to compost leaves.

Air
FIGURE 1.7
Passive composting piles.
1.4.1.2 Windrow Composting

In windrow composting piles are elongated and arranged in parallel fashion (Figure
1.8). These piles are turned regularly. Raw material is either mixed before pile forma-
tion or mixed as a part of pile formation. Windrow shapes and sizes vary depending on
the climate and equipment and on the material used. Typically, windrows are 6–10 feet
high, 15–20 feet wide and are up to several hundred feet long. A wet climate requires a
windrow shape that allows moisture runoff. Moisture may be maintained by the efflu-
ent. A concave top may be required in drier climates to collect water and maintain pile
moisture. Smaller windrows experience greater heat loss, while larger piles run the risk
of anaerobic zones and odors. Dense material, such as manure, should be piled at a lower
height than fluffy material, such as leaves. Bucket loaders and backhoes can produce
higher windrows than turning machines. Windrows are aerated by passive aeration as
in the passive composting method. The porosity necessary for adequate passive aera-
tion is maintained by regularly turning the windrows. Turning windrows also serves to
mix the material, and releases heat, water vapor and gases, and composts material more
evenly.
As significant amounts of heat are released on turning the windrow, turning prevents
excessive temperature accumulation within the windrow. Turnings are more frequent dur-
ing the initial stages of composting. The schedule of turnings during composting varies
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.8
View of windrow composting (a) and mixing with the help of an aerotiller (b).

from operation to operation depending on temperature levels in the pile, consistency of

the manure, labor and equipment availability, the season and how soon the compost is
needed. The turning frequency can range from several times weekly to monthly. The num-
ber and frequency of turnings needed to achieve the desired quality of compost is best
determined through experience. The amount of time required to finish the composting
process using the windrow method ranges from 3 to 9 weeks. The duration is dependent
on the type of material being composted and the frequency of the turnings. The more
frequent the turnings, the shorter the duration will be. For a 2-month composting period,
five to seven turnings are typical. Curing generally lasts at least 1 month. The windrow
method is the most widely used for industrial wastewater such as distilleries and pulp
paper mill industries.
This method can be applicable for diverse waste, including industrial waste, yard trim-
mings, grease, liquids, and animal by-products (such as fish and poultry waste). In a warm,
arid climate, windrows are sometimes covered or placed under a shelter to prevent water
from evaporating. In the rainy season, the shapes of the pile can be adjusted so that water
runs off the top of the pile rather than being absorbed into the pile. Windrow composting
can also work in cold climates.
1.4.1.2.1 Passively Aerated Windrows

Passively aerated windrows are not turned. Aeration is accomplished solely through the
passive movement of air through perforated pipes embedded in the base layer of the pile
as shown in Figure 1.9. Passively aerated windrows are different from turned windrows
due to the presence of the perforated basal layer and the top layer in windrow construc-
tion. The base layer is typically composed of straw, peat moss, or finished compost. The
main characteristic of the base layer is that it is porous so that the air that comes through
the pipes is evenly distributed. The base layer also helps to insulate the pile and absorb
moisture. The top layer is composed of peat moss or finished compost and serves sev-
eral functions. The first function is to retain odors through the affinity of peat moss and
finished compost for the molecules that cause odors. The top layer also deters flies and
retains moisture and ammonia. Initial construction of this type of windrow requires more
labor than other windrow methods.
Screened compost cover
3 to 4 feet
10 feet
Compost, peat moss, or Perforated pipes

straw base
FIGURE 1.9
(See color insert.) Passively aerated windrows.

Once the windrow is formed, however, the labor requirement necessary is to primarily
monitor the temperature and porosity of the pile. As in the passive composting system, the
key element is to formulate a mix with good porosity and structure to allow for adequate
aeration. Passive aeration also requires that the piles not be as high as those for the wind-
row method. The typical height is 3–4 feet with a width of about 10 feet. The bottom and
top layers should each be about 6 inches thick.
1.4.1.2.2 Aerated Static Pile

