Tissues part 2:

tissue layers
endothelial, connective and muscle tissues

and how they combine to make up,

glands and tracts
References and Study for histology of epithelial, connective and muscular tissue
Lab manual Lab 2 p. 26-32, 36-55
Hwk in lab man Prelab: p.46-47, 48-49, 50 postlab p. 52, 53
11th Ed: p. 115-117, 120-124, 128-138, 148-149 # 4.1-4.7
Txtbook, ch 4
10th Ed:p. 114-115, 118-123, 126-133, 146-147
11th Ed: p. 150 #1 a-d, 2, 8, 9, 17, 20, 23, 25
Hwk in textbook
10th Ed: . 148-149 # 1, 8, 10, 18, 20, 23, 27
Tissues (histology of epithelial & connective tissues) Chp. 4
Learning Objectives (same as in lab manual)

1. Name the four basic tissue types and their subtypes.

2. Define the functions associated to each tissue type and subtype.
3. For each of the tissues in this exercise:
4. a) recognize the tissue on a slide or diagram
5. b) describe its structural and functional characteristics
6. c) state its locations in the human body.
7. Explain how the observation of a histological sample can detect cell abnormalities.
8. Recognize, name and characterize the different subtypes of epithelial subtypes
according to the shape of cells and number of layers.
9. Recognize, name and characterize different subtypes of connective tissues.
Describe the components (cell, fiber, ground substance) and characteristics of those
components for different subtypes of connective tissue.
10. Compare and contrast the identifying features (striations, intercalated disks, shape
of cell, number and location of nuclei) of the various subtypes of muscle tissues.
11. Identify smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscular tissue based on its histology and
describe the muscle’s location, function and control.
 solid
smooth

cartilage

→ tracts
hyaline → trachea
connective
cardiac

blood
liquid
muscle

dense
skeletal

irregular → submucosa
fibrous

areolar → lamina propria

loose

adipose → submucosa
simple cuboidal rosettes (endocrine glands
cuboidal

simple cuboidal acini (exocrine glands)

simple cuboidal ducts (lumen of glands)
epithelium
histology

columnar
ciliated pseudostrat colm (trachea)
squamous
simple squamous (blood vessels, lung)
specialization
& hierarchy
outer longitudinal
muscularis

tissue layers
inner circular
submucosa: CT
muscularis
mucosa lamina propria
epithelium
 solid
smooth

cartilage

→ tracts
hyaline → trachea
connective
cardiac

blood
liquid
muscle

dense
skeletal

irregular → submucosa
fibrous

areolar → lamina propria

loose

adipose → submucosa
simple cuboidal rosettes (endocrine glands
cuboidal

simple cuboidal acini (exocrine glands)

simple cuboidal ducts (lumen of glands)
epithelium
histology

columnar
ciliated pseudostrat colm (trachea)
squamous
simple squamous (blood vessels, lung)
specialization
& hierarchy
outer longitudinal
muscularis

tissue layers
inner circular
submucosa: CT
muscularis
mucosa lamina propria
epithelium
 Tissue organization into Layers in tracts

superficial layer: mucosa: predominant tissue is epithelial

middle layer: submucosa: predominant tissue is connective
deep layer: muscularis: predominant tissue is muscle

widespread tissue: nervous

detection of cancer by histological preparations

Carcinoma smear: a collection of superficial Sarcoma smear: a collection of superficial

epithelial cells only. There is evidence of lcells only. There is evidence of transformed
transformed epithelial cells; enough to warrant deeper tissue muscle cells; enough to warrant
a tissue biopsy. a tissue biopsy.

Carcinoma tissue sample obtained from a Sarcoma tissue sample obtained from a biopsy:
biopsy: the invasion of transformed epithelial the invasion of transformed muscle cells into the
cells into the underlying connective tissue layer overlying connective tissue and epithelial layer is
is obvious. obvious.
 Tissue Layers

mucosa
submucosa

muscularis
muscularis propria
propria

main sublayers Type of tissue

layers
mucosa epithelial layer epithelium
lamina propria loose areolar
fibrous connective tissue
muscularis mucosa smooth or skeletal muscle
submucos dense irregular fibrous connective tissue
a
muscularis inner circular smooth or skeletal muscle
outer longitudinal
ID the layers of the digestive tract

#1 mucosa (superficial)
#2 submucosa
#3 muscularis (deep)
Identify the layers of the respiratory tract
 esophagus
Identify the layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis

