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 A GUIDE TO FAMILIAR
MINERALS, GEMS, ORES AND ROCKS

by H ERBERT S . ZIM .-( u ve ,C.

PAUL R. S H AFFER
;�
� j 1--o II
'i-
Illustrated by � L( -e
ll '(
RAYMOND PERLMAN 4_; , �
Professor of. Art, Un ivers i ty of I ll i n ois I /1
0&1/'1-f-

,.

A GOLDEN NATURE GUIDE

@ G OLDEN PRESS • NEW YORK

Western Publishing Company, Inc.
Racine, Wisconsin
 FOREWORD

GOLD C RYSTAL

Noth i n g is as i m po rta nt in the natura l world as our own

earth and the rocks ben eath our feet. So it was i n evita b l e
t h a t the 'Go lden Nature Guides i n c l u d e a n i ntrod uction to
rocks and m i nerals. The task of selecting, descri b i n g , and
i l l ustrating minera ls, rocks, and geologic structu res has
many i n herent difficu lties. We a re g ratef u l to our col­
leagues and to othe r ex perts who have h e l ped. May we
pa rticu l a r l y tha n k mem bers of the Geology Department
of the U n iversity of I l l inois: Drs. C h a p m a n , D roste, Grim,
Hagn er, Henderso n , Merri l l , Wa n l ess, and Wh ite, and
Drs. Co l l i nson, Swa nn, a n d Willman of the I l l i nois State
Geo log ica l Survey for specimens a n d s l i d es, and for i n ­
formation a n d en couragement. S o m e specimens came
from U n iversity of I l l i n o is Natura l History Muse u m a n d
departmenta l co l l ections; s o m e f r o m W a r d ' s Natura l Sci­
ence Esta b l ishm ent. The gem co l l ections at the C h icago
Museum of Natura l History were inva l ua b le. Fine Koda­
chromes were provided by Scott lewis. Maps ca m e la rge­
ly from information i n the Minerals Yearbook of the Bureau
of Mines, and from other m a ps a n d p u b l ications of the
U n ited States Geologica l S u rvey.
H.S.Z.
P.R.S.

© C o p y r i g h t 1957 by Western P u b l i s h i n g Compa n y , I n c. A l l r i g h t s rese rved,

i n c l u d i n g rights of reproduction and use in any form o r by any m e a n s , i n­
c l u d i n g the m a k i n g of copies by a n y photo process, or by a n y e l ectro n i c or
mech a n i c a l d e v i ce, p r i n ted or written or ora l , or record i n g for s o u n d or
v i s u a l reproduction or for use in a n y knowledge retri e v a l system or dev ice,
u n l es s permission i n writing i s obta i n ed from t h e copyright propri etor. Pro­
d u ced in the U.S.A. by Western P u b l i s h i n g Compa n y, I n c. Pub l i shed by
Golden Press, N ew Yo rk, N . Y. library of Congress Cata l o g C a rd N u mber:
6 1 -8326
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. .... 4
What is in this book a n d how to use it.
SEEING THE EARTH AND ITS ROCKS . . . . . 5-9
An i n troduction to the ea rth, its crust, a n d
the rocks t h a t make it u p .
ACTIVITIES FOR AMATEURS ............ . 10-13
Where a n d how to col lect, study, a n d iden­
tify rocks and m i n e rals.

IDENTIFYING MINERALS 14-30

Physica l a n d chemical p roperties, crystal
form, h a r d n ess, cleavage, chemical tests.

METALLIC MINERALS .................. . 31-60

The common m i n e r a l s that are sou rces of
iron, a l u m i n u m , u r a n i u m , a n d other metals.

NONMETALLIC MINERALS .............. . 61-82

I nc l u d i n g calcite, gypsum, vario u s fo rms of
q u a rtz; g r a p h ite, asbestos, a n d m a ny others.

GEM MINERALS ...................... . 83-93

V a l u e d m i n erals that a r e cut a n d polished.
Precious, semiprecious, a n d sy nthetic stones.

ROCK-FORMING MINERALS . . . .. .. . . .. .. 94-108

Minerals i m portant in the formation of rocks
widespread i n the ea rth's crust.

IGNEOUS ROCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-120

lavas a n d rocks fo r m ed far u n d ergro u n d .

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . 121-132

Their origins a n d the typical geologic struc-
t u res associated with them.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133-140

Those altered from the a bove kinds. Their
identification a n d geol ogic significance.
ROCKS IN DAILY U S E . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 141-155
MORE INFORMATION . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-157
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158-160
 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

This is a g u i d e to oid you in identifying rocks a n d m i nera ls.

But it is more than that. This book will a lso help you un­
dersta n d the im porta nce of rocks a n d m inerals in our d a i l y
l ives. Hence y o u w i l l fi n d information on the uses o f m i n ­
era l s a n d m i neral prod ucts as we l l as a ids in identification .
Ski l l i n identifyin g rocks a n d minerals comes with ex­
perience. Take this book on. h ikes, tri ps, and vacations.
Visit collecti ng p laces, exami ne specimens, a n d try simple
fi e l d tests. Rem ember that only the most common k inds of
rocks a n d m i nera l s are shown i n this book. Even these
may va ry considera b l y i n their physical properties.
T h u m b through this book before you go out on trips.
Read the introductory sections. Next, becom e fa m i l ia r with
the pictures of m i n erals, rocks, and rock structures. This
may e n a b l e you to identify some common rocks and min er­
als at sig ht. Maps o n some pages show where i m porta nt de­
posits a re located. Books l isted on p. 1 56 w i l l h e l p fu rtner,
but loca l inq uiry is often needed to pin- point .locations.
As you m a ke observation s a n d· co l l ect specimens, c h eck··
your book or make marg i n a l n otes for later reference use.
I n the l o n g run, your records may be as i m porta nt as the
specimens you col l ect.
 THE EARTH AND I TS ROCKS

SEEING ROCKS AND MIN ERALS is someth i n g hard

to avoid. You have to sta l k w i l d l ife and await spring
fl owers, but every roadcut, bank, c l iff, excavation, o r
q u arry exposes rocks a n d m i n era l s for you t o s e e . Learn
to watch for outcrops, p l aces where bedrock is natura l ly
exposed, as in ridges or c l iffs. Wherever erosion is ta k i n g
p l ace, rock is soon e r or later exposed. Outcrops of rocks
a re com m o n in many pa rts of New E n g l a n d and the
Southwest. W here soil is th ick, a s i n the m i d d l e states,
o n e may have to search for o utcrops a lo n g river va l l eys
a n d on steeper h i l lsides.
Ma n-made exposures of rocks and minerals a re often
the best source of s peci mens. Look i n road a n d ra i l roa d
cuts, in q ua rries, rock pits, d u m p piles around m i n es, a n d
s i m i l a r p laces. Look with care. Ask permission before e n ­
terin g a q ua rry. Be a lert for new roads, bridges, or fou n ­
dations where excavation s expose fresh rocks.

5
 SURFAC E F O RM ROC K M I N E RA L

lava-ca pped made af rock­ contains m i n e ra l­

butte l i meston e calcite

Look for Surface Forms These a re evident in

the physica l forms seen o n the surface-hil ls, v a l l eys, cl iffs,
a n d basins. Some forms and structures are associated with
a partic u l a r type of rock and can be recog n ized at a dis­
ta n ce. Knowing forms and structu res does more than h e l p
y o u fi n d rocks a n d m i nerals. It a i d s y o u i n inter preting t h e
l a n dsca pe, s o t h a t you can read dramatic cha pters of
the h istory of the earth. Rock structures a re dea lt with
u n d e r rocks (pp. 1 2 1 - 1 45 ) . P hysica l geology treats them
in g reater deta i l .
Look for Rocks These are t h e materia ls of which
the crust of the earth is made. They form the m o u nta i n s
a n d u n d e r l ie t h e va l leys. Y o u s e e t h e m w h e n t h e y have
been pushed or fo lded upward o r when they jut through
s o i l to form a n outcrop. All m i nera l s occur with i n rocks,
and often a re components of rocks. Rocks i n c l ude the so l i d
bedrock a n d a lso the unconsol idated d e b r i s above it,
cal led the mantle.
Look for Minerals These a re the b ricks of which
the earth itse lf is made. They a re inorga n ic chemical
elements o r compounds (so me q u ite com p l ex) fo u n d nat­
u r a l l y in the earth. Beca use each is a chem ica l o r a m ix­
ture of c l osely related chemica ls, a m i n era l has f a i r l y
d efi n ite a n d sta b l e properties.

6
 What Is Behind It All is as mysterious as the ori g i n
o f t h e u n iverse, t h e s o l a r system, and t h e earth.· Geology
is the science of the ea rth and its h istory. Min era l ogy (the
study of m i nerals) a n d petrol ogy (the study of rocks) are
two divisions of the science of geology.
The Earth is a ba l l of rock 7927 m i les in diameter,
weig h i n g a b o ut 6.6 sexti l l ion tons. It is com posed of a
dense core as heavy as iron and severa l massive rock lay­
ers-denser near the core a n d lig hter towa rd the surface.
The ·c ontinents themse lves are islands of gran itic rotk
(p. 1 1 1 ) fl oating on the denser, d a rker rocks w h ich u n der­
lie the ocean basins and go down perhaps 600 m i l es. Most
of our eco n o m ic m i n e r a l s are i n the l i g hter gran itic rocks
and rock der ived from them. I n the process of mountain
building some of the darker rocks have come to the surface
and ca n be seen .
The Earth and Man are insepara b l e , even at the
dawn of a n age of s pace trave l . It is im possi b l e to name
a major i n d ustry which is not d i rectly or i n d i rectly depend­
ent upon rocks a n d m i n era ls. Min era l resources a re ex­
tre m e l y im porta nt, and the increased use of them is a
di rect measure of progress. It is im poss i b l e to t h i n k of a
time when d e pendence on m i nerals w i l l cease. New uses
for mi nera l s open tech n o l o g ica l vi stas. Ura n i u m m i nerals,
once odd ities, are now a source of energy.
 fl i n t k n ife bronze k n ife iron k n ife ( bronze h a n d l e )
1 4,000 B . C . 500 B.C. A . D . 200

E a r l y m a n made these weapons by u s i n g m i n e r a l resou rces.