Aerated static piles are similar to passively aerated windrows. The main difference
between passively aerated windrows and an aerated static piles is that the aerated static
pile uses blowers that either suction air from the pile or blow air into the pile using posi-
tive pressure (Figure 1.10). The suction method of aeration allows better odor control than
positive pressure aeration, particularly if the air is directed through an odor filter. An
odor filter is essentially a pile of finished compost that has an affinity for odor causing
molecules. The blowers used for aeration serve not only to provide oxygen, but also to pro-
vide cooling. Blowers can be run continuously or at intervals. When operated at intervals,
the blowers are activated either at set time intervals or based on compost temperature.
Temperature-set blowers are turned off when the compost cools below a particular tem-
perature. Blower aeration with temperature control allows for greater process control than
windrow turning.
A forced aeration static pile has a base layer and top layer much like the passively aer-
ated windrow. The purpose of the base layer for the aerated static pile is to distribute air
evenly either as it enters or leaves the aeration pipes. This requires porous material, such
as wood chips or straw. The top layer is generally composed of finished compost or saw-
dust to absorb odors, deter flies, and retain moisture, ammonia, and heat. As with all static
piles, the initial mix and pile formation must have proper porosity and structure for ade-
quate air distribution and even composting. A decay-resistant bulking agent is required
to provide the necessary porosity. Wood chips are a good example of a bulking agent.
They undergo minimal degradation during the composting process and can be screened
from the finished compost and reused. The use of forced aeration also requires additional
calculations. The size of the blower as well as the number, length, diameter, and types of
pipes to use for adequate aeration must be determined. Pipes and blowers interfere with
pile formation and cleanup operations. Aerated static piles are not commonly used for
farm-scale composting operations.
Finished compost or saw-

dust to absorb odor
Air
Peforated pipes
Blower
FIGURE 1.10
(See color insert.) Aerated static pile.

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So fare they all that haue no vertue[1798] cand.
19.
The plowman first his land doth dresse and tourne,

And makes it apt or ere the seede hee[1799] sowe,
Whereby hee is full like to reape good corne,
Where otherwise no seede but weede would growe:
By which ensample men may easely knowe,
When youth haue welth before they can well vse it,
It is no wonder though they do abuse it.
20.
How can hee rule well in a common wealth,

Which knoweth not himselfe in rule to frame?
How should hee rule himselfe in ghostly health,
Which neuer learnde one lesson for the same?
If such catch harme theyr parents are too blame:
For needes must they be blinde, and blindly led,
Where no good lesson can be taught or read.
21.
Some thinke theyr youth discret and wisely taught,

That brag, and boast, and weare theyr fether braue,
Can royst, and rout, both lowre, and looke aloft,
Can sweare, and stare, and call theyr fellowes knaue,
Can pill, and poll, and catch before they craue,
Can carde and dice, both cog and foyste at fare,
Play on vnthrifty, till theyr purse bee bare.
22.
Some teach theyr youth to pype, to sing, and daunce,

To hauke, to hunt, to choose and kill theyr game,
To winde theyr horne, and with theyr horse to praunce,
To play at tenis, set the lute in frame,
Run at the ring, and vse such other game:
Which feats although they be not all vnfit,
Yet cannot they the marke of vertue hit.
23.
For noble youth, there is nothing so meete

As learning is, to knowe the good from yll:
To knowe the toungs and perfectly endyte,
And of the lawes to haue a perfect skill,
Things to reforme as right and iustice will:
For honour is ordeyned for no cause,
But to see right mayntayned by the lawes.
24.
It spites my heart to heare when noble men

Cannot disclose their secrets to t’ire frend
In sauegarde sure, with paper, inke, and pen,
But first they must a secretary fynde,
To whome they shewe the bottome of theire mynde:
And bee hee false or true, a blab or close,
To him they must theyr counsayle needs disclose.
25.
And where they rule that haue of lawe no skill,

There is no boote, they needes must seeke for ayde:
Then rulde are they, and rule as others will,
As hee that on a stage his part hath playde:
But hee was taught, nought hath hee done or sayde:
Such youth therfore seeke science of the sage,
As thinke to rule when that ye come to age.
26.
Where youth is brought vp in feare and obedience,

Kept from yll company, brydled of theyr lust,
Do serue God duly and know theire allegiaunce,
Learne godly wisdome[1800] which tyme nor age can rust:
Theire prince, people, and peers needes prosper must:
For happy are the people, and blessed is that land,
Where truth and vertue haue got the ouer hand.
27.
I speake this, Baldwine, of this rufull lord,