C
Identify the layers (2)

mucosa (epi), submucosa (CT-dense fibrous irr), deeper layer (CT: cartilage)
 solid
smooth

cartilage

→ tracts
hyaline → trachea
connective
cardiac

blood
liquid
muscle

dense
skeletal

irregular → submucosa
fibrous

areolar → lamina propria

loose

adipose → submucosa
simple cuboidal rosettes (endocrine glands
cuboidal

simple cuboidal acini (exocrine glands)

simple cuboidal ducts (lumen of glands)
epithelium
histology

columnar
ciliated pseudostrat colm (trachea)
squamous
simple squamous (blood vessels, lung)
specialization
& hierarchy
outer longitudinal
muscularis

tissue layers
inner circular
submucosa: CT
muscularis
mucosa lamina propria
epithelium
Epithelial Tissue:
tissues

epithelium
(covers)

glands skin tracts

(secrete) (protects) (transport)

endothelium
endocrineexocrine respiratory (lines)
(exchanges)

digestive
(absorbs) urinary reproductive
(filters)
Epithelium is named according to:
1) the shape of the cell, 2) the number of layers and 3) particular features
 esophagus
A

C→

A) Stratified squamous epithelium of mucosa

C) blood vessel (simple squamous epithelium) in submucosa (dense fibrous irr CT)
squamous epithelium (lab man p.113)

stratified for protection

(esophagus, skin)

F
___ young squamous cell (stratum germinativum)

___ maturing, metabolically active cells (stratum spinosum)

___ old squamous cells (stratum granulosum)

simple for gas exchange

(lungs, capillaries (blood vessels)
 lung
A) Nucleus B) lumen & C) simple squamous epithelium
 esophagus
C
A

D→
Which letter indicates simple
squamous epithelium?
B
 solid
smooth

cartilage

→ tracts
hyaline → trachea
connective
cardiac

blood
liquid
muscle

dense
skeletal

irregular → submucosa
fibrous

areolar → lamina propria

loose

adipose → submucosa
simple cuboidal rosettes (endocrine glands
cuboidal

simple cuboidal acini (exocrine glands)

simple cuboidal ducts (lumen of glands)
epithelium
histology

columnar
ciliated pseudostrat colm (trachea)
squamous
simple squamous (blood vessels, lung)
specialization
& hierarchy
outer longitudinal
muscularis

tissue layers
inner circular
submucosa: CT
muscularis
mucosa lamina propria
epithelium
columnar epithelium
(lab man p. 113 & 96)

simple columnar
protection (from acid in the lumen)
(stomach) or production (exocine glands)

simple columnar brush border

absorption
(intestine)

pseudostratified ciliated columnar

removal/move dust particles out of air
(trachea)
 epithelium
of the upper respiratory tract
(nasal cavity, trachea & bronchi)

simple columnar goblet ciliated simple columnar

Cell cells

secretes mucus in which get caught dust particles and moves the mucus spread on the upper airways upwards to
microorganisms present in the lumen of the respiratory tract the pharynx to be disposed of (swallowed, expectorated)
 mucocilliary escalator of the resp tract

Dust particles get trapped in the mucus

provided by Goblet cells and submucosal
mucous glands. The cilia sweep the
mucus towards the upper respiratory tract
for disposal .
 trachea
C) cilia of pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
D) dense fibrous irregular CT of submucosa,
E) goblet cell (simple columnar mucus secreting)
 solid
smooth

cartilage

→ tracts
hyaline → trachea
connective
cardiac

blood
liquid
muscle

dense
skeletal

irregular → submucosa
fibrous

areolar → lamina propria

loose

adipose → submucosa
simple cuboidal rosettes (endocrine glands
cuboidal

simple cuboidal acini (exocrine glands)

simple cuboidal ducts (lumen of glands)
epithelium
histology

columnar
ciliated pseudostrat colm (trachea)
squamous
simple squamous (blood vessels, lung)
specialization
& hierarchy
outer longitudinal
muscularis

tissue layers
inner circular
submucosa: CT
muscularis
mucosa lamina propria
epithelium
cuboidal epithelium (lab man p. 113)
simple cuboidal
(ducts, acini & rosettes)
cuboidal acini vs cuboidal duct

The basement membrane

surrounds the acini
and the secretions of the
simple epithelium accumulate
The basement membrane
in the small lumen.
surrounds the duct
and the secretions of the
simple epithelium travel in
the large lumen.
 cuboidal acini vs columnar acini

acini: cluster of cells resembling a berry

The basement membrane
surrounds the acini
and the secretions of the
simple epithelium accumulate
in the lumen.