Mineral Resources were i m po rta nt thousa n ds of

years ago when men trekked h u n d reds of m i les to fl i nt
q uarries. As men learned to make bronze a n d stee l , they
became esse ntia l . The foss i l fue ls-co a l and petro leum­
a re the ones o n which we sti l l depend, a nd atomic en­
g i n es wi l l n eed ura n i u m , thorium, and s i m i l a r meta ls.
Conservation of m ineral resources poses rea l prob­
lems, for most of these can n ever be replaced. We have
a l ready beg u n to m i n e the ocean-our greatest d e posit of
low-g rad e ore. Conservation of minera l spec i m e n s is a
spec i a l case. In some s i n g l e deposits of rare m i nerals, the
fi rst col l ectors have ta ken the entire supply. Carel ess co l ­
lectors ofte n spo i l fi n e materia l . When you go co l l ecti ng,
remember to be considerate of others.

li mesto ne q u a rry near Bloomi n g to n , I n d .

 Riker m o u n t M i n e r a l cobinet

ACTIVI TIE S FOR AMATEURS

COLLECTING is the fi rst a n d m ost obvious activity for

a nyone interested i n rocks a n d m i nerals. A n d we l l it
might be, for the n umber of m i nera l species comes to
a bout 15 00, a n d there are w e l l over a h und red k i n d s of
rocks. A co l l ectio n e n a b les you to study, com pare, a n d
a n a lyze m i nerals; hence y o u learn m ore a b o ut t h e m . It's
fun to fi n d , b uy, a n d swa p specimens. C o l lecting takes
you out-of-doors; it a l so paves the way for more serious
stud ies i n science o r e n g i neering.
Where t o Collect I n addition to the g e n e ra l places
mentioned on p. 5, run down specific m i n era l l oca l ities
near you. Becom e fa m i l iar with the books and magazines
l isted on p . 15 6 a n d with p u b l icatio ns of your state
geolog ica l su rvey. Minera logica l magazines ofte n l ist
m i nera l loca l ities, a n d in m a n y states g u i d es to m i neral
deposits are ava i l a b l e . Ask m i neralog ists a n d l oca l col­
l ectors. They will be g lad to h e l p you out.
How t o Collect i n vo lves the p l ace you g o to. A
co l l ecti n g trip s h o u l d have s pecific o bjectives. Study the
area i n adva n ce to learn the lay of the l a n d , accessi b i l ity,
rock structures, a n d poss i b l e m i n era ls. A l l ow a m ple time.
S u it your plans to the location. I n deserts, co l l ect early
or late; m id d a y s u n o n bare rock can be overpoweri n g .
Wo rk systema tica l ly; don 't attem pt too m uc h .

9
 Equipment can be s i m p l e : a p i l e o f o l d newspaper
for wra p p i n g specim ens, a n otebook and penci l, are a l l
you need a t a m i n e d u m p, where materi a l i s broke n .
Otherwise, a geolog ist's p i c k o r plasterer's ham mer i s
essentia l-a n d g et a g o o d one. A co l d c h i s e l , a m a g n ify­
ing g lass, com pass, heavy g l oves, a pocket k n ife, and a
shoulder bag or k n a psack a re usef u l . D o n 't carry too
much. You w i l l n eed water and l u nch-a n d a kna psack
f u l l of rocks gets h eavy.
The Specimen You Collect should be selected with
ca re. From a dozen that seem l i kely, keep o n l y a few.
Hand-sized specimens are preferred. Some col l ectors look
for s m a l l , perfect, thumbnail -sized specimens and study
them with a l ow- power m icroscope. Be sure your specimen
is fresh. Trim it to s h a pe . This takes skil l-you soon learn
that l i g h t b l ows p laced correctly do the trick. Wra p your
specimens as shown be low. I nclude a l a b e l with field iden­
tification, l ocation, a n d date.

10
SPECIMENS AT HOME take up room a n d gather dust.
Col lecting is fun, but g ive some thought to what you wi l l
d o with your col lection. Some rocks a n d m i nera ls are so
attractive that you may wa nt them for their sheer bea uty.
Set these w h e re you can see a n d enjoy them. But if you
i nte n d to have a stud y col lection, more is req ui red. As a
fi rst step each spec imen m ust be accurate ly identified,
classified, a n d la beled .
Identification is best made by the p hysical char­
acteristics of m i nera ls a n d rocks ( p p. 13-24 ) . C h eck the
hardness, streak, specifi c g ravity and, poss i b l y, the crys­
ta l form. Often the geo log ist at the state u n iversity, mu­
seum, or geologica l survey will identify difficult specimens.
Send h i m a s m a l l sample with exact deta i l s of where it
was fou n d .
Classification o f rocks a n d m i n erals d e p e n d s o n yo u r
purposes. I n this b o o k f o r beginners, a very s i m p l e classi�
fication is used. More advan ced books fo l l ow a sta ndard
chemical c l a ssifi cation for m i nera ls, a n d a more d eta iled
c l a ssification of rocks. C lassifi cation goes o n e ste p beyo n d
identifi catio n . It shows you t h e re lationship between rocks
or m i nera l s. That poi nts the way to discovering their origin,
h isto ry, a n d m odes of occurrence.
Labeling usua l ly beg ins with a spot of q u i ck-drying
enamel put o n the specimen in a n inconspicuous p l ace.
After it dries, a n u m ber is a d d ed i n I n d ia i n k. T h is number
refers to a l a b e l a n d a cata l og, both of w h i c h should i n ­
c l ude n u m ber, n a m e, location, collector, date, a n d rock
or m inera l associations.

11
 AGATE

shaped sectio ns po lished mou n ted

OTH ER ACTIVITIES re lated to rocks a n d m i nerals in­

c l u d e the a rt and science of gem co l l ecti n g a n d gem
cutti n g . A n a mateur can co l l ect or purchase a n a b u n d a nce
of semiprecious stones which he can cut a n d polish (p. 90)
to bring out their br i l l ia n ce. From this it is o n l y o n e ste p
to m a k i n g your own jewe l ry. Photogra p h i n g rocks a n d
m i n era ls is a cha l l en g e t o t h e camera m a n . A cl ose- u p lens
revea ls str i k i n g deta i l s of form a n d co lor. F i n a l ly, more
experienced a m ateurs may wa nt to specia l ize i n the m i n ­
era ls o f t h e i r home loca l ity or i n certa i n grou ps, as t h e
q u a rtz m i n era ls. Others may fi n d t h a t experime nts with
fl u orescent ( p . 22) or radioactive m inera l s a re i m po rta nt
e n o u g h to d e m a n d their u n d ivided atte ntio n .
Mineralogy Clubs are so n u merous t h a t it is im pos­
sible to list them here. They are p l entif u l in the East a n d
West, but a re by n o m e a n s lack ing i n the m i d d l e states.
Some clubs specia l ize in gems, gem cutti n g , a n d polishing ,
but most a m ateur groups are concerned with a l l aspects
of rocks a n d m i nera ls. Some a re for a l l , includ i n g beg in­
ners; a few are for adva nced students a n d professionals.
All have meeti ngs, exh ib its, fi e l d tri ps, a n d sometimes
their own l aboratories. Join a club if there is one nea rby.
There is no better way to get started.

12
JAD E I T E is sod i u m a l u m i n u m sili­ SPODUM E N E is l ith i u m a l u m i n u m
cate ( NaAISi206 ) . Color: w h ite, silicate (liAISi206); o p a q u e­
yel low, brown, o r green. Ofte n a white, l i lac, or yel low. Rarely a
gem ( p . 88); seldom as crysta ls. transparent crysta l l i n e gem stone.

IDENTI FYING MINERALS

MINERALS AR E CHEMICALS They a re chem ica l ele­

ments or com pounds fou n d natura l ly i n the crust of t h e
earth. T h e y a re inorgan ic, in co ntrast t o org a n i c chem ica ls
(made m a i n ly of carbon, hydrogen, a n d oxyg en) typica l
of l iving things. Some m inerals have a fi xed chem ica l
com position. Others a re a series of related com pounds i n
wh ich one meta l l ic element m a y who l l y or partly re place
another. The two m inerals a bove a re very similar chem­
ica l l y a n d i n some of their p hysica l prope rties, but a re
usua l l y q u ite d ifferent in color a n d other physica l prop­
erties. On ly rarely will a s i n g l e physica l or c h em i c a l prop­
erty identify a m i n era l . Usua l l y more c h a ra cteristics m u st
be used. These p hysica l a n d chem ica l properties are de­
scribed on pp. 1 4 to 24 . Some a re in herent a n d re liable;
others a re varia b l e a n d m u st be used with care. You can
easily learn to use the simpler physica l a n d chem ica l tests.
Identifi cation of m a n y rare m i nera l s often req ui res ex­
pen sive l a bo ratory eq u i p ment and deta i le d c h e m i c a l a n d
o ptica l tests w h ich only an ex pert can m a k e.

13
 SOD I U M ATOM combines with CHLOR I N E ATOM

by tra n sferring
one electron per atom
a n d fo rming a

sod i u m chloride
i o n ( N o+) ion (CI-)

which a re present i n sod i u m ch loride ( h a l ite, p . 68)

ELEM ENTS a re the b u i l d i n g blocks of a l l materials, in­

c l u d i n g m i nera ls a n d rocks. About 1 00 e l e m e nts are
known. A d ozen or so were known i n ancient times; the
latest were fou n d i n atom-splitting experiments. All are
made u p of protons, neutrons, and e lectro ns. These, com­
b i n ed, form atoms of m atter. The atoms i n turn join to
fo rm molecu les-the smollest pa rticles usually produced
in chem ica l reactions. When tem peratures a re h i g h , mo le­
cu les may brea k down i nto atoms or atom g rou ps. With
slow cool i n g these may join together, i n reg u l a r order, to
form c rysta ls. Most m i n e ra l s are c rysta l l i ne, being formed
from coo l i n g m ixtures, liqu ids, or vapors i n the crust of
the ea rth.
The arrangement of a n otom's e l ectrons determines
with what other elements it will combine, a n d i n what pro­
portions. The p hysica l cond itions i n molten materia l s a lso
set the pattern by which chemica l elements form d iffer­
ent m i n era l s. The science of physica l chemistry has much
to reve a l a bout how, w hy, a n d when m i nerals form.