Whome I, perforce, do here present to thee,
He faynts so sore hee may not speake a word:
I pleade his cause without rewarde or fee,
And am enforc’d[1801] to speake for him and mee:
If in his youth hee had bene wisely tought,
Hee should not now his wit so deare haue bought.
28.
For what is hee that hath but halfe a wit,

But may well know that rebelles cannot speede:
Marke well my tale, and take good heede to it,
Recount it well, and take it for good reede,
If it proue vntrue[1802] I will not trust my creede:
Was neuer rebell before the world, nor since,[1803]
That could or shall preuayle agaynst his prince.
29.
For ere the subiect beginneth[1804] to rebell,

Within him selfe let him consider well,
Foresee the daunger, and beate [well] in his brayne,
How hard it is his purpose to obtayne:
For if hee once bee entred to the brears,
Hee hath a raging wolfe fast by the ears.
30.
And when hee is once entred to[1805] rule the [beastly]
rout,
Although hee would, he can no way get out:
Hee may bee sure none will to him resorte,
But such as are the vile and rascall sorte:
All honest men, as well the most as lest,
To tast of treason will vtterly detest.
31.
Then let him way how long hee can bee sure,
Where fayth nor frendship may no while endure:
Hee whom hee trusteth most, to gayne a grote
Will fall him from, and assay[1806] to cut his throate:
Among the knaues and slaues where vice is rooted,
There is no other frendship to bee looked.
32.
With slashers, slaues, and snuffers so falshode is[1807] in

price,
The simple fayth is deadly sinne,[1808] and vertue
counted vice:
And where the quarell is so vile and bad,
What hope of ayde then is there to bee had?
Thinks hee that men will run at this or that,
To do a thing they knowe not how or what?
33.
Nor yet what daunger may thereof betyde,

Where wisdome would they should at home abyde,
Rather then seeke, and knowe not what to fynde:
Wise men will fyrst debate this in their minde:
Full suer they are if that they goe to wrecke,
Without all grace they loose both head and necke.
34.
They lose their lands and goods, their childe and wife
With sorrowe and shame shall leade a wofull lyfe:
If hee bee slayne in fielde hee dyeth accurst,
Which of all wrecks wee should accompt the worst:
And hee that dyeth defending his liege lord
Is blist, and blist agayne by God’s owne worde.
35.
And where the souldiers wages is vnpayde,

There is the captayne slenderly obayde:
And where the souldier is out[1809] of feare and dreede,
Hee will bee lacke when that there is most neede,
And priuatly hee seekes his ease and leasure,
And will bee ruled but at his will and pleasure.
36.
And where some drawe forth, [and] other doe drawe

backe,
There in the end must nedes bee woe and wracke:
To hope for ayde of lords it is but vayne,
Whose foretaught wit of treason knoweth the payne:
They knowe what powre a prince hath in his hand,
And what it is with rebells for to stand.
37.
They knowe by treason honour is defaced,

Their ofspring and their progeny disgraced:
They knowe to honour[1810] is not so worthy a thing,
As to bee true and faythfull to their king:
Aboue cognisaunce or armes, or pedigrewe a far,
An vnspotted coate is lyke a blasing star:
38.
Therefore the rebell is accurst and mad,
That hopeth[1811] for that which rebell neuer had:
Who trusting still to tales doth hang in hope,
Tyll at the last hee hang fast by the rope,
For though that tales bee tolde that hope might feede,
Such foolishe hope hath still vnhappy speede.
39.
It is a custome [that] neuer will be broken,

In broyles the bag of lyes is euer open:
Such lying newes men dayly will inuent,
As can the hearer’s fancy best content:
And as the newes do runne and neuer cease,
So more and more they dayly do encrease.
40.
And as they encrease,[1812] they multiply as fast,

That ten is ten hundred, ten thousand at the last:
And though the rebell had once got the fielde,
Thinks hee therby to make his prince to yeelde?
A prince’s power, within his owne region,
Is not so soone brought vnto confusion.
41.
For kings by[1813] God are strong and stoutly harted,

