Electromagnetic forces Photo electric effect Photon Momentum (the Compton effect)

acts on electrons-holds atoms together Lights can be particle & come in small packets called
Strong Nuclear force photons 𝐄 = 𝐦𝐜𝟐 = 𝐡𝐟
acts on nucleons-holds nucleus together
Weak Nuclear force Short 𝜆 light or U.V on metal surface 𝑒 are ejected as hf
acts on nucleons-radioactive decay photocurrent mc =
c
Gravitational forces
acts on all matter- holds planets together 𝒆 bound to surface with binding energy called the 𝐦𝐜 = photon momentum = 𝐩
work function W
𝐡𝐟 𝐡 𝐄
Planck’s Black body radiation 𝒆 only ejected if frequency of incident light exceeds the 𝐩= = = 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐜 = 𝐟𝛌
A Black body wont reflect any light (or other 𝐜 𝛌 𝐜
MIN threshold frequency 𝐟𝟎 for that particular metal
electromagnetic radiation) When heated it will emit f>F0
WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY
electromagnetic radiation (eg hot plate) ALL PARTICLES BEHAVE AS WAVES
Using light with larger f increases the KE of ejected 𝑒
Debrogil wavelength
Once photocurrent is registered, increasing intensity
will increase photocurrent
𝐡 𝐡
𝛌= =
Negative potential V is applied to collector plate (anode) 𝐦𝐯 𝐩
which repels the 𝑒 and when large enough to stop
photocurrent then this is stopping potential or cut-off CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
voltage 𝑽𝟎 & the current will flatten out to a maximum.
m1u1 + m 2u2 = m1v1 + m 2v2

∆ momentum (P)
F= =N
time
𝐡𝐜
𝐄 = 𝐡𝐟 = CONSERVATION OF KINETIC ENERGY
𝛌
½m1v21 + ½m2v22 = ½m1u21 + ½m2u22
−𝟏𝟗
𝟏𝐞𝐕 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐉
ELECTRON GUN
𝒆𝑽 = 1 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑱 W= 𝐡𝐟𝟎
𝐦𝐯 𝟐 𝟐 × 𝐪𝐞 × 𝐕
𝐄 = 𝐏𝐡𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐧 energy Joules 𝐊𝐄𝐌𝐀𝐗 = 𝐡𝐟 − 𝐰 = 𝐡𝐟 − 𝐡𝐟𝟎 =
𝟏
𝐦𝐯 𝟐 = 𝐞𝐕𝟎
𝐪𝐞 × 𝐕 =
𝟐
⟹𝐯=
𝐦
𝟐
𝐟 = frequency of the emitted radiation X-Ray Scattering- The Compton affect & light pressure
𝒆 = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝟏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗
𝐡 = planck constant = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝑱s
𝐞 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐈 𝐈𝐌𝐀𝐗
= =
𝐜 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 −𝟑𝟒
𝒎/𝒔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝐬 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝐂 𝐞
E J 𝒉𝒇 = 𝑬 = 𝑃𝑕𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑱
E ∝ f E = hf h = f =

𝐜 𝑾 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝐽) = 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 De Brogile-Davisson & Germer Apparatus

𝐕 = 𝐟𝛌 𝐜 = 𝐟𝛌 𝐟=
𝛌 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑽
𝑕𝑐
∴E=
𝜆
Black body radiation

Energy created by 𝑒 moving between defined energy

level within the atom (transitions). Electrons from filament F are accelerated by a
variable potential difference V. After scattering
Certain states of vibrations are more likely- hence the
from crystal C they are collected by detector D
peak in the frequency distribution curve 𝐑 → 𝐎 → 𝐘 → 𝐆 → 𝐁 → 𝐈 → 𝐕 → 𝐔𝐕 → 𝐗𝐫𝐚𝐲
Atoms can only vibrate at a certain frequency 𝜆 = 700 × 10−9 → λ = 400 × 10−9
Light energy not given of continuesly but in small 𝟕𝟎𝟎+𝟒𝟎𝟎
energy packets called ‘Quanta’ or Photons White light= 𝟐 = 𝟓𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒎
Wavelengths decrease→
WAVE MODEL FAILS BECAUSE PREDICTS Refracts more→
•Increasing Intensity should increase KE of e critical angle decreases→
•Photoelectric effect will occur for all frequencies but in frequency increases→
fact there is a threshold frequency