14
I NT E R F E R E N C E PATT E R N S a re BIAX I A L 1NT E R F E R E N C E F I G·
shown by this thin section of a URE forms when a thin sheet of
rack rich in pyroxene, here viewed m uscovite mica is exa m ined
t h rough a polarizing microscope. through a pola rizing microscope.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES of m inera l s a re used ma inly by

experts, but a mateurs should know a bout them because
they a re fundamenta l in precise m inera l identification.
O ptic a l identification is h i g h l y accurate and can be used
with pa rtic les of microscopic size. X-rays sent through
thin fra g ments or powders produce a pattern depend ent
on the structure of the molecules and so a re an a i d to
identification. Pieces of m inera ls or rocks are mounted on
s l ides, then ground t i l l pa per th in. These thin sections are
exa m ined th roug h ord inary and po l a rized l i g ht. The
bending of l i g ht as it passes throug h the m inera ls g ives
patterns that aid in identifi cation. Fragments of m inera l s
c a n be i m mersed in transpa rent l iq u ids of d ifferent d en­
sity to measure their index of refraction. This is d i stinct
for each m inera l and is related to its crysta l system ( p p.
16- 17) . Thus an expert can te l l if a diamond or emerald
is rea l o r false without do ing any d a m a g e to the stone. I t
is worth paying m o re attention t o these optica l properties
as you become more experienced.

A check on this
.!'I<...J.Lll� d i a m o n d ' s i n dex
of refraction shows
-
that bottom is •
_,, index 1.8
cemented glass. . ....... ..

15
 CRYSTAL FORM is critica l in m inera l identification as
it reflects the structure of the very molecules of the m i n ­
era l . I t is a lso t h e most d i ffi c u l t chara cteristic t o u s e a n d
o n e that req u i res the most ca refu l study. Yet crysta l s a re
so magn ificent in their beauty a n d symmetry it is some­
times hard to bel ieve they are natura l . The study of how
they are formed revea l s mathematica l relation s h i ps as
a mazing a n d as bea utiful as the c rysta l s themse lves. Per-

Cubic (Isometric) Sys­

tem includes c rystals in which
the three axes (common to five
of six systems) a re of equal
length a n d are at right a n g les
to one another, a s i n a cube­
exa m p l es: galena, g a r n et, py­
rite, a n d h a l ite.

Tetragonal System has

two axes of eq u a l length and
one u n eq u a l . All three axes
a re at right a n g les to one
a n other, as i n zircon, ruti le,
a n d cassiterite.
Z I RC O N RUTILE

Hexagonal System has

three equa l axes at 1 20° an­
g les a rra nged i n one plane
and o n e more axis of a differ­
ent length at right a n g les to
these, as in q u a rtz, beryl, cal­
c ite, tourma l ine, a n d c i n n abar.
QUA RTZ CALC I T E
16
 feet crysta l s a re rare, a n d some a re of g reat va l ue. How­
ever, a frag ment or a n im perfect crysta l w i l l yield basic
data to the experienced m i n eralog ist. Sometimes c rysta ls
develop i n c l usters, or as tw ins. They reve a l d istortions,
i n c l usions, and other i nterru ptio ns in their development.
A very simple out l i n e of the six systems of crysta ls is g iven
o n these two pages as a bare i ntroduction to the science
of crysta l lo g ra p hy:

Orthorhombic System
has crysta l s with three axes a l l
a t right a n g l es, but a l l of dif­
ferent length. Exa m p l es: su lfu r,
barite, celestite, sta urol ite, a n d
o l ivine.

SULFUR STAUROL I T E

Monoclinic System has

three unequal axes, two of
which a re n ot at right a n g les.
The third makes a right a n g l e
t o the p l a n e of the o t h e r two,
as i n orthoclase, gypsu m ,
·micas, a u g ite, epidote, a n d
hornblende. E P I DOTE AUGITE

Triclinic System has three

u n eq u a l axes but none forms a
right a n g l e with any other. Ex­
a m p l es: p l a g ioc la se fe ldspa rs,
rhodon ite, a n d cha lca nth ite.
AMAZONSTO N E R H O D O NITE
 A scratches B

Try to scratch Try to scratch B does not

A with· B B w ith A scratch A

HARDNESS is used in a rou g h manner in mineral identi­

fication. The re a re much more precise ways of measuring
hardness in i n d ustria l laboratories. Thoug h arb itra ry,
Mohs' sca le of ten m i nera ls is useful:
1 . Talc 6. Orthoclase
2. Gypsum 7. Q u a rtz
3. C a l cite 8. Topaz
4. F l u orite 9. Coru n d u m
5 . Apatite 10. Diamond

Remem ber these ten by using the odd sentence "The Girls
Can F l irt And Other Queer Things Can Do." Gypsum is
harder than ta l c but not twice as hard; fl uorite is harder
than ca l cite a n d less hard tha n a patite. If a n u n k nown wi l l
scratch a l l t h e m i nerals in the sca l e u p t o 4 and i s scratched
by a patite, its hardness is betwee n 4 and 5. C heck care­
f u l l y to be sure there is a d isti nct scratch. Don't test hard­
ness on the face of a va l u a b l e crysta l . For field use here
are some other convenient sta n da rds of hard ness:

penny
3

steel
file
6.5
 A bala nce used

SPEC I F I C GRAVITY is the re lative weight of a m i n eral

com pared to the weight of a n equal v o l u m e of water.
Since the weight of a n equa l vo l u m e of water is identica l
with the m i n era l's loss in weight when weig hed in water,
specific g ravity (Sp. Gr.) is q u ickly deter m i n e d . A coru n ­
d u m c rysta l weig h i n g 2 . 0 o z . d r y weig hs 1 .5 o z . w h e n
suspen ded i n water. The l o s s ( 0 . 5 o z . ) divided into the
d ry weig ht g ives a specific g ravity of 4.0. T h is may seem
odd, beca use coru n d u m contains only a l u m i n u m {Sp. Gr.
2 .5) a n d oxyg en, a gas. lea rn to estimate s pecifi c g ravity
and make you r own measu rements as an aid to identi­
fi catio n . Below are some average fi g u res.

Borax 1.7 Talc 2.8 Corundum 4.0

Sulfur 2.0 Muscovite 2.8 Rutile 4.2
H a l ite 2.1 Tremo lite 3.0 Ba rite 4.5
Sti l bite 2.2 Apatite 3.2 Zi rcon 4.7
Gypsum 2.3 C rocidol ite 3.3 Z i n cite 5.5
Serpentine 2.5 Topaz 3.5 C a ssiterite 7.0
Orthoclase 2.6 Rhodoch rosite 3.6 Cinnabar 8.0
Qua rtz 2.7 Stau rolite 3.7 U r a n i n ite 9.5
C a lcite 2.7 Siderite 3.9 Gold 19.3

(Sp. Gr. of some m i n e r a l s may vary a s much as 25 per cent from sped·
men to spec i m e n . )

-
+ -

aluminum oxygen coru n d u m

Sp. G r . 2.5 a gas S p . G r . 4.0 19
 Rhombohedral
c leavage:
calcite

Basa l
C u bi c cleavage:
cleavage:
mica
galena

C LEAVAG E is the way some minera l s s p l it a l ong planes

related to t h e molecu l a r structure of the m inera l a n d par­
a l l e l to poss i b le c rysta l faces: The perfection of c l eavage
is described in five steps from poor (as in born ite) to fair,
good, perfect, and e m i nent (as in m i cas). The types of
c l eavage a re usua l l y described b.y the n u m ber and direc­
tion of c l eavage planes. Th ree exa m p les of cleavage a re
· shown a bove. Use c l eavage as a n aid in identifi catio n ­
t h o u g h y o u may at fi rst fi nd it difficu lt t o te l l the face of
a c rysta l from a fresh, perfect c l eavage s u rface.
Fracture is the breakage of a m i n e r a l s pecimen i n
s o m e w a y other t h a n a long c l eavage p l a n es. N o t a l l min ­
era l s show good c l eavage; most show fracture. Fresh frac­
tures show the m i n er a l 's true color. Five to seven types of
fracture a re recog n ized; three are shown below.

Conchoidal U neven E a rthy

fractu re: fracture: fractu re:
obsi d i a n a rsenopyrite clay

20
COLOR is the fi rst of th ree c h a rac­
teristics that have to do with the
way a m i n era l l ooks. In most meta l ­
lic ores it is a safe c l ue in identifica­
tio n . But i n q u a rtz, coru n d u m , cal­
cite, fl u o rite, agate, ga rnet, tourma­
l i ne, a n d others it is often d u e to TOURMAL I NE C RYSTAL
i m p urities a n d m a y vary greatly.
So use c o l o r with caution and use
o n ly the color of a freshly b roken
s u rface. N ote the s u rface ta rnish
o n some meta l l i c o res; it differs
from the true col or, but can be used CORUNDUM
for identification a l so.
Streak is the color of the pow­
d e red minera l best seen when the
m i nera l is rubbed agai nst a streak
p l ate of u n g lazed porcelain (the
back of a tile is exce l l e nt). In m eta l ­
l i c ores the streak may d iffer from
the color and so is worth noting.
Luster d e pe n ds o n the absorp­ U S I NG A STREAK PLATE

tion, reflection, o r refra ction of

LUSTER
l ig ht by the surface of a m i n era l . It
is often a n aid i n identification.
meta l l i c
About a dozen terms are used, m ost
of w hi ch a re se lf-explanatory:
adamantine ( b ri l l ia nt), l ike d ia­ resi n o u s

mond; vitreous ( g lassy), like q ua rtz;

a n d metallic ( l ike meta l), l i ke ga le­
n a . The prefix· sub- is used when
the characteristic is less c l ear. Oth­
e r lusters to n ote: d u l l, earthy, s i l ky,
g reasy, pea r l y, resinous.
g l a ssy
 liGHT

WILLEMITE
A N D CALC I TE

C OMMON
OPAL

U LTRAVIOLET LIGHT is invisible. I ts waves are too short

to be d etected by the eye. However, some m inerals, when
exposed to this l ig ht, are "excited"-they absorb the u l tra­
vio let light and e m it longer light rays w h ic h we see as
co lors. Minera l s which do this are fluorescent. If they con­
tinue to e m it light after the u ltravio let rays have been cut
off, they are phosphorescent ( l ike the l u m i nous dial of a
watc h). A q u a rtz l a m p is a fi n e source of u ltraviolet light
of s h o rt (about 1 1 1 0,000 in.) wave l e n gth. A n arg on light
g ives l o n g e r u ltraviolet rays. Not all m i nera ls fl u oresce
when exposed to u ltravio l et l i g ht. U ra n i u m m i nera l s do;
so does scheel ite, a n ore of tungsten , and other tungsten
m i nera ls. Other minerals may fl uoresce because of im­
purities, and sti l l others fl uoresce when from one loca l ity
a n d n ot when from a n other; this makes the search for
fl u o rescent m inera ls exciti n g . A porta b l e q u a rtz l a m p
can be used o n fi e l d trips. Beca use o f t h e i r bea uty, fluores­
cent m inera ls receive a good dea l of attention, but the
serio us study of fl uorescence is a difficu l t one.