That they of subiects will not bee subuerted:
If kings would yeelde, yet God would them restrayne,
Of whom the prince hath grace and power to raygne:
Who straytly chargeth vs aboue all thing,
That no man should resist agaynst his king.
42.
Who that resisteth his dreade soueraign lorde,

Doth dampne his soule, by God’s owne very worde,
A christian[1814] subiect shoulde with honour due
Obay his souerayne, though hee were a Jewe:
Wherby assured[1815] when subiects do rebell,
God’s wrath is kindled, and threatneth fire and hell.
43.
It is soone knowne when God’s wrath[1816] is kindled,

How they shall speede with whom hee is offended:
If God gieue victory to whom hee liketh best,
Why looke they for it whom God doth most detest?
For treason is hatefull, and abhord in God’s sight,
Example of Iudas that most wicked wight:
44.
Which is the chiefe cause no treason preuayles,

For yll must hee spede whom God’s wrath assayles:
Let traytours and rebelles looke to speede then,
When God’s mighty power is subiect to men:
Much might bee sayde that goeth more nere the pith:
But this sufficeth for a rurall smith.
45.
Baldwine, when thou hearest my reason[1817] in this

case,
Belike thou thinkest[1818] I was not very wise,
And that I was accurst, or else wanted[1819] grace,
Which knowing the end of my fond enterprise,
Would thus presume agaynst my prince to rise:
But as there is a cause that moueth euery woe,
Somewhat there was whereof this sore did growe.
46.
And to bee playne and simple in this case,

The cause why I such matter tooke in hand,
Was nothing els but pryde and lacke of grace,
Vayne hope of helpe, and tales both false and fond:
By meane whereof I did my prince withstand,
Denied the taxe assest by conuocation,
To mayntaine war agaynst the Scottishe nation.
47.
Whereat the Cornish men did much repine,

For they of golde and siluer were full bare,
And liued hardly, digging in the myne,
They sayd they had no money for to spare:
Began first to grudge, and then to sweare and stare,
Forgot theyr due obeysaunce, and rashly fell to rauing,
And sayd they would not beare such polling and such
shauing.
48.
They fyrst accusde the king as authour of their greife,

And then the bishop Moreton, and sir Reinold Bray:
For they then were about the king most cheife,
Because they thought the whole[1820] fault in them lay:
They dyd protest to rid them out of the way:
Such thanke haue they that rule aboue a prince,
They beare the blame of other[1821] men’s offence.
49.
When I perceiude the commons in a roare,

Then I and Flamoke consulted both together,[1822]
To whom the people resorted more and more,
Lamenting and crying, help vs now or neuer,
Breake this yoake of bondage,[1823] then are wee free for
euer:
Wherat [wee] inflamed in hope to haue a fame,[1824]
To bee their captaynes tooke on vs the name.
50.
Then might you heare the people make a shout,

[And cry] “God saue the captaynes, and send vs all good
speede:”
Then hee that fainted was counted but a lout,[1825]
The ruffians ran [abroade] to sowe seditious seede:
To call for company [then] there was no neede,
For euery man laboured another to entice,[1826]
To bee partaker of his wicked vice.
51.
Then all such newes as made for our auayle,

Was brought to me, but such as sounded ill,
Was none so bould to speake or yet bewayle:
Euerich was so wedded vnto[1827] his will,
That foorth they cryed with bowes, sword,[1828] and byll:
And what the rufler spake the lout tooke for a verdite,
For there the best was worst, [the] worst [was] best
regarded.
52.
For when men goe a madding, there[1829] still the viler

part[1830]
Conspyre together, and will haue all the sway:
And bee it well or yll, they must haue all the porte,[1831]
As they will do, the rest must nedes obay:
They prattle and prate as doth the popingaye:
They crye and commaund the rest[1832] to kepe
th’array,
Whiles they may raunge and rob for spoyle and pray.
53.
And when wee had prepared euery thing,
Wee went to Tawnton with all our prouision,
And there we slewe the prouost of Penryn,
For that on the subsedy hee sate in commission:[1833]
Hee was not wise, nor yet of great discretion,
That durst approche his enmies in their rage,
When wit nor reason coulde their yre asswage.
54.
From thence wee went to Wels, where wee were[1834]

