Chapter 2

The Chemical Context of Life:

Part II
 Atomic Behavior
• The behavior of any atom is dependent on the number of
Electrons on its outermost energy level.
• This is referred to as a Valence Shell.

There are strict rules on how many

electrons can fill each energy level.
There is an electron capacity.

# Protons = # Electrons
1st Level:
Valence Shells
Max Electrons: 2
- -

- -
-
2 Level:
nd
- -
Max Electrons: 8 - -

Nucleus

3rd Level: -
Max Electrons: 8 - -
-
-
-
-
-
-
Let’s look at an elements like Helium (He). -

• Helium has a COMPLETE

outer shell (2 electrons) He
• This is the GOAL of every atom
= complete their outer shells. -

• Because the outer shell is complete, He is not

interested in interacting with other molecules
(no need to gain additional electrons)

Therefore, elements like Helium (He) are not biologically active.

The “Noble Gases” all have a complete outer
shell and won’t interact with other elements
Let’s look at an elements like Carbon (C).
-
-
1 Level = 2
st -

(COMPLETE) C
-
-
2nd Level = 4 -

(incomplete)

Because it does NOT have a complete outer shell

(needs 8 but only has 4), Carbon is very biologically
active – C interacts with many elements to pick up
or share electrons to fulfill their outer shell.
Let’s look at an elements like Hydrogen (H). -

• Has only 1 electron H

• Will want to either LOSE or
GAIN an electron in order
to complete its outer shell.

• Often, Hydrogen will LOSE an electron,

which then gives that atom a Positive
charge (has 1 Proton and 0 Electrons)

Will be written as: H +

 Covalent BondingWATCH ME
• Covalent Bond – when an element shares electrons with
other elements to complete their valence shells
• 2 atoms are bound together by sharing electrons.
• Covalent bonds are of the greatest importance
to biology.
• Any time 2 atoms are bound together by
covalent bonds, that is called a MOLECULE.
• All living things are composed by atoms that
are bound by covalent bonds
Let’s draw an element in two different states
In it’s neutral state: -

- -
11 Protons = 11 Electrons
-
- -

Na
-
-
-
-
-
Let’s draw an element in two different states
To complete it’s outer shell, it would -
be easiest to LOSE 1 electron - -
-
This then makes the - -
Sodium atom now
have a POSITIVE
charge (11 Protons,
Na
10 Electrons) -
-
-
-
-
Will be written as: Na+
Ion – an atom or molecule that has a charge because
it has lost or gained an electron.
Examples: Na+ ,
Cl-

Cation = POSITIVE ions Anion = NEGATIVE ions

Cations and Anions are attracted to each other

(by their positive and negative charges – like a magnet)
These connections are called IONIC BONDS
Ionic bonds are very strong
 Molecules or Compounds??
REMEMBER: Molecule = 2 atoms bonded by covalent bonds
Compound = substance made of 2 or more elements

Ammonia (NH3): Oxygen Gas:

What is it?
What is it?
Molecule
Molecule
AND
Compound
Compound

Is bounded by covalent
bonds, AND composed Just one element (O),
of 2 elements (N & H). so is NOT a compound.
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• Electronegativity – refers to the attraction that electrons have to the
nucleus of an atom.
• It has GREAT effect on covalent bonds.
• Some elements have stronger electronegativity than others

>O N > C H =
Know this chart, it will greatly help you in the future!
• Any electrons shared by elements revolve around each
atom.

• For water (H2O), the electrons will be pulled towards the

Oxygen molecule – since it is more electronegative. + Charge

This will give an unequal charge at any given time

since the electron (negative charge) will spend H
more time around O than H.

O
+ Charge H
- Charge
 Polar vs. Non-Polar
• Polar – a molecule that has an UNEQUAL attraction. This gives an
uneven amount of time that electrons are orbiting the nuclei of
each atom involved, giving partial charges across the molecule.
• Example: Water (H2O)
• Any substance that has a full charge or partial charge will want to react
with H2O.
• Polar can also be called HYDROPHILIC (“loves water”)

• Non-Polar – a molecule has EQUAL attraction and electrons have

an even amount of time orbiting the nuclei.
• Example: Oxygen (O2)
• Non-polar molecules can also be called HYDROPHOBIC (“fear of water”)
 Weak Chemical Bonds
• Hydrogen bonding between water molecules is a weak chemical bond
• Why water can separate and is “fluid” – those chemical bonds can break
easily
• Emergent Properties – as small things bind together, they can form
much larger and more complex structures
• For example, many cells will work together to make up tissues in organisms.
• We will discuss this in more details as we move on in Bio 1.
• Hydrogen bonds – Bonds between two molecules (two separate H2O
molecules).
• REMEMBER: just because Hydrogen is bound to something does NOT
automatically make it a “Hydrogen Bond”
 Weak Chemical Bonds
• Van der Waals

GECKOS!
WATCH ME
Chemical Reactions

Reactants The Reaction Product