22
MAG N ETISM occurs in a few
m in era ls. lodeston e (a form of mag ­
n etite) is a natura l magnet. An a l ­
n ico m a g n et wi l l attract b its o f mag­
n etite a n d pyrrhotite. A few man­
g a n ese, n ickel, a n d iron-tita n i u m
ores become m a g n etic w h e n heated
by a b lowp i p e .

ELECTR I C A L PROPERTI ES of
m i nera l s a re varied. Thin slabs of •
q u a rtz c rysta l control radio fre­ •
q ue ncies. C rysta ls of su lfur, topaz,
and other m in era l s deve lop an e lec­
tric c harge w h e n rubbed. To urma­
line crysta ls, when h eated, deve l o p
o p posite c h a rges at o p posite e n d s
of the crysta l .

H EAT may raise the tem perature o f -

a m i n e ra l t i l l it w i l l f u s e i n a b l ow­ Heated tou r m a l i n e

develops electric
pipe fl a m e . Use o n l y sma l l, thin cha rges
s p l i nters. The seven-point sca le of
fusi b i l ity, with exa m p les, is: b l owpipe
flame
1. Stibnite fuses i n alcohol l a m p o r (980°F)
ca n d l e fl a m e
2 . Chalcopyrite f u s e s e a s i l y i n blow- (1475°F)
pipe fl a m e
3. Almandite ·fuses less e a s i l y i n ( 1920°F)
b l owpipe fl a m e forceps
°
4. Actinolite: thin e d g e s f u s e e a s i l y (2 190 F)
with blowpipe
°
5. Orthoclase: t h i n edges fuse with (2374 F)
d ifficulty chalcopyrite
E n stat i te: o n l y thinnest edges fuse
°
6. (2550 F)
with blowpipe
7. Q uartz : n o fusing at a l l i n blow- (Over
pipe fl a m e 2550°f\

23
 G E I G E R C O U NTERS are not a tool for the amateur
mineralogist but have become well known because of their
use in locating or checking deposits of uranium and thor­
ium. The Geiger tube is the heart of the counter. A wire
down the center of the tube has a negative charge. How­
ever, no current flows, because of the gas that fills the
tube. When the tube is exposed to radiation, some of the
molecules of the gas are ionized. They develop an electric
charge because of electrons knocked from them. The ion­
ized gas conducts electricity and there is a momentary
flash of current through the tube. This is recorded on a
counter or dial, or heard as a click in headphones. Cosmic
rays from outer space also discharge the Geiger tube,
and these must be considered when searching for ore.
In order to get an effect, the ordinary Geiger counter
must be held close to the ore. Hence it works best on out­
crops and other exposed rock. The richer the ore, the
more numerous the discharges and clicks. The scintillom­
eter is another sensitive apparatus used to detect radio­
active materials.

24
MI N ERALS as natural inorganic chemicals can be iden­
tified by their chemical properties as well as by hardness,
streak, or luster. Once a mineral is dissolved (often a dif·
flcult task), other chemical solutions can be added to
identify the elements in it. Chemists make constant use
of these "wet" tests. Although prospectors working in iso­
lated places can frequently identify a mineral or rock by
its physical properties, they also collect and bring material
in for laboratory study.
Laboratory tests often involve a blowpipe, a short metal
tube for blowing air into a flame. In blowpipe analysis, a
bit of the mineral to be tested is heated on a charcoal
block. The colored coatings which form identify the ele­
ments present. The mineral may be powdered, also, and
a touch of the powder absorbed in a drop of melted borax
to give a bead test (p. 28). When mineral powder is
brought into a flame, the flame color may be studied.
Powdered minerals are also heated in closed or open tubes
(p. 30).
Mineral analysis calls for the basic materials listed be­
low-as well as for a working knowledge of chemistry.
Books to help you are listed on p. 1 56.
Blowpipe Mortar a n d pestle
C h a rcoa l b l ocks Blue a n d g reen glass
Alcohol o r gas b u r n e r Hammer and s m a l l anvil
Test tubes litmus paper
Open tu bes Borax pow d e r a n d other
Chemical forceps chem ica l s
Plati n u m wire Magnet

25
 R E DUC I NG FLAME OX I D I Z I NG FLAME

Use blowpipe to send o strea m of beh i n d flame and heat specimen

o i r i nto flame, molding it i nto a at tip of i nterior b l u ish cone. For
na rrow cone a bout 2 i n . long. oxidizing fl a m e, hold blowpipe i n
For reducing fl ame, hold blowpipe flame a n d heat specime n at tip.

BLOWPIPE TESTS make use of an a lcohol, gas, or

ca n d l e flam e. Moving the b l owpipe back and forth as
shown a bove p rod uces a n oxidizing fl a m e (extra oxyge n
c o m e s f r o m the air b lown i nto the flame) or a reducing
fl a m e ( hot gases take oxygen from t h e specimen). The
powdered specimen set i n a h o l low at o n e end of a char­
coa l block is heated in the flame u ntil c h a n ges occur.
Sometimes a fi ne, colored coating (sub l i mate) forms; some­
times a bead of meta l is left behind or cha racteristic fumes
are released. When a fl u x (iodide, bromide, or ch romate)
is added to the powdered min eral, differently colored
coati n g s form . These may be used to confirm the tests. I n
some tests t h e m i n era l i s heated o n a block o f plaster in­
stead of a c harcoa l block. Fi nal ly, the b l owpipe can be
used to heat a m inera l specimen directly, as i n d eterm in­
ing fusibil ity. A s l iver of the mineral is h e l d by forceps
d i rectly in the fl a me, as shown o n p . 23.

Blowpipe test for zinc: heati n g ore

on c h a rcoal with oxidizing flame.
SAM P L E BLOWP I P E T ESTS for
the meta l l i c e l e m e n t in the m inera l
specimen:
Anti m o n y forms a dense wh ite
coating, b l uish at the fringe; it is
volatile, but n ot as much as a rsenic,
which forms a s i m i l a r coating and A N T I MO N Y

has a garlic odor.

B i smuth m i nerals g ive a n
ora n ge-ye l l ow coating, w h i c h be­
comes g reen ish-ye l low o n coo l i n g .
A g r a y britt l e b utto n o f b is m uth
a l so forms. When iodide fl ux is
m ixed with the powdered m i n e ra l , B ISMUTH

the coating is ye l low w i t h a reddish

border.
Copper When oxides are
h eated in the red uc i n g flame with
a fl u x practica l ly no coating resu lts,
but a redd ish ba l l of meta l l ic cop­
per remains. Blowpipe fl a m e is col­
ored b l ue-gree n .
Lead m i nera ls h eated i n a re­
ducing fl a m e l eave beh i n d a g ray
ba l l of m eta l l ic lead. The coating is
yel lowish (da rker when hot) with a
white or b l uish border.
Z i n c m i n e r a l s g ive a sma l l coat- LEAD
ing c lose to the specimen-bright
yel low w h e n hot ( p . 26), w h ite when
cold. Add a d rop of coba lt n itrate
s o l ution to the coating, reheat, a n d
t h e coating w i l l t u r n g ree n . Use
plaster b lock with iod ide fl ux.
·Z I N C
27
 B e a d in o x i d i z i n g fla m e .

B E AD T ESTS help identify metals when minerals are dis­

solved in a flux and heated. The flux is borax, heated
in a loop of platinum wire till a clear glassy bead is
formed. The hot borax bead is touched to a trace of the
powdered mineral and is reheated in reducing and
oxidizing flames. The color of the bead is noted when hot
and when cold. All traces of a previous bead must be
"washed" off the wire before a new test is made. Below
are the colors in some common bead tests.

OXIDIZING FLAME REDUCING FLAME

Metal Hot Cold Hot Cold

Antimony yellow colo rless yellow colo rless

C h ro m i u m yellow g re e n g reen green
Cob alt blue b l ue blue blue
Co p p e r g reen blue colo r l ess b rown
I ro n yellow green g reen green
M a n g a nese violet-brown v i o l e t colo r l ess col o rless
M o l y b d e n u m yellow colo rless b rown brown
N ic k e l violet brown colo rless-g ray colorless-gray
Tita n i u m colorless colo rless-w h ite yellow-g ray yellow
T u n gsten y e l low colo rless y el low b rown
Ura n i u m yellow y e l l ow-b rown g ree n green
Va n a d i u m yellow green b rown g re e n

Alter M. lim, B l o w p i p e A n a lysis a n d Tests for Com m o n Min e rals, 7935.

OX I D I Z I NG R E D UC I N G

COPP E R

I RO N

U RA N I UM

HOT COLD HOT COLD

28
/
SODIUM STRONTIUM COPPER POTASSIUM
Strong yel low, Strong, i n tense Bl ue, with some V i o l et, visible
i nvisible through crimson-red green, depend- as red through
coba l t g l a ss. flame. i n g o n ore. coba l t g l ass.

FLAME T ESTS depend on the fact that small amounts of

mineral introduced into a flame will color the flame, de­
pending on the metals it contains. Flame tests are fairly
crude, but when such flames are viewed through a spec­
troscope, a highly accurate kind of chemical analysis is
possible. The spectroscope and the X-ray are important
tools in advanced work with minerals and are essential
in working with small, rare specimens.
To make simple flame tests, use a clean platinum or
nichrome wire. The wire, dipped in strong hydrochloric
acid, is held in the flame until no change in flame color
is seen. The wire loop is touched to a bit of the powdered
mineral, also moistened with acid, and then flamed. The
flame may be viewed directly, or through a cobalt blue
glass, which masks the yellow sodium color. The Merwin
screen, made of two overlapping layers of colored plastic,
is also used to view flame colors.