Photoelectric apparatus
 𝐄 = 𝐡𝐟 = 𝐄𝐢 − 𝐄𝐟 A
ZX
Ionisation -process of removing electron or more from a neutral
atom creating a pos+ charged atom. Ionisation energy=w
𝐄𝐢 = Energy of higher orbital
𝑨𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒂 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝜶 A=Mass Number of nucleons (protons & Neutrons)
Positively charged particles being emitted from the 𝐄𝐟 = Energy of lower orbital
Z=Atomic Number= Number of protons in nucleus
nucleus of radioactive atoms.
1
Alpha Particles- collide with matter and slow down The total energy E of the electron in such an orbit 𝟏𝐀 = mass of 126C = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝐊𝐠
transferring their kinetic energy to the other molecules (this can also be found on the diagram below) 2
shaking many of them apart leaving a trail of pos & neg
ions in their wake. Mass of- Proton=1.007276 u
E1
En =
𝑩𝒆𝒕𝒂 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝜷 n2 Neutron=1.008665 u
Electrons being emmited from the nucleus of radioactive
atoms
Beta Particles- move at very high speeds. Smaller & more En = nhf Electron=.000549 u
penetrating than alpha particles
𝐄𝟏 = 2.17 × 10−18 𝐉 𝑜𝑟 13.6𝒆𝒗 1u=931 MeV (binding energy)
𝑮𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒂 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝜸
High energy electromagnetic rays/photons being emitted 𝐄𝐧 = The energy of that nuber orbital 𝐉 Mass of constituents>actual mass
from the nucleus of an atom. Happens around other decay
when the atom rearranges itself to be more stable.
-13
Gamma Particles- Extremely small (‫ג‬-10 m) & most
𝐧 = number of the orbital where e is 𝐉 Transmutation (EG caused by ALPHA BOMBARDMENT)
penetrating. (no charge)
Alpha Decay (ATOMS HEAVIER THAN URANIUM-238)

A A−4
ZX → Z−2Y + 42He + energy (γ)

Beta Decay (ATOM HAS SURPLUS OF NEUTRONS)

A A
Bohr model of atom ZX → Z+1 Y + −10e + energy (γ)
Electron will only radiate
energy in exact quanta. 𝑒 Positron Decay (SURPLUS OF PROTONS)
move inward to nucleus until
stable state is reached. A A 0
ZX → Z−1 Y + +1 e + energy (γ)

Mass Defect
represents mass that has been converted into
Radius of Hydrogen atom=5 × 10−11 𝑚
binding energy

Nuclide-Name & symbol of a particular atomic Nucleus=

1
size of whole atom 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 (𝛄) BINDING ENERGY (relates to fo)
10,000
species eg C or H etc
Mass of proton=mass of neutron E = (Mass − Actual Mass) × c 2
Einstein said “Matter & Energy are not separate quantities
but are different forms of one another” 𝐄 = 𝐦𝐜 𝟐
Nucleus=99% of mass of whole atom Mass Defect=Mass-Actual Mass
Thompsons Plum pudding model
No good because tiny particles fired at atom and Fission- Breaks apart
Determine potential (accelerating portential) V(volts)
can pass thru when an electron (or particle) is shot through single slit or
double slit grating. Fusion- Puts together

1. Determine 𝛌 wave length Tritium- 31𝐻

SINGLE SLIT HALF LIFE

2Lλ 𝐰𝐝
w= 𝛌=
d 𝟐𝐋 N 1
= ( )n
DOUBLE SLIT NO 2
Lλ 𝐰𝐝
w= 𝛌=
d 𝐋 N 1
Isotopes have same nuber of protons but different log = n × log
number of neutrons to original element & will behave NO 2
𝐰 = width of central maximum
similar
𝐝 = distance between slits
More protons= bigger atom=helps stability because time t
𝐋 = distance to screen n= =
seperates charges time of half life t 1
2. Use wavelength to determine momentum- 2
Strong Nuclear Force (binding energy) only affects within hence find the velocity
distance of 5 × 10−15 N = number of particles
h h 𝐡
λ= = 𝐯=
Adding protons does not increase the strong nuclear force mv p 𝐦𝛌 NO = Initial number of particles
No stable nuclides have E>8 3. Velocity determines potential difference (Volts)
Proton + Electron = Neutron Mark Riley
1 𝐦𝐯 𝟐
W = qV = mv 2 𝐕=
2 𝟐𝐪 markriley85@hotmail.com