simple cuboidal acini:

nucleus positionned in
center of cytoplasm simple columnar acini:
nucleus positionned near
basement membrane

rosette: flower-like
the simple epithelium
surrounds a blood vessel and
shares its basement membrane
with the blood vessel such that
the secretions enter the
bloodstream.
simple cuboidal rosette
 C→

esophagus
B→
A→

ID 1) simple cuboidal of duct, 2) simple columnar of acini , 3) stratified squamous

epithelia of esophagus
digestive tract

stomach

small intestine

small intestine
 ratio of brush border to goblet cells changes in small & large intestine

small intestine large intestine/colon

specializes in absorption so specializes in lubrification so
brush border > goblet brush border < goblet
 large intestine
small intestine
 epithelia of
respiratory tract

pharynx, trachea and bronchi:

pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
for protection

bronchioles:
simple cuboidal

alveoli:
simple squamous
for gas exchange
 solid
smooth

cartilage

→ tracts
hyaline → trachea
connective
cardiac

blood
liquid
muscle

dense
skeletal

irregular → submucosa
fibrous

areolar → lamina propria

loose

adipose → submucosa
simple cuboidal rosettes (endocrine glands
cuboidal

simple cuboidal acini (exocrine glands)

simple cuboidal ducts (lumen of glands)
epithelium
histology

columnar
ciliated pseudostrat colm (trachea)
squamous
simple squamous (blood vessels, lung)
specialization
& hierarchy
outer longitudinal
muscularis

tissue layers
inner circular
submucosa: CT
muscularis
mucosa lamina propria
epithelium
tissues

Connective Tissue:

connective
(connects)

fibrous liquid solid

blood bones &
loose dense
cartilage
fat tendons &
(cushions, ligaments rbc wbc & platelets (support)
insulates, (attaches, (carry) (defend)
stores) packs )
 Composition of CT
CT

matrix bird nest

cells
secreted
by the cells

ground mud twigs

fibers
substance

CT tissu cells fibers Ground

subtype substance
fibrous √ √
liquid √ √
solid √ √ √
 connective tissue

fluid
fibrous solid

rbcs, wbcs
loose dense platelets
bones
plasma no fiber
fibroblasts
osteocytes
adipose
no ground
hydroxyapatite
substance cartilage calcium phosphate
adipocyte Ca5(PO4)3(OH) collagen
irregular regular chondrocytes
no ground collagen
substance collagen
tendons ligaments
collagen collagen chondroitin
& elastin sulfate
areolar hyaline fibro elastic

no fiber collagen collagen

fibrocytes & elastin

no ground collagen
substance & elastin
Examples of
connective
tissue
 CELLS AND TISSUES THAT DEFEND

blood 4
LOCATION Flows within blood vessels and heart
FUNCTION carries oxygen to tissue cells
and carbon dioxide away from tissue cells

white blood cells

LOCATION circulate in the blood
FUNCTION locate and neutralize or engulfs and digests microorganisms
(bacteria, viruses), foreign particles and tumours

connective
tissue
 Connective Tissue
-Variations in vascularization and innervation.

High: loose CT, dense irregular CT, bone,

bone fat
Low: tendons, ligaments & cartilage
 bone
tissue in later lecture
muscle & nervous

solid

cartilage

hyaline → trachea
connective

blood
liquid

regular → tendons
dense

irregular → submucosa
fibrous

areolar → lamina propia

loose

adipose → submucosa
histology

simple cuboidal rosettes (endocrine glands)

cuboidal
simple cuboidal ducts (lumen of mucous
glands in esophagus)
goblet (trachea, intestines)

epithelium
ciliated pseudostrat columnar (trachea)

columnar
brush border simple colm (intestines)
simple columnar
outer longituinal (mucous acini in esophagus submucosa)
tissue layers

muscularis
inner circular
submucosa:

squamous
musclaris mucosa stratified squamous (esophagus mucosa)
mucosa lamina propia
simple squamous (blood vessels, lung)
epithelium
 fibrous CT

loose dense
appears pink because cells
< fibers
areolar adipose
appears white with
appears like white marshmallows
pulple polka dots
because
because cells > fibers fat filled cells > fibers
 Loose areolar fibrous CT
constitutes the lamina propia
of the mucosal layer

Dense irregular fibrous CT

constitutes the submucosal layer

location: areolar CT is
more superficial than
dense CT
Loose adipose CT constitutes
the deepest layer of the
submucosal layer
 C&C CT
loose dense

dense irregular dense regular

basement membranes anchor epithelial cells in place : The collagen fibers of the
underlying connective tissue are linked by proteoglycans to integral proteins that are
connected to the epithelial cells’ cytoskeleton.
 difference between
muscle tissue and connective tissue:
location of the fibers relative to the nucleus/cell
Identify the layers: submucosa

esophagus
A

B D
E

Which letter indicates dense

fibrous irregular connective
C tissue?
 trachea
B

A C
Which of the following CTs is cartilage?
Adipose tissue?
Dense fibrous irregular CT?