29
 On co n tin ued h e a t i n g it forms a
y e l low to re d d i s h-brown s u blimate
in t h e co o l port of t h e t u b e .

LEAD ORE (ga l e n a ) t u r n s a lig h t

co l o r a n d for m s a w h ite s u b l i mate
when h ea te d in on open t u b e .

TUBE T ESTS involve heating powdered minerals in closed

and open tubes to see what sublimates form in the upper,
cooler part of the tube, and to notice fumes and odors
from the heated mineral. The closed tube is an ordinary
pyrex test tube. Use only enough mineral to barely cover
the bottom. Hold at a low angle in Bunsen burner flame
and heat until mineral is red hot. Watch for fumes and
sublimates. The open tube can be a piece of straight or
bent glass tubing about six inches long. The powdered
mineral is inserted about an inch from the lower end,
and the specimen is heated while being held at a low
angle. Do not tilt higher or the specimen will spill. Air
circulates through the open tube and oxidizes the mineral
powder. Sublimates form at the cool end. Use a test tube
holder for these tests.

30
 in matrix

M E TALLIC MIN E RALS

The metals are the core of our civilization. Life as we

know it would be impossible without them. Here are the
minerals from which our most important metals are ob­
tained; they form an interesting group for collectors.

COPPER n uggets were found by a ncient m a n . Later, cop­

per was smelted from its ores. Today it is essentia l for
practica lly a l l things electrica l and for many othe r uses.
Chi le, Peru, Cyprus, Africa, Ja pan, a n d Austra lia have
large deposits. Our deposits are largely i n Michigan,
Mon ta na, Ten nessee, a n d the Southwest. Copper occurs
principa l ly in volca n i c rocks a n d in veins. Native capper
(H. 2 . 5 to 3, Sp. Gr. 8.9) is hard to mine. The su lfides a n d
carbonates described o n t h e n ext page a r e easier t o
h a n d l e. Some malachite and azurite is c u t f o r ornaments
and gems, a s is c hrysoco l la, a copper s ilicate. Cuprite
(copper oxide}, a reddish brawn m inera l, resu lts from oxi­
dation of other copper m i nera l s
Sulfides a re b lack, purple, and yel­

���
low. The oxide and n ative copper . . ·. · ·

a re d u l l red; the carbonates, blue \ .T �

I )..
and g•een. C•y•ta I• D'O '"'"·
•

31
 C h alcocite (Cu 2 S) is a dark
meta l l ic m i nera l . H. 2.5; Sp. Gr.
5.5; strea k, g ray to b lack. A n im­
porta nt ore, it is found with the
other three minerals on this page.
Usu a l l y occurs i n vein d eposits;
crysta l s rare.

Covellite ( C uS), fou n d with

other copper su lfide ores, forms
thin deep b l u e plates, usua l ly
ta r n ished to purple or b lack. Not
as com mon or as rich in co pper as
cha lcocite. H . 1 . 5 to 2; Sp. Gr. 4.6;
l u ster, meta l l ic. Occurs a s crysta l s
or incrustations.

Born ite (Cu5FeS4) is ca l l e d

peacock ore because of i t s usua l ly
shi ny, purple ta r n i s h . An im porta nt
ore, fou n d i n veins o r scattered in
i g n eous rock. Crysta l s rare. Bronze­
co lored when fresh . H . 3; Sp. Gr. 5;
streak, b lack. May conta i n sma l l
B u tte, Mont.
a m ounts o f g o l d a n d si lver.

Ch alcopyrite (CuFeS2), the

common coppe r ore, is a b rassy,
a l m ost g o l de n m i n era l . May form
crysta l s but is m o re often fou n d in
massive form, i n m ost co pper m i n es.
H . 3.5 to 4; Sp. Gr. 4.2; streak,
Beaver Co., U tah greenish-b lack; very brittle.

32
 Cuprite (Cu20) forms by
weathering of other o res and so is
more com m o n near the surface.
Cubic crysta l s fa irly co m m o n . Also
occurs as g ra i n s a n d irreg u l a r
m asses. H . 3.5; Sp. Gr. 6; co lor, Seven Devils, Wash.
red dish-brown; streak, b row n i s h .

C h rysocol l a (CuSi03·2 H 2 0) i s
fou n d i n veins a n d. masses with
q ua rtz in most copper m i nes i n the
Southwest. Its c h ief value is as a
g e m when even -co lored and rich
i n q ua rtz. Color varies, often b l u ish
g ree n ; H . 2 to 4; Sp. Gr. 2 . C rysta l s
a re rare.

Malach ite a n d Azurite a re

usua l ly fou n d together. Malachite
(CuCo3·C u (O Hh), more com mon
than azurite, is various sha des of
g reen. Azurite (2CuC03·Cu(OHh),
w h ich is b l ue, forms crysta ls m ore
often . Both occur in sm ooth or i rreg ­
u l a r masses i n the u pper leve l s of
m ines. Com pact, dee p-co lored
stones a re cut a s orname nts. H . (for
both) about 4; Sp. Gr. 3 .7 to 4.
A Z U R I TE- Bisbee, Ariz.

cut a n d polished Azurite a n d m a l a ch ite mixture 33

 GALENA C RYSTALS

LEAD does occur as the n ative m eta l , but

on ly rarely. The m ost i m porta nt source of
lead is the minera l galena, lead sulfide
(PbS). It has been known for centuries, and lead, sme lted
easily from it, has a lso been used si nce a ncient times.
G a l e n a is fo und i n veins, pockets, and repl acement de­
posits in carbonate rocks. It occurs with z i n c, co pper, a n d
si lver, often conta i n i n g enoug h of the latter m eta l s t o
make the ore d o u b l y va luable. About two-thirds o f U.S.
p roduction comes from lead-zinc ores.
Galena is a heavy, brittle, si lvery-gray m i n e ra l w h ich
com m o n ly forms cubic crysta ls and has perfect cubic cleav­
age. Its crysta l s were used i n early ra dio sets. H . 2.5; Sp.
Gr. 7.5; streak, lead-gray. America n d eposits are in
southeast Misso uri, the Tri-State (Missouri-Ka nsas-Ok la­
h om a ) area, i n I l l i n ois and Wisconsin, a n d i n C o lorado,
I d a ho, and Uta h with si lver ores. Europe, South A rr: erica ,
a n d Austra l i a have com mercia l deposits also.

cleavage p l a n es
 A N G L E S I T E R E PLAC I N G GALE N A
leadvil le, C o l o .
Tintic d istrict, Utah

C ER U S S I T E I N
E m b reevi l le, Tenn.

Over a dozen other lead m i n ­

era ls exist, but of this n u m b e r o n l y
two h a v e m u c h i m porta n ce as ores.
Both a re secon dary m inera ls de­
rived from g a lena by the slow
action of a i r a n d water. Silver­
bearing g a lena is roasted to form lead oxide a n d su lfur
d ioxide gas, then red uced with carbon . Zinc is a dded.
The si lver a n d zinc rise and are skimmed off. The zinc
is removed by distil lation.
Cerussite (PbC03) forms large w hite or gray crysta ls,
sometimes needle-like i n bund les. It a lso occurs a s mas­
sive deposits o r as loose, crysta l l in e crusts. H . 3 ; Sp. Gr.
6.5; adamantine o r s i l ky l u ster, w hite streak.
Ang lesite (PbS04) is often found with ga lena, a s a
w h ite or gray crust. H. 3, Sp. Gr. 6.4; streak, w h ite.
 GOLD is neither the ra rest n o r the most v a l u a b l e meta l,
yet it is part of the ·fou n dation of trade a n d c o m m e rce,
and has m a n y uses because of its meta l l i c properties.
Ancients who fou n d native g o l d prized it, a n d gold, beau­
tiful and easi ly worked, is sti l l widely used i n jewe l ry.
A soft m eta l (H. 2 .5), it is sometimes a l loyed with copper
to h a rden it a n d m a ke it go further. Pure gold is 24 carats;
hence 1 4 ca rat gold is 1 4/24 or about 60 per cent g o l d .
Go l d is fou n d i n q ua rtz veins, sometimes w i t h pyrite. T h e
g o l d may occur within t h e pyrite itse lf-giv i n g foo l 's g o l d
a rea l v a l ue. Gold may occur i n metamorphic rock a n d
occas io n a l l y i n sed iments where it h a s been redeposited.
O n l y rare ly is visible gold found in g o l d ore. It usua l l y
ca n not be seen at a l l. Some o f t h e com m e rcia l ores con­
tain only 0. 1 o u nce of gold for each ton of rock.

Gold in
q u a rtz with pyrite-C a l .

G O L D N U G G ET- C a l .

X i p e , Gad af S p r i n g -
a n c i e n t g o l d w o r k f r o m Mexico
36
 As g o l d d eposits a re eroded,
the h eavy gold (Sp. Gr. 1 9.3) is
concentrated in strea m beds
where g ra i n s, fla kes, and even
n uggets may be fou n d by wa sh­
i n g away the lig hter sand i n a GOLD C RYSTAL 0.1 in.
g o l d pan or a s l uice. From these
p lacer deposits m i ne rs have gone
o n to search for the orig i n a l veins
o r " l odes." Here the gold may be
found as flecks i n the q ua rtz and,
rarely, a s octa hedra l crysta ls.
Gold is m a l leab le; color pa le to
golden yel low; meta l l ic l uster. It
G O L D O R E - lead, S . Oak.
occurs as a compound with te l l u­
rium in such m i n erals as sylva n ite
(Au,Ag)Te 2 a n d c a l averite, AuTe 2 •
Go ld may a lso be recovered from
other meta l l ic ores.
 NAT I V E S I LV E R

S I LVER sometimes occurs as native si lver in large twist­

ing, bra n c h i n g masses. Another i m portant source of silver
is the sulfide (Ag 2 S)-argentite. I n addition, si lver, lead,
su lfur, and antimony form a whole series of ra re, com­
p lex m i n e ra ls. Silver may be a va l u a b l e by-prod uct in
smelti n g lead, zinc, and other meta l s.
Argentite is m assive, or it may
form cubic crysta ls. Found w ith
lead, copper, and zinc m i nerals.
Color si lvery when fresh, b lack to
g ray when tarnished. H . 2.5; Sp.
Gr. 7.3; luster, meta l l ic.

pure silver sterling sliver coin sliver

1 000 fi ne 925 fine 900 fi ne

38
 C I N NABAR

crystal

M E R C U RY, in the form of cinnabar (HgS), is freq uently

a bright red, attractive m i n e ra l fo und near hot springs
and in low-tem perature veins-typica l ly near volca n ic
rocks. American d eposits, concentrated in the Sierra Ne­
vada and coast ran ges, are more l i m ited than th ose of
Spain. C i n n a b a r forms hexagona l crysta l s but is usua l ly
massive or occurs as scattered fl ecks. H. 2 . 5 ; Sp. Gr. 8. 1 ;
color varies from b lack to bright red; prism atic c l eavage.
Mercury is a lso fou n d as silvery g lo b u l es of n ative mercury
in deposits of c i n n a bar. It is used i n m e d i c i ne, in the
m a n ufacture of thermom eters a n d explosives, a n d i n sev­
era l chem ica l i n d u stries.