receiued
Of this lorde Awdeley as [of] our chiefe captayne,
And so had[1835] the name, but yet hee was deceiued,
For I indeede did rule the clubbish trayne,
My cartly knights true honour did disdayne:
For like doth loue his like, it will[1836] bee none other,
A chorle will loue a chorle, before hee will his brother.
55.
[Then] from Wels to Winchester, [and so] to Blackheath

field,
And there [wee] enchamped looking for more ayde,
But when none came, wee thought our selues begild:
Such Cornishmen as knew they were betrayde,
From their fellowes by night away they strayde:[1837]
There might wee learne how vayne it is to trust
Our fayned frends, in quarels so vniust.
56.
But wee [the sturdy captaynes] that thought our power

was strong,
Were bent to try [our fortune] what euer should betyde:
Wee were the bolder, for [that] the king so long
Deferred battayle: which so increast our pryde,
That sure wee thought the king himselfe did hyde
Within the cyty, therfore with[1838] courage hault,
Wee did determine the[1839] cyty to assault.
57.
But hee [working] contrary to our expectation,

Was fully mynded to[1840] let vs run our race,
Till wee were from our domesticall habitation,[1841]
Where that of ayde or succour was no place,
And then [to] bee plaged as it should please his grace:
[But] all doubtfull playnts, how euer they did sound,
To our best vayle wee alway did expound.
58.
When that the king sawe time, with courage bolde

Hee sent a powre to circumuent vs all:
Where wee enclosde as simple sheepe in folde,
Were slaine and murdred as[1842] beasts in butcher’s
stall:
The king himselfe, what euer [chaunce] might fall,
Was strongly encamped[1843] within Saynt George’s
fielde,
And there abode tyll that hee hearde vs yeelde.
59.
Then downe wee kneelde, and cryde to saue our life,

It was to late our folly to bewayle:
There were wee spoyide of armour, coate, and knife:
And wee, which thought [with pride] the citye to assaile,
Were led in[1844] prisoners, naked as my nayle:
[But] of vs two thousand they had slayne before,
And wee of them three hundred and no more.
60.
[This] my lorde and wee the captaynes of the west,
Tooke [our] inne at Newgate, fast in fetters tide,
Where after tryall[1845] wee had but litle rest:
My lorde through London was drawne on a slide,
To Tower hill, where with an[1846] axe hee dyde,
Clad in his [coate] armour painted all in paper,
Torne[1847] and reuersed[1848] in spite of his behauer.
[1849]
61.
And I with Thomas Flamoke, and[1850] other of our bent,

As traytours at Tiburne our iudgment did obay:
The people looked[1851] I should my fault lament,
To whom I [boldly] spake, that for my fond assaye
I was sure of fame,[1852] that neuer should decaye:
Wherby ye may perceiue vayne glory doth enflame
As well the meaner sort, as men of greater name.[1853]
62.
But as the fickle patient, sometyme hath desyre

To tast the things that phisicke hath denide,
And hath both payne and sorrowe for his hyre:
The same to mee right well may bee applide,
Which while I raught for fame on shame did slide:
And seeking fame, brought forth my bitter bane,
As hee that fyred the temple of Diane.
63.
I tell thee, Baldwine, I muse [right] oft, to see

How euery man for wealth and honour gapeth,
How euery man would climbe aboue the skye,
How euery man th’assured meane so hateth,
How froward fortune oft their purpose mateth:
And if they hap theire purpose to obtayne,
Their wealth is woe, their honour care and payne.
64.
Wee see the seruant more happy[1854] then his lord,

Wee see him lyue when that his lorde is dead,
Hee slepeth sounde, is mery at his boorde,
No sorrowe in his harte doth vexe his head:
Happy [then] is he that pouerty can wed:
What gayne the mighty conquerours[1855] when they
be dead,
By all the spoyle, and bloud that they haue shed?
65.
The terrible towre[1856] where honour hath his seate,

Is hye on rockes more slipper then the yse,
Where still the whorleing wynde doth roare and beate,
Where sodayne qualmes and periles still aryse,
And is beset with many sundry vice,
So straunge to men when first they come thereat,
They bee amased, and do they wot not what.
66.
Hee that preuailes, and to the towre can clyme,