D
 connective tissue

fluid
fibrous solid

rbcs, wbcs
loose dense platelets
bones
plasma no fiber
fibrocytes
osteocytes
adipose
no ground
hydroxyapatite
substance
calcium phosphate
adipocyte Ca5(PO4)3(OH) collagen
cartilage
irregular regular
no ground collagen
substance collagen chondrocytes
tendons ligaments
collagen collagen chondroitin
& elastin sulfate
areolar

hyaline fibro elastic

fibrocytes
no fiber collagen collagen
& elastin
no ground collagen
substance & elastin
 solid
smooth

cartilage

→ tracts
hyaline → trachea
connective
cardiac

blood
liquid
muscle

dense
skeletal

irregular → submucosa
fibrous

areolar → lamina propria

loose

adipose → submucosa
simple cuboidal rosettes (endocrine glands
cuboidal

simple cuboidal acini (exocrine glands)

simple cuboidal ducts (lumen of glands)
epithelium
histology

columnar
ciliated pseudostrat colm (trachea)
squamous
simple squamous (blood vessels, lung)
specialization
& hierarchy
outer longitudinal
muscularis

tissue layers
inner circular
submucosa: CT
muscularis
mucosa lamina propria
epithelium
Many cells in the blood. A small comparison of the # of cells per tissue type.
A) red blood cell, B) white blood cell C) thrombocytes/platelets
Composition
of Blood

Plasma contains and transport hormones, antibodies,

ions (e.g. HCO3-), plasma proteins (e.g. fibrinogen), and
urea (CO(NH2))2 formed by the combination of CO2 & NH3 a
product of amino acid catabolism
Platelets prevent blood loss at injury sites:
Platelets adhere to the site of injury to temporaily plug the hole.
Platelets also release clotting factors that transform the globular
fibrinogen present in the plasma, to fibrous fibrin. The fibrin clot
forms a net that prevents the passage of erythrocytes.
Leucocytes: immunosurveillance, inflammation and
defense. Prevention of infection by from microorganisms
(bacteria, viruses), production of antibodies
Erythrocytes:
•delivery of oxygen
•transport of a portion of metabolic wastes (CO 2)
 a
plansmm
ai nt a i n
s
i
A lbu m os t at ic
home
f luid v o
lume blood
o f u r e a a nd
po r t
• Trans .
id
uric ac rt of HCO 3 .
-

s po
• Tran
por t of nd
• Trans ccharides a of a
n o s a t i o n
Changing affinity of mo i ds orma plug to
o a c s . Transports • . F
heme binds and ami n
o f h o rmone p la telet prevent
n s po r t (T°) globular rarily ss.
releases O2 to supply some H+ binds to • Tra of h e a t
fibrinogen te m p o lo
globin Di s t r i b u t io n b lood latelet
tissues. • and clotting p
e l e ase ger the
& some H floats
+
•R g
factors
t o r to tri cade.
in plasma fac ng cas
i
Blood viscosity. clott
l e t s
pl a t e
r t of
t r a n s po s
RBCs antibod
ie

e
c e & defens
la n
surveil st infection,
again a t i on,
l am m s
in f
o f a n tibodie
tion
produc
WBCs
platelets adhere to damaged
area of blood vessel where Po
underlying fibrous connective dca
st
tissue is exposed. Platelets
temporaily plug the hole

Platelets release platelet factor at the site of injury.

Platelet factor transforms the globular inactive plasma protein fibrinogen
into long fibrous fibrin which forms a net that captures RBCs and thus
prevents blood loss.
Hemostasis: (prevention of blood loss)
Po
dca
st

platelets adhere to
damaged area of bv to
temporaily plug the hole

Legend: erythrocytes (RBCs)

Platelets release clotting
factors that transform the platelets
globular fibrinogen fibrin clot
proteins present in the
plasma, to fibrous fibrin
proteins. The fibrin clot
forms a net that prevents
the passage/loss of
erythrocytes.
 Po
hemostasis dca
st
vascular platelet clotting
spasms plug

platelet factor clotting factors

form platelets from plasma

fibrous fibrin

globular fibrinogen
circulating in plasma

Legend: erythrocytes (RBCs), platelets, fibrin clot

Platelets release platelet factor at the site of injury.

