Lecture 4: Operational

Amplifiers
What can you do with infinite gain?
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 Some History
Fairchild

0.60 Inches
1964: The First Linear IC 1965: A Best-Seller
The µA702 Op-Amp The µA709 Op-Amp
12 Transistors 14 Transistors
Designer: Bob Widlar Designer: Bob Widlar
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 2 Minute Quiz
Name_____________ Section _____

• What is the voltage R1 V

measured by the blue 90k
probe?
• What is the voltage V1
V
measured by the green
R2 10V
probe? 10k
• What is the voltage
measured by the red
probe? 0 V

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 Answers
• The green probe: 10V R1 V
• The red probe: 1V 90k

• The blue probe: 0V

V1
• Voltage Divider: V
R2 10V
10k
R2
V  1 0V
R1  R 2
0 V

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 What can you do with infinite gain?

• The goal of amplifier designers: huge gain.

• What are the problems and opportunities
associated with infinite gain?
• First, we need a model.

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 Op-Amp

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 Ideal Op-Amp Model
• Gain is infinite V OUT V OUT
A  
V  V  V IN

• Input resistance is infinite R IN  

• Output resistance is zero ROUT  0

• Input voltage is zero V IN  0

• Input current is zero I  0 I  0

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 Ideal Op-Amp Continued

• Bandwidth is also infinite. Thus, an ideal

op-amp works the same at all frequencies.

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 Feedback
• Like most engineered systems, the op-amp
uses feedback to realize its potential value.
• Feedback comes in two forms
 Positive Feedback
 Negative Feedback
• It seems like positive feedback might be
best, but negative feedback makes the op-
amp work

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 Feedback Examples
From a Zoology Course
• You just ate a Krispy Kreme donut and your blood
glucose levels are on the rise. In response to this
rise, the pancreas is releasing insulin into the
blood stream stimulating storage of glucose. As a
result, blood glucose levels begin to drop. Is this
an example of positive or negative feedback?
• A woman is in labor, pressure receptors in the
birth canal send messages to her brain that result
in increased contraction of the uterus and
increased pressure in the birth canal. Is this
positive or negative feedback?

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 Feedback: Valve Example

• As the water nears the specified level, the valve is

closed.
• Negative feedback is most commonly used to
control systems.
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 Golden Rules for Op-Amps
• The output attempts to do whatever is
necessary to make the voltage difference
between the two inputs zero. (Negative
Feedback is Required)
• The inputs draw no current.

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 Positive and Negative Feedback

• Connecting the output to the positive input

is positive feedback
• Connecting the output to the negative input
is negative feedback
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 Op-Amp Configurations

• Buffer or Voltage Follower

 No voltage difference between the output and
the input
 Draws no current, so it puts no load on the
source
 Used to isolate sources from loads
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 Op-Amp Configurations
V2

• Non-Inverting Amplifier
 No voltage difference between inputs
V1  V 2
 Resistors act like voltage divider
R2
V2  VO
R1  R 2

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 Op-Amp Configurations

• Non-Inverting Amplifier Continued

 Combining the two equations for the voltages
gives us the relationship between input and
output
 R1 
V OUT  V IN 1  
 R2 
Note that this formula is different in the lab write up

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 Op-Amp Configurations

V2

• Inverting Op-Amp
 Current through R1 equals the current through
Rf
 No current in the inputs
 The voltage at both inputs is zero
V2  0
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 Op-Amp Configurations

• Inverting Op-Amp Continued

 Current through R1 V1  0 V1
I1  
R1 R1
 Current through Rf VO  0 VO
I2   
Rf Rf

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 Op-Amp Configurations

• Why the minus sign for the current through

R f?
 The convention for Ohm’s Law is that the current
flows from the high voltage to the low voltage
for a resistor
 Here the current flows from the low voltage
(ground) to the high voltage (VO)
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 Op-Amp Configurations

• Inverting Op-Amp Continued

 The current through R1 must equal the current
through R2 since there is no current in the
inputs.
 Combining the two equations for the currents
Rf
V O U T  V IN
R1
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 Op-Amp Configurations

• Inverting Summing Amplifier

 Each input resistor contributes to the current.
Rf Rf Rf
V O U T  V 1 V 2 V3
R1 R2 R3

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 Op-Amps: Practical Issues

• Op-Amps require power

 741 requires plus and minus 15V
 Others may require only positive or both
positive and negative voltages
 Output voltage is limited to  V C C  V O U T  V C C
 Usually filter capacitors are connected to power
to reduce noise

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 Op-Amps: Practical Issues

Note: Literally a
Black Box

• We use real op-amps: 741

• Note the pin connections for the IC

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 Op-Amps: Practical Issues + 15 V

1.0 uF

+
U1

7
1
3 +
6
2 Vout
-
R1 LM741

4
5
Rstability
V1
1.0 uF

+
-15 V

R2

• Note the pins (not all are used)

• Extra resistor corrects offset problem
R1 R 2
R sta b ility 
R1  R 2
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• ICs come in many
types of packages. We
will use the 8-pin,
dual-in-line or DIP
package
• Note the other offset
nulling circuit

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 Where Will You See This
Information Next?
• Op-amps: Many Courses Including
 ECSE-2010 Electric Circuits
 ECSE-2050 Analog Electronics
• Feedback and Control
 ENGR-2350 Embedded Control
 ECSE-4440 Control Systems Engineering
 ECSE-496x Control Systems Design

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 Embedded Control

• Studio Classroom

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 http://litec.rpi.edu
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 Feedback and Control Example

• The inverted pendulum is like balancing a

baseball bat

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 Inverted Pendulum Experiment

http://www.univ-valenciennes.fr/LAMIH/pendule/english/index.html
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 Magnetic Levitation

• Trains can magnetically fly over a roadbed

with position sustained by some kind of
control system
• Our Lab 10 is on maglev
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 More Magnetic Levitation

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 Engineering Ethics
• Electrical and Computer Engineers do not usually
face immediate ethical issues involving public
health and safety
• System control is one of many exceptions
• From the IEEE Code of Ethics
 We agree to accept responsibility in making
engineering decisions consistent with the safety, health
and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly
factors that might endanger the public or the
environment;
• http://www.iit.edu/departments/csep/eac/post_wor
kshop.html
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