With trouble[1857] and care must needes abridge his
dayes:
And hee that slydes may curse the howre and tyme,
Hee did attempt to geue so fond assayes,
And all his lyfe to sorrowe[1858] and shame obayes:
Thus slyde he downe, or to the top ascend,
Assure himselfe repentaunce is the end.
67.
Wherefore, good Baldwine, do[1859] thou record my
name,
To bee ensample to[1860] such as credit lyes,
Or thrist to sucke the sugred cup of fame,
Or doe attempt agaynst their prince to ryse:
And charge them all to keepe within their syse:
Who doth assay to wrest beyond his strength,
Let him be sure hee shall repent at length.
68.
[And] at my request admonishe thou all men,

To spend well the talent[1861] which God [to them] hath
lent,
[And] hee that hath [but] one, let him not toile for ten,
For one is[1862] too much, vnlesse it bee well spent:
I haue had the proofe, therefore I now repent,
And happy are those men, and blist and blist is hee,
As can bee well content to serue in his degree.[1863]
Maister Cauyll.[1864]
[“It is pity,” quoth[1865] one, “that the meeter is no better, seeing
the matter is so good: you may do very well to helpe it, and a lytle
filing would make it formal.” “The author him selfe,” quoth[1866] I,
“could haue done that, but hee would not, and hath desired me that it
may passe in such rude sort as you haue heard it: for hee obserueth
therein a double decorum both of the Smith, and of himselfe: for hee
thinketh it not meete for the Smith to speake, nor for himselfe to write
in any exact kinde of meeter.” “Well,” sayd another, “the matter is
notable to teach al people, as well officers as subiects, to consider
their estates, and to liue in loue and obedience to the highest
powers, whatsoeuer they bee, whome God either by birth, law,
succession, or vniuersall election, doth or shall aucthorise in his
owne roume to execute his lawes and iustice among any people or
nation. For by all these meanes God placeth his deputies. And in my
iudgement there is no meane so good eyther for the common quiet
of the people, or for God’s free choise, as the naturall order of
enheritaunce by lineall discent: for so it is left in God’s handes, to
creat in the wombe what prince hee thinketh meetest for his
purposes: the people also knowe their princes, and therefore the
more gladly and willingly receiue and obay them. And although some
realmes, more carefull then wise, haue entailed theire crowne to the
heire male, thinking it not meete for the feminine sexe to beare the
royall office: yet if they consider all circumstaunces, and the chiefest
vses of a prince in a realme, they shall see how they are deceiued.
For princes are God’s lieutenauntes or deputies, to see God’s lawes
executed among theire subiects, not to rule according to their owne
lustes or deuises, but by the prescript of God’s lawes: so that the
chiefest poynt of a prince’s office consisteth in obedience to God and
to his ordinaunces, and what shoulde let but that a woman may bee
as obedient vnto God, as a man? The second poynt of a prince’s
office is to prouide for the impotent, nedy, and helples, as widowes,
orphanes, lame, and decrepite persons: and seing women are by
nature tender harted, milde and pitifull, who may better then they
discharge this duty? Yea but a woman lacketh courage, boldnesse,
and stomacke, to withstand the aduersarie, and so are her subiects
an open spoyle to their enemies. Debora, Iaell, Iudith, Thomeris, and
other doe proue the contrary. But graunt it were so: what harme were
that, seing victory consisteth not in witte or force, but in God’s
pleasure.[1867] I am sure that whatsoeuer prince doth his duty in
obaying God, and causing iustice to bee ministred according to
God’s lawes, shall not only lacke warre (bee hee man, woman, or
childe) but also bee a terroure to all other princes. And if God suffer
any at any time to be assayled, it is for the destruction of the
assayler, whether he bee rebell or forayne foe, and to the honour
and profit of the vertuous prince, in whose behalfe, rather then hee
shall miscary, God himselfe will fight with enfections and
earthquakes from the lande and waters, and with stormes and
lightenings from the ayre and skies. Moe warres haue bene sought
through the wilfull and hauty courages of kings, and greater
destructions happened to realmes therby, then by any other meanes.
And as for wisdome and pollicy, seing it consisteth in following the
counsayle of many godly, learned, and long experienced heades, it
were better to haue a woman, who considering her owne weaknes
and inability, should be ruled thereby, then a man which presuming
vpon his owne fond brayne, will heare no aduise saue his owne. You
muse peraduenture wherefore I say this. The franticke heades which
disable our queene, because shee is a woman, and our king
because hee is a straunger, to bee our princes and cheife
gouernours, hath caused mee to say thus mutch. For whatsoeuer
man, woman, or childe, is by the consent of the whole realme
established in the royall seate, so it haue not bene iniuriously
procured by rygour of sworde and open force, but quietly by tytle,
either of enheritaunce, succession, lawfull bequest, common consent
or election, is vndoubtedly chosen by God to bee his deputye: and
whosoeuer resisteth any suche, resisteth agaynste God himselfe,
and is a ranke traytour and rebell, and shalbe sure to prosper as well
as the blacke Smith and other suche haue done. All resist that
wilfully breake any lawe, not being agaynst God’s lawe, made by
common consent for the wealthe of the realme, and commaunded to
be kept by the authority of the prince: or that deny to pay such
duties, as by consent of the high court of parliament, are appointed
to the prince, for the defence and preseruation of the realme.” “You
haue saide very truly herein,” quoth[1868] I, “and I trust this terrible
example of the blacke Smith, will put all men in minde of their duties,
and teach them to bee obedient to all good lawes, and lawfull
contributions. The scriptures do forbyd vs to rebell, or forcibly to
withstand princes, though they commaund vniust things: yet in any
case wee may not doe them: but receiue quietly at the prince’s hand
whatsoeuer punishment God shall suffer to bee layd vpon vs for our
refusall. God will suffer none of his to bee tempted aboue their
strength.”[1869] This talke thus being ended: “I was willed my
maisters,” quoth I, “by maister Holinshed, to bring sir Nicholas Burdet
vnto you.” “Were you?” quoth they: “on his word we will heare what
he sayes.” “Read it, I pray you,” quod one. “You must thinke then,”
quoth I, “that you see him all wounded as he was slaine at Pontoise,
to say as foloweth.”]
How the Valiant Knight Sir Nicholas
Burdet, Chiefe Butler of Normandy,
was slayne at Pontoise, Anno 1441.
1.
“Yf erst at prince’ affayres[1870] wee counted were of