Platelet factor transforms the globular inactive plasma
protein fibrinogen into long fibrous fibrin which forms a net
that captures RBCs and thus prevents blood loss.
 connective tissue

fluid
fibrous solid

rbcs, wbcs
loose dense platelets
bones
plasma no fiber
fibrocytes
osteocytes
adipose
no ground
hydroxyapatite
substance
calcium phosphate
adipocyte Ca5(PO4)3(OH) collagen
cartilage
irregular regular
no ground collagen
substance chondrocytes
collagen
tendons ligaments
collagen collagen chondroitin
& elastin sulfate
areolar

hyaline fibro elastic

fibrocytes
no fiber collagen collagen
& elastin
no ground collagen
substance & elastin
CT tissu cells fibers Ground substance
subtype
loose adipose √ adipocytes X X
fibrous loose areolar √ fibrocytes √ collagen X
dense √ fibrocytes √ collagen X
liquid blood √ rbc, wbc, X √ plasma
thrombocytes
hyaline cartilage √ chondrocytes X √ chondroitin sulfate
solid
bone √ osteocytes √ collagen calcium phosphate
 solid
smooth

cartilage

→ tracts
hyaline → trachea
connective
cardiac

blood
liquid
muscle

dense
skeletal

irregular → submucosa
fibrous

areolar → lamina propria

loose

adipose → submucosa
simple cuboidal rosettes (endocrine glands
cuboidal

simple cuboidal acini (exocrine glands)

simple cuboidal ducts (lumen of glands)
epithelium
histology

columnar
ciliated pseudostrat colm (trachea)
squamous
simple squamous (blood vessels, lung)
specialization
& hierarchy
outer longitudinal
muscularis

tissue layers
inner circular
submucosa: CT
muscularis
mucosa lamina propria
epithelium
 digestive system

muscle tissue
 light dark
skeletal muscle band band extension

light dark light

band band band

contraction
somatic stimulation
of skeletal muscle fiber
by synaptic termials.
 The Stretch Reflex Keeps Muscle Length
Constant
(maintains your posture/tone)

Apply load

Muscle stretches

Sensory neron
fires

Motor neuron
fires
C) skeletal muscle fiber,
B) light bands and F) dark bands creating the effect of striations
A) multiple nuclei at the periphery of the muscle fiber
 B→

C→
A→
 cardiac muscle

contracts to pump blood through

blood vessels of circulatory loop
Cardiac muscle cells are synchronized to contract simultaneously by
intercalated disks. Each intercalated disk consists of many gap junctions and
desmosomes. The desmosomes hold the cells together and the gap junctions allow
adjacent cells to contract simultaneously.
Gap junctions are specialised pores that span two
membranes instead of one. The ions can diffuse
directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to the next,
so the nervous impulse travels faster between cells,
such that the two cells contract simultaneously.

intercallated disc
If a pore spans two membranes instead of one, less
time is lost opening and closing ion channels and
consequently ions can diffuse faster between cells,
such that the two cells contract simultaneously.

t= 2.4 ms
2x1 ms + 2x0.2 ms

t=1.4 ms
1 ms + 0.4 ms
A) Intercalated disc
 smooth muscle
contracts to constrict & dilate

digestive tract
pupil
To adjust the amount
of light entering the
eye to see clearly mechanical sphincters
and in color without digestion
damaging the retina. tract (4) associated
propulsion glands (1)

ileocecal
pharyngio-esophageal
upper esophageal/
cardiac

anal (defecation)
hepatopancreatic
peristalsis (2 steps)

blood vessels
To divert blood from
or to tissues
according to their
perfusion needs. urinary tract
Sphincters for
lower airways
urination.

To divert air from

or to tissues
according to their
ventilation needs.
The contraction of smooth muscle can be triggered by:
1)hormones and neutortransmitters (from the varicosities of
autonomic neurons)
2)Or the entry of ions through gap junctions

Thick filament myo

Thin filament actin
A gap junction is a specialised pore that span two
membranes instead of one. The ions can diffuse
directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to the next, so
the nervous impulse travels faster between cells,
such that the two cells contract simultaneously.
autonomic stimulation
of smooth muscle cells
by varicosities.