At room tem­
perature m e rcu ry mercury
I ro n floats is a liquid freezes
I n mercury
S p . Gr. 1 3.6
 IRON ORES
M E TEORITES a re " s h o o t i n g stars"
w h i c h reach t h e earth . Same are
stony; some a r e i ro n a l loyed with
nickel and traces of other meta ls.
Meteors ra nge from s a n d-gra i n
size t o m asses wei g h i n g tons. S u r­
face ofte n pitted, oxidized, or
ru sty. I ro n meteors a re mag netic.
H. 4 to 5; Sp. Gr. 7.5.
HEMAT I T E ( F e 2 0 3 ) , the most im­
porta n t iron o re, conta i n s about
70 per cent iron. G reat beds oc­
c u r i n M i n nesota, Mich i g a n , Wis­
co n s i n , and a d j a cent C a n a d a .
H e m atite varies from a r e d earthy
powder to a d a rk, compact, s h i n y
m i n e ra l . H . 1 to 6; Sp. Gr. a b o u t
5; strea k, c h e r r y r e d .
MAG N ETITE ( F e 3 0 4 ) is t h e only
b l a c k ore t h a t con be p i cked u p
e a s i l y by a mag net. The h a rd ( H .
6) a n d h eavy (Sp. G r . 5 . 2 ) black
crysta l s o r ma sses are found i n
b a s i c i g n e o u s rocks a n d metamor­
p h osed sedimenta ry rocks. A val­
uable ore, though sometimes d if­
fi c u l t to m i n e . Stre a k : black.
LIMONIT E , a n iron ore with water
( 2 F e 2 0 3 · 3 H 2 0 ) . is soft a n d earthy
(ye l l o w och re) o r i n compa ct,
smooth, d a rk, rounded mosses.
Never crysta l l i n e. Limonite with
about 60 per cent iron fo rms a
series of very s i m i l a r iron m i n er­
a l s. H . 1 to 5.5; Sp. Gr. a bout
3.5; strea k, yell ow-brown .
MARCAS I TE { F e 5 2 ) . sometimes
called wh ite pyrites, is s i m i l a r but
l i g hter and more brittle than true
pyrites. I t occ u rs in radiating a n d
coxcom b forms, a s crustatio ns a n d
concretions, i n clays, peat, a n d
coal . H . 6; S p . G r . 4 . 8 ; crysta ls
commo n . Speci m e n s crumble and
break u p o n sta n d i n g .
PYRRHOTITE ( F eS) v a r i e s i n com­
position b u t a lways conta i n s an
excess of sulfur. Ofte n fo u n d with
nickel (Pentlandite) and mined for
its nickel content. Occurs as crys·
ta l s, thin p l a tes, g rains, o r masses.
Color, bronze (py rite is b rassy ) ;
H . 4; Sp. Gr. 4.6; streak, g ray­
black. Often mag netic.
PYRITE ( Fe52 ) o r foo l ' s gold is
not l i k e gold a t a l l , but w h e n tar­
nished may rese m b l e c h a l copyrite
(p. 32). Used to obtain s u l f u r
a n d sometimes a s a sou rce of i r o n .
C rysta l s a re com m o n ; a l so occu rs
as grains or in masses. H. 6; Sp.
Gr. about 5 ; strea k, g reenish­
black; color, light bra ssy y e l low.
SIDERITE (FeC03) is occasi o n a l l y
u s e d as i r o n o r e b u t deposits are
u s u a l ly sma l l a n d iron conte nt is
low-48 per cent. C rysta ls com­
mon; more ofte n in masses w h i c h
cleave like c a l c i t e ( p . 64) . Color,
yellow, gray, d a r k brow n ; H.
about 4; Sp. Gr. 3.8; streak,
wh ite; luster, pearly.
41
ore scrap l i m estone coke air b last p ig iron

BLAST F U R NAC E Iron has long been m a n 's m ost

i m porta nt meta l . Conti nuously op­
eratin g b l ast furnaces similar to the
one shown are used to produce pig
iron and ferro-a l l oys. The furn ace
is lined with fi re brick not bound
with m orta r.
Iron ore is genera l l y a n oxide,
as hematite, l i m o n ite, or magnetite,
a lthough occasio n a l ly a su lfide is
used after conversion to an oxide
by roasting. The ore is d u m ped into
the furnace a l o n g with coke, a n d
l imesto ne f o r fl ux. B l a sts o f h o t a i r
r o a r in f r o m the sides, u n iting with
the carbon of the coke to red uce
the ore to meta l lic iron which fl ows
to the bottom of the furnace, be­
n eath the slag.
The furnaces a re ta pped regu­
larly. Most of the m o lten iron is
taken di rectly to Bessemer o r o pen
hearth converters to be made into
stee l . Some is run into mol ds, mak­
ing pig iron.
O p e n - p i t m i n i n g , Mesa bi Range.
 bar m a g n et C a n a d i a n n ickel

N I C K EL ore, h a rd to smelt in the early days of European

m i n ing, was thought bewitched and was spurned by m i n ­
e r s . Canada, w i t h the la rgest deposits l ocated near Sud­
bury, Ontario, produces about three fourths of the free
world's nicke l . Niccol ite ( N iAs) and m i l lerite ( N iS) are
m ino r nickel ores occurring with sulfide and a rsenic ores
of coba lt and i ro n . The pri ncipal ore of n ickel (pentlandite)
occurs in pyrrhotite (p. 4 1 ) and i s similar to it. Greenish
secondary ores are found near the surface, w h ere weath­
ering has a ltered the primary minera ls. Oregon and Mis­
souri mines produce nicke l ores i n the U . S. N ickel, a
mag n etic m eta l, is widely used in a l loys, especi a l ly with
iron. Perma l l oy and a l n ico, both nickel a l l oys, are used
in making m a g n ets. German s i lver, another a l l oy, i s used
for kitchenware, ornaments, and e lectrica l heating wire.
U.S. nickels (5-cent pieces) conta i n about 75 per cent
copper and are n ot magnetic. Canad ian nickels, with a
higher n ickel content, a re magnetic.

M I L L E R I T E IN CALC I T E
St. Lou is, Mo.
C o ba l t, Ontario
43
 C O BALT is chemically related to
nickel and iron, and its ores are
often found with nickel and iron
minerals. The Belgian Congo and
Northern Rhodesia are the largest
producers; there, the cobalt is
found with copper. There are also
near Salmon, Idaho large deposits of cobalt ores in the
Scandinavian countries, and in
Canada with nickel.
Cobaltite (CoAsS) and skutteru­
0.1 in.
dite (CoNiFe)As3 (about the same
I
C RYSTAL F O R M S : c u b i c as smaltite) are the chief ores at
Cobalt, Ontario. Both crystallize in
the cubic system and look alike.
Cobaltite has a hardness of 5.5;
0. 1 in.
color, silvery-metallic. Skutterudite,
which is similar, also contains vari­
1 2-sided able amounts of nickel and iron
and is classified as an ore of which­
ever metal is dominant.
Cobalt is a heavy metal (Sp. Gr:
8.9) used in hardening steels and
in other alloys. Carboloy, an alloy
of cobalt and tungsten carbide, is
used in cutting steel. Another ferro­
cobalt alloy makes permanent
magnets. Cobalt oxides are impor­
S k u t t e r u d , N o rw a y tant pigments in paints and cera­
mics, in which they are used to
produce shades of green, blue, yel­
low, and red. It is the source of
color in blue glass. Cobalt also has
other chem ical uses.
 T I N is seen daily as the thinner­
than-paper coating on the surface
of tin cans. This layer protects the
iron of the can from rusting. About
half the supply of tin goes into the
50 billion tin cans made yearly.
Tin is also an important constituent
of bearing alloys ( Babbitt metal)
CASSITERITE
and of type metal and solder. In its
oldest use, and still a major one, it
is alloyed with copper and some
zinc to make bronze.
Tin is essentially a one-ore metal.
The ore, cassiterite (Sn0 2), tin ox­
ide, contains almost 80 per cent tin.
It is commonly brown or black,
though occasionally red, gray, or
C A SS I T E R I T E-WOOD T I N
yellow. Streak, pale; luster, glassy G u a n a j u a ta, Mexico
to adamantine. Cassiterite forms
crystals, but occurs more often as
fibrous masses (wood tin) or as
crusts or veins in granite and peg­
matite rock. It may be distinguished
from limonite by its high specific
gravity (7.0). The Malay placer de­
posits of gravel and cassiterite peb­
bles are mined by huge dredges.
t i n ca n
Small amounts occur in placer
deposits in Alaska, but most tin
comes from Malaya and Bolivia.
The Romans m ined tin from placer
deposits in Cornwall, England.
type m e t a l

bearings
so l d e r
45
 crysta l 0.2 i n .

in calcite
Franklin, N.J.

Z I N C was used as a n a l l oy with copper to produce brass

long before it was know n as a meta l lic e l e ment. Now
zinc is widely used i n coating iron to prevent rust (galva­
n ized i ron), as wel l as in dry-ce l l batteries, p a ints, other
a l loys and i n chemical industries. Zinc ores occu r with lead
and copper ores in veins associated w ith i g n eous rocks (p.
1 09) and as replacement deposits in carbonate rocks.
Sph aler ite, zincblende, o r b lackjack (ZnS) is the
primary m i n e ra l . Color: yel low, brown, o r b lack; l uster:
resinous. H . 3.5-4. Sp. Gr. 4. Spha le rite has perfect c leav­
age and b reaks easily. Some specimens are fl uorescent;
others emit flashes of l ight when scratched i n a dark room .