truste,
To fight in waeged warres, as captayne gainst the foes,
And might therefore aliue receiue the guerdon iuste,
Which ay his maiesty employde on those:
Why should wee so keepe silence now, and not disclose
Our noble acts to those remayne aliue,
T’encourage them the like exployts t’achiue?
2.
For if when as wee werde,[1871] for prince and publique

weale,
We might to ech for both haue time and place to speake,
Then why not now, yf wee to both appeale?
Sith both well knowe our dealeings were not weake:
Wee clayme as ryghte, in trueth our myndes to breake,
The rather eke wee thinke to speake wee franchizde
ar,
Because wee serude for peace and dyde in prince his
war.[1872]
3.
Which graunted so, and held deserued due,

I may full well on stage supply the place a while,
Till I haue playnly layde before your vew
That I haue cause, as these, to playne of fortune’s guyle,
Which smirking though at first, she seeme to smoothe
and smyle,
(If fortune bee) who deemde themselues in skyes to
dwell,
She thirleth downe to dreade the gulfes of ghastly hell.
4.
But here I let a while the lady fortune stay,

To tell what time I liu’d, and what our warres were then,
The great exployts wee did, and where our armies laye,
Eke of the prayse of some right honourable men,
Which things with eyes I saw, calde now to minde agen:
What I performed present in the fight,
I will in order and my fall resite.
5.
In youth I seru’d that royall Henry fifte the king,

Whose prayse for martiall feats eternall fame retaynes,
When hee the Normanes stout did in subiection bring,
My selfe was vnder then his ensignes taking paynes:
With loyall hart I faught, pursude my prince his gaines,
There dealt I so that time my fame to rayse,
French wryters yet my name and manhoode prayse.
6.
And erste as Burdet’s diuers warlike wights,

(In Warwickeshire theyr lands in Arrow ar)[1873]
Were, for good seruice done, made worthy knights,
Whose noble acts be yet recounted far:
Euen so my selfe, well framde to peace or war,
Of these the heyre by due discent I came,
Sir Nicholas Burdet knight, which had to name.
7.
That time the noble Iohn of Bedford duke bare sway,