& propagation of ions b adjetween adjacent cells through gap junctions.

 inner circ sm contracts
constriction
sphincter
dilation
inner circ sm relaxes

tract

outer long sm relaxes outer long sm contracts

Propulsion
• Ongoing in the
Peristalsis
esophagus and small intestine
(duodenum → jejunum → ileum)
Inner circular sm
• Occurs 3-4 times a day in the contracts
large intestine (mass peristalsis) proximal to bolus

(ascending → transverse,
descending → sigmoid → rectum)

Outer
longitudinal sm
contracts along
bolus

Repeat in distal
adjacent segment
Propulsion:
cardiac
sphincters of tract
1. pharyngeal-esophageal (swallowing)
2. cardiac (prevents heartburn) pyloric
3. pyloric
4. ileocecal
5. anal

sphincters of glands
• hepatopancreatic
 Clinical significance of smooth muscle problems:
peristalsis problems:
If peristalsis is problematic, partially
digested food stagnates in the bowels.
This can cause accumulations,
distensions, pain, ruptures.
This is particularly problematic in the
large intestine because by then the
contents of the lumen is solid feces that
can occlude the passageway and cause
constipation. Because there are
bacteria in the colon, its rupture into the
abdomen causes a life threatening
systemic infection.
hepatopancreatic sphincter problems:
If the sphincter isn’t working properly, the
bile and pancreatic enzymes are not
released into the small intestine and back
up to the organ which originally produced
the secretion.
This is particularly proplematic in the
pancreas because its enzymes
(proteases, carbohydrases and lipases)
are devastatingly powerful and
breakdown the pancreatic tissue
(pancreatitis). The condition is extremely
painful. Pancreatitis is also triggered by
ischemia (insufficient perfusion) and
alcohol.
Defecation
From
cerebral
cortex
(conscious
control)
Sensory
nerve fibers

Voluntary
motor nerve
to external
anal sphincter 3 2 1
Sigmoid colon
(skeletal muscle)

Rectum
External
anal sphincter
(skeletal muscle)
Figure 23.32: Defecation reflex, p. 927.
Human Anatomy and Physiology, 7e
by Elaine Marieb & Katja Hoehn
Involuntary motor
nerve (parasym-
pathetic division)
(smooth muscle)
Internal
anal
sphincter
(smooth
muscle)
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.,
publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
 Normal Cell Growth
(Tissue Repair)
A breach in the first line of security (the barriers
which provide protection – skin & tracts)
triggers inflammation (rubor, tumor, dolor, calor,)
and even perhaps an adaptive immune response,
both of which further damage the tissue.

Tissue repair occurs either by

regeneration  or fibrosis .
 Normal Cell Growth
(Tissue Repair)
regeneration & fibrosis


• replacement of the tissue by the

• replacement of the tissue by dense
same kind of cells fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue)
which lacks flexibility and cannot
perform the normal function of the
tissues it replaces.

• a result of light cases of injury

• a result of light cases of injury
• involves skeletal muscle, cardiac
• involves epithelium muscle, cartilage, tendons, ligaments &
nervous tissue.
detection of cancer by histological preparations

Carcinoma smear: a collection of superficial Sarcoma smear: a collection of superficial

epithelial cells only. There is evidence of lcells only. There is evidence of transformed
transformed epithelial cells; enough to warrant deeper tissue muscle cells; enough to warrant
a tissue biopsy. a tissue biopsy.

Carcinoma tissue sample obtained from a Sarcoma tissue sample obtained from a biopsy:
biopsy: the invasion of transformed epithelial the invasion of transformed muscle cells into the
cells into the underlying connective tissue layer overlying connective tissue and epithelial layer is
is obvious. obvious.
 Abnormal Cell Growth
(Cancer)
• When the DNA of cells is damaged (see causes) it accumulates mutations,
the cell becomes cancerous.

• Cancerous cells differentiate less (this is why the tissues stop funcitoning
and the victim gets sick) in order to use their energy to multiply faster.

• Cancer cells consume more resources (glucose) which is why cancer

patients are tired, and loose weight. Cancers stimulate angiogenesis (the
synthesis of new blood vessels towards the cancer), they secrete their own
growth factors, and loose contact inhibition.

• Cancer cells are not well anchored in place and can desolve the fibrin on
walls of blood vessels to gain access ability to the blood and invade other
tissues (metastasis).