46
 S M I T H SO N I T E O N G A L E N A
Leadville, C o l o .

Broken Hill, New South Wales

H EM I MO R P H I T E

W I LLEMITE
Franklin, N.J.

Zi ncite is ora n g e- red zinc oxide (ZnO), a n ore a t

F ra n k l i n F u r n a ce, N . J . Found w i t h fra n k l i n ite, a m i n era l
sim i l a r to m a g n etite, conta i n i n g zinc a n d m a n g a n ese.
S m ithso n i te (ZnC03) fo rms a s zinc ores weather. It
is often a crysta l l i n e crust but mostly earthy and d u l l .
Good speci m e n s a re found i n t h e Southwest.
H e m i morph ite (Zn4Si 2 0 , (0 H k
H 20), a z i n c s i l icate w i t h water,
forms crysta l s or earthy de posits.
W i l l e m ite (Zn 2 Si04), tra n s l u­
cent, va ries i n color. Often fl uo­
rescent (p. 2 2 ) .
 Tessien, Switze r l a n d
ALUM I N UM

K ya n i te, or cya nite (AI2

Si05), is usua l l y found in
sc h ists a n d g n eisses. The
w h ite to b l ue-g ray or b l ack
crysta ls a re long and b lade­
l ike. Luster, g lassy to
h a r d n ess 5
pea rly; Sp. Gr. 3.6; hard­
ness u n usua l -4. to 5 a l o n g
the crysta l axis, but 7 across.
Cryo l ite ( N a 3AIF6) is a
l vigtut a rea, Gree n l a n d
rare mi nera l . Sma l l amou nts
have been found in Colo­
rado, but it is the o n e g reat
de posit i n Gree n l a n d that
was crucia l i n the h istory
of a l u mi n u m, m a k i n g the
smelting of ba uxite possi­
ble. Now, a rtifi c i a l cryo l ite
is used. H. 2.5; Sp. Gr. 3;
g lassy or greasy l uster. S p l i n­
ters fuse in c a n d l e flame.
Corundum (AI 2 0 3 ) is a
primary a l u m i n u m m inera l
found in meta morphosed
l i m esto nes and i n sch ists.
Hexagona l crysta l s com­
mon. Coru n d u m a lso occurs
as dark g ra n u l es with mag­
n etite - a form k n ow n as
e mery and used as a n
abrasive. H . 9-harder t h a n
a n y other c o m m o n m in e ra l ;
Sp. G r . 4 ; color varia b l e .
M I NERALS
Bauxite, the ore of
a l u m i n u m, is a g roup of re­
lated oxi des with water of
hydrati on. Most abund­
ant i n warmer areas, it
forms as a l u m i n um-bearing
rocks are weathered. Color,
w hite-though often sta i n ed
brown or red by iron oxi des.
H ., vari a b l e, 1 to 3; Sp. Gr.,
2.5. Named after the region
near Baux in F ra n ce where
it occurs, Bauxite is fou nd
i n Arka nsas (main U.S. de­
posit) and in a belt from
Alabama i nto Georgia. The
Guianas have rich d eposits.
Kao l in, a group of at
least th ree m i nera ls, a l l a l u ­
m i n u m s i l icates w i t h water
(H4AI 2 Si209), is w h ite a n d
sca ly when p u re. More of­
ten found i m p u re as clay;
then it is earthy and col­
o red by i m p u rities. Kao l i n
is widespread, t h o u g h pure
d e posits are l i m ited. It is
essentia l i n ceramics a n d
has many o t h e r uses. It i s
a lso a potenti a l sou rce of
meta l lic a l u m i n u m , though
com mercia l s m e lting meth­
ods a re yet to b e deve loped .
C RYSTA L L I N E KAOL I N
( hig h ly m a g nified) 49
 + +
y ields 2 lbs. 3,4 l b . 10 k i lowatt
of a l u m i n a of carbon hrs. current

A L UM I N UM, as a commercia l meta l , has been known

for over a h u n d red yea rs, but its wide use has been much
m ore rece nt. C lays conta i n i n g a l u m i n u m were used in
making pottery long before meta ls were k n ow n . Pottery
a n d other cera m ic products sti l l uti l ize large qua ntities
of a l u m i n u m m i n era ls (p. 1 50). A l u m i n u m is a constituent
of fe lds pars, m icas, garnets, corund u m , and c ryo l ite, but
on ly the latter has ever been a n a l u m i n u m ore. A l u m i n u m
o res are usua l l y seco nda ry-weathered a n d a l tered prod­
ucts of these m i nerals.
A l u m i n u m , making u p over 8 per cent of the earth's
crust, is more a b u n dant than iron, but worka b l e deposits
are l i m ited . Bauxite, consisti ng of hyd rated oxides of
a l u m i n u m , is the principal ore. In p rocessi ng, the 50 to
70 per cent a l u m i n u m oxide, c a l led a l u m i na, is fi rst ex­
tracted, then d isso lved in h uge vats of m o lten cryo l ite.
A l u m i n a is red uced to m eta l l ic a l u m i n u m by carbon e l ec­
trodes carrying a strong e l ectric cu rrent. It co l l ects at the
botto m of the vat. About a m i l l ion tons a year are pro­
d uced, m a i n l y for
the transportation
a n d construction
i n d ustries.

Pouring molten
aluminum
C H RO M I T E - La n c a ster, P o . C RO C O I T E - n e a r D u n d a s , Tasm a n ia

C H ROMI UM, a bright silvery metal, has become famil ­

iar in the flashy trim on automobiles and household wares.
It is often used over a nicke l undercoat as a non-rusting
plating on iron and stee l. Chromium has only one ore,
though it occurs in about a dozen minerals.
C h r o m ite (FeCr 2 0 4 ), the chromium ore, occurs widely,
but workable deposits in the United States are limited
largely to California and Oregon. Commercial deposits
occur a lso in Africa, the Philippines, Turkey, and New
Caledonia. Chromite occurs in basic igneous rocks or in
metamorphic rocks formed from them. Chromite ( H . 5 . 5 ;
Sp. Gr. 4.7) i s metallic black o r brownish; streak, dark
brown. Sometimes slightly magnetic because of its iron
content, it occurs in veins or in widespread granular
masses, frequently with a coating of serpentine.
C rocoite (PbCr04 ), a rare but handsome minera l, is
formed when chrome chemicals encounter lead. Attrac­
tive crystals of lead chromate then develop.

51
 MANGANESE is widely found, often with iron, barium,
cobalt, and zinc. The most common ores are secondary,
formed by the action of air and water on manganese sil­
icates and carbonates. Deposits are common i n bogs and
lakes. Manganese is used to toughen steel for machinery,
rails, and armaments. Russia, India, South Africa, and
Brazil have most of the ores. U.S. deposits are in Tennes­
see, Virginia, Arkansas, Arizona, and Montana.
R h o d o n ite (MnSi0 3 ) -pink, yellow, or brownish-is
best known from Franklin Furnace, N.J. H. 5 . 5 to 6.5;
Sp. Gr. 3.5; translucent; streak, white. Large, flattened
crystals quite common. Prismatic cleavage.
R h o doch rosite (MnC0 3 ), softer than rhodonite (H. 4),
rarely forms large crystals. Translucent with glassy luster;
color pinkish, as in rhodonite. Massive, in veins or as crusts.
Typical calcite cleavage (rhombohedral ).
Psi l o m e l a n e (Mn0 2 · H20) appears often with barium
and iron. Soft, dull, noncrystalline (see manganite, be­
low), but may form hard (H. 5) rounded or stringy masses.
Soft, impure mixtures are called wad.
M a n g a n i t e , MnO(OH), is often in prismatic crystals
or fibrous masses. H. 4; Sp. Gr. 4. 3 ; streak, red-brown.
Pyro lusite (Mn0 2 ), principal manganese ore, is
earthy, powdery, granular, or fibrous. Hardness varies
from 1 or 2 up to 6 in rare crystal s. Sp. Gr. 5; streak,
b l ack. Forms fernlike crusts (dendrites) along cracks or
as inclusions in moss agate. These are not fossi ls.

MOSS AGAT ES

Pyro l u site d e n d ri tes in q uartz C a l ifornia

52
R H O D O N I T E - F ro n k l i n , N . J .
R H O DOC H RO S I T E
B u tte, Mont.

MANGA N I T E
P S I LOM E LA N E
I lfe ld , H a rz, G e r m a n y
New Mexico

PYROLU S I T E
I ronwood, M i c h .
PYROL U S I T E D E N D R I T ES
on dolomite-Pri n ceton, I owa
53
 U R A N I U M (discovered in 1 7 89 and isolated as an ele­
ment about 1 8 42) is now prized as a source of atomic
energy. It occurs in some 50 minerals, most of them
rare. The main ores are uraninite and secondary miner­
als formed from it by weathering. Actually, uranium min­
erals are widespread in granites and pegmatites. Speci­
mens may be collected wherever these igneous rocks are
exposed. Commercial deposits are another matter. Ura­
nium prospecting requires time, patience, and skills which
few amateur mineralogists possess.
Ur a n i n ite (U0 2 ) i s steel black,
R a d i a ti o n s d isclose u ra n i u m .
opaque, hard ( H . 5 . 5 ) , and heavy;
Sp. Gr. 9 to 9 . 5 for pure specimens.
Streak from gray to brown to black;
crystals rare. More common is
p i tc h b l e n de, a form of uraninite
which occurs in massive, fibrous or
rounded masses.
 URANOPHANE­
North C a r o l i n a

C A R N OT I T E ­
thwest Colorado

Uraninite alters to an orange or red gummy, waxy mineral

of variable composition, called gummite.
Carnot i te (K 2 ( U 0 2)2 (VO. k 3 H 2 0) is a complex min­
eral with vanadium and uranium. It occurs in weathered
sedimentary rocks as streaks or earthy yellow grains.
Common in the Southwest, sometimes on petrified wood.
U r a n o p h a n e (Ca U 2 Si20 1 1 ·7H20) is found with uran­
inite as clusters of tiny yellow, needle-like crystals. It is
widely distributed, but never common.
Autu n ite ( Ca( U 0 2 )2 ( PO • k 1 0- 1 2 H 20) is another
secondary uranium mineral. Note the greenish, pearly
flecks. Autunite is common in small U r a n i u m occurrences
amounts. This and most other uran i -
u m minerals fluoresce strongly under
ultraviolet light. Radiation from
these minerals can also be detected
by the use of a Geiger counter
or a scintillometer.