And feared was in Fraunce for courage stout and fell,
Hee lou’de mee for my fight and person, (though I say)
And with revenues mee rewarded yearely well:
I playde the faythfull subiect’s parte, the truth to tell,
And was accounted loyall, constant still
Of stomake, worship great, and warlike scill.
8.
But then, O greefe to tell, ere long this pearelesse king,

When hee restored had his right vnto the crowne
The duchye all of Normandy, eke subiect bring
The Frenchemen all, and set lieutenants in eache towne,
High regent made of Fraunce, then fortune gan to
frowne,
Hee then departed life, too soone alas:
Som men suppose his grace empoysonde was.
9.
Thou fortune slye, what meanste thou thus, these

prancks to play
False fortune blereyde blinde, vnsteady startling still,
What meanste thou turning thus thy flattering face away,
Inconstant where thou bearest most good will?
Is it thy nature then? or iste thy wonted scill?
It cost thee naught, they say it commes by kinde,
As thou art bisme, so are thine actions blinde.
10.
I nothing doubte then thou thy selfe shalt fall:

I trust to see the time when thou shalt bee forgot:
For why thy pride, and pompe and powre must vanish all,
Thy name shall dye for aye, and perish quite I wot:

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Environmental Waste Management 1st

Edition Ram Chandra

Zero Waste: Management Practices for Environmental

Phytoremediation of Environmental Pollutants 1st

E-waste Recycling and Management: Present Scenarios and

Environmental Pollutants and Their Bioremediation

Hazardous waste management an introduction Vanguilder

Mathematics Applied to Engineering and Management 1st

Waste Biomass Management A Holistic Approach 1st

Environmental Materials and Waste Resource Recovery and

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-2475-3 (eBook - PDF)

2 Advances in the Treatment of Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater................................. 33

3 The Role of Cyanobacteria in the Biodegradation of Agrochemical Waste.............. 59

4 Biomedical Waste: Its Effects and Safe Disposal............................................................ 81

5 Biological Nitrogen Removal in Wastewater Treatment............................................... 95

6 Bioconversion of Industrial CO2 Emissions into Utilizable Products...................... 111

7 The Role of Bioreactors in Industrial Wastewater Treatment.................................... 157

8 Microbial Genomics and Bioremediation of Industrial Wastewater........................ 185

9 Persistent Organic Pollutants and Bacterial Communities Present

10 Microbial Degradation of Lignocellulosic Waste and Its Metabolic Products....... 249

11 Advanced Oxidative Pretreatment of Complex Effluents for Biodegradability

12 The Role of Microbes in Plastic Degradation................................................................ 341

13 Biodegradation of Chemical Pollutants of Tannery Wastewater............................... 371

14 Microbial Degradation Mechanism of Textile Dye and Its Metabolic

15 Isolation of Pure DNA for Metagenomic Study from Industrial Polluted

16 Biotransformation and Biodegradation of Organophosphates

17 Petroleum Hydrocarbon Stress Management in Soil Using Microorganisms

18 Recent Advances in the Expression and Regulation of Plant Metallothioneins

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Rapid industrialization has resulted in the generation of huge quantities of hazard-

Ram Chandra is currently head and senior principal sci-

Arokiaswamy Robert Antony Sekar Chandru

Ram Naresh Bharagava Amar Jyoti Das

Nishi Kant Bhardwaj Pallavi Datta

Arumugam Gnanamani Rajesh Kumar

Atya Kapley Gunda Mohanakrishna

Varadharajan Kavitha Sandeep Mudliar

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Krishnan Natarajan Tulasi Satyanarayana

Duraisamy Nivas Gaurav Saxena

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Rudra Deo Tripathi Sheelu Yadav

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ram Chandra and Sangeeta Yadav

1.7 Use of Composed Distillery Waste and Pressmud for Enhancing

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Mesophilic phase (20–40°C)

Initial thermophilic phase (40–60°C)

Thermophilic phase (60–80°C)

Cooling and maturation phases

1.2 The Principles of the Composting Process

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Proteins + O 2 → Complex amino compounds + CO 2 + Energy + Other products

© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

NH +4 + 11/2O 2 → NO −2 + H 2O + 2H+ + Energy