55
 IMPORT ANT M I N O R M ETALS

Wolfram ite (Fe,Mn) W04 is a

m i nera l of q ua rtz veins a n d peg­
matites. It is fou n d i n the form of
ta bular or prism atic crysta ls; dark
brown or b lack with submeta l l i c
l u n a C o u nty, N . Mex. luster; H . 5 . 5 ; Sp. G r . 7 . 5 ; brittle.
An ore of tu n g sten (wo lfra m)­
important i n lamp fi la m ents a n d
in stee l-al loy cutting too ls.
Schee l i te (CaW04), a n other
ore of tungste n . H. 5; Sp. Gr. 6.
Glassy, someti mes tra nsparent;
·. -s treak, wh ite. Color va riable, but
l i g h t. Found in q ua rtz veins or at
contact of igneous rocks and
l i m estone. It is the most i m porta nt
SC H E E L I T E U.S. tungsten ore.
Visa lia, C a l .
Va n a d i n ite (Pb 5 (V04 h C I ) is
a n attractive, fairly widespread
va nadium m i n e ra l , but not a n i m ­
po rta nt ore. H . 3; Sp. Gr. 7 . Va­
n a d i n ite is a seco n d a ry m i n era l of
lead a reas. Carnotite (p. 55) is a
better source of vanadium, used
VANAD I N ITE
in a l loy steels.
T u cs o n 1 A r i z . Molybdenite (Mo52 ) is a
m i nera l fo u n d in pegmatites a n d
veins. It is soft ( H . 1 .5), meta l lic
and opaq ue; streak, b l ue-gray.
Occurs as fl ecks, o r ta b u l a r crys­
t.a ls. Molybde n u m is essentia l in
too l -steel a l loys.
M O l YB D E N I T E

56 C l imax, Colo.
 C o l u m bite ( Fe,Mn ) C b 2 0 6 a n d
tanta l ite (Fe,Mn)Ta 2 0 6 a re ores
of rare m eta ls. Actua l l y, they
a re a series of oxides i n c l u d i n g
i r o n a n d m a n g a n ese. T h e m i neral
is c o l u m b ite w h e n the amount of
columbium ( n iobi u m ) is h i g h , and
ta ntal ite w h e n it has more ta nta­
lum, w h ich is used as a n a l l oy in
COLUM B I T E A N D TANTA L I T E
surg ica l i n struments. C o l u m b i u m B e d fo r d , N . Y .
a l l oys are u s e d i n rocket e n g i n es.
The minerals a re d a rk b rown or
b l a ck, c rysta l l i n e (often twi n ned).
H . 6; Sp. Gr. 5.5 to 8; usua l l y
opaque with a s u bm eta l l ic l uster.
They form in pegm atite, often
with tin a n d tungsten m i nera ls.
Beryl · (Be3A I 2 (Si03) 6 ) is an
ore of beryl l i u m as we l l as a gem
sto n e ( p p. 84-85). The meta l is
used i n a l l oys of copper a n d i n B E RYL-Ge rmany

atomic resea rch. It is a l most as

light as m a g n esium.
M o n a zite, H . 5; Sp. Gr. 5, is
a com p l ex m i n e ra l conta i n i n g
thorium a n d a n u m ber o f other
"rare ea rth " m eta ls. It occurs as
ye l low resinous grains or as la rger
MONAZITE
crysta ls i n pegm atite and i n cer­ Yo r k t o w n , N . Y .
ta i n sand deposits in southeastern
U n ited States. An even g reater
number of "rare e a rths" a re f o und
i n sam arskite, which occurs
rarely in peg m atites.
S A M A RS K I T E
S p r u ce P i n e , N . C . 57
 I l m e n ite, C u m b e r l a n d , R . I .
R u t i l e , Yo r k C o . , Po.

Gem rutile Tita n i u m a l loys

(sy nthetic) u sed in rockets

T I TAN I U M is a meta l with a future a n d its m i nerals w i l l

be o f increasing im porta nce. Light weig ht a n d a h i g h
m e l t i n g p o i n t g ive it i m porta nce in rocket construction.
Now used i n steel a l loys, as a c utti n g too l (tita n i u m car­
bide), and in w h ite po ints.
Tita n iu m is abunda nt, making u p 0 . 6 per cent of the
earth's crust. Its ores ore fou n d principa l ly i n southeastern
U n ited States and Arka n sas, and in l n,dia, N o rway, France,
Switzer l a n d , and Brazil.
Ruti l e (Ti02) has varied fo rms. Most common ly it is
b lack, often in Iorge prismatic c rysta ls. H . 6; Sp. Gr. 4.2;
Streak, l i ght brow n . Found in igneous and m eta morphic
rocks. Needle-l ike c rysta ls o re fou n d as i n c l usions in r uti­
loted q u a rtz. Synthetic ruti l e is used i n rings.
I l men ite (FeTi03) is the more co m m o n ore of tita n ium
fo u n d in many mag netite deposits; associated with
g n eisses and metamorphic rocks genera l ly. Found as thin
sh eets, flecks, ta b u l a r crysta ls, g ro ins, or massive. Meta l l ic
b l o c k i n color; opaque. Streak from b lack to redd ish­
brown. H . 5 to 6; Sp. Gr. 4.5.

58
 MAG N ES I T E
Steven s Co., Wash .

DOLOM I T E
Mon roe C o . , N .Y.

cleavage fragment

MAG N E S I U M, l ig hter than a l u m i n u m , is the eighth m ost

com mon element in the earth's crust. It h a s become a
meta l of major i m po rta nce- its a l loys fi n d wide use i n
a i r p l a n es, i n other sheet m eta l products, a n d i n casti ng.
I ts two principa l o r es are m a g n esite a n d dolom ite. Mag­
nesium is a lso m a n ufactured from sea water-260,000
g a l l o n s y i e l d i n g one ton of the meta l . Th e magnesium
c h loride is treated with l i m e from oyster s h e l ls. Then the
magnesium is extracted by e l ectro lytic actio n .
M a g n esite (Mg C03), usua l l y d u l l wh ite, massive o r
g ra n u l a r, sometimes g l assy, ra rely occurs as crysta ls. H . 4;
Sp. Gr. 3. large deposits i n Washi ngton and C a l ifo rnia.
Dolom ite (MgCa(C03h) is described as a non m eta l lic
m inera l ( p . 65), but recently it has come into use as a n ore
of magnesium-just as the c lay m inerals may eventu a l l y
become ores of a l u m i n u m . Three light meta ls-a l u m i n u m ,
magnesium, a n d l it h i u m-are of g rowing i m porta nce.
S p i n e l , a m a g n esium-a l u m i n u m oxide, is a well-k nown
gem m i neral ( p . 85) which is found mainly i n Cey l o n ,
Burma, and Thailand.

59
 S T I B N I T E, (Sb 2 S3), fo u n d with py­
rite, g a lena, a n d a rse n ic m i nerals,
is t h e o n l y c o m m o n a ntimo n y o re.
It is more typical of l ow-tempera­
ture veins. Stee l-gray, meta l lic; H.
2 ; Sp. Gr. 4.5. C rysta ls c o m m o n ,
ofte n fo u n d b e n t . A n t i m o n y is used
i n type meta l , pewter, a n d other
a l loys. Native a ntimony is a l so
ST I B N I T E
found as a m ineral-but rarely.
Shikoku, Jopon

ARS E N I C is a semi-meta l used i n a l loys. Its po iso nous

compo u n d s a re used in sprays a n d in secticides.
R e a l g a r (AsS), the s i m p lest ore, forms i n l ow-tem per­
'
ature veins as crusts, g ra ins, fl ecks, o r massive deposits.
C rysta l s a re rare. H. 2; Sp. Gr. 3.5; resinous l uster; color
a n d streak both orange-red. Rea l g a r s l owly breaks down
on exposure to l ight to form orpiment.
O r p i m e n t (As2 S3), often found with rea lgar o r stib­
n ite, is usua l l y ma ssive, though sometimes s h eetl ike. C rys­
ta l s ra re. H. 1 .5; Sp. Gr. 3.5; perfect cleavage. S pec i mens
becom e d u l l on exposu re to l ig ht.
Arsen o pyrite (FeAsS) forms i n h i g h -tem perature
veins and pegm atites. Occurs massive or a s crysta ls. Sil ­
ve ry, m eta l l ic; H. 6; Sp. Gr. 6. An ore of arsen ic.

ORPIMENT
A R S E NOPYR I T E REALGAR
60 M a n hatta n , Nev.
M a n hatta n, N e·
 N O N M E TA L L I C M I N ERA L S

N O N M ET A L L I C M I N ERALS form a large group o f m i n ­

era l s wh ich conta i n no m eta l or are nat used for the m eta l s
they conta i n . G e m s a n d rock-form i n g m i n e ra l s a re i n sep­
a rate sectio ns. Even a few meta l l ic m i n era l s (pp. 3 1 -60)
belong i n the non meta l l ic group, for w h i l e they conta i n
meta l s, t h e y a r e n o t ores. The non meta l l ic m i nera l s a r e of
g reat i m p o rtance - for insu lation, as fi l lers, fi lters, a n d
fl uxes, a n d i n t h e cera m i c a n d chemical i n d ustries. The
world's m ost common m i n erals belong i n this group.

S U L F U R (S) is a n o n meta l l ic m i n era l e lement found i n

volca n ic rocks, a r o u n d hot sprin gs, a n d i n sed i m e ntary
"domes" ( p . 1 45) with salt, gypsum, a n hyd rite, and lime­
stone. It is yel low (someti mes brown), waxy o r resi nous,
weak and brittle. H . 1 . 5 to 2.5; Sp. Gr. 2 .0 . Sulf ur's l ow
melting point ( 1 1 0- 1 2 0 ° C ) a i d s in m i n i n g it from u n der­
g r o u n d d e posits. Superheated water is p u m ped down
large p i pes, melting the su lfur; compressed a i r then forces
the m e l ted sulfur out. Sulfur is used i n pa permaking a n d
as a source of su lfuric acid.

crysta l
 G R AP H I T E is o n e of the world's softest m i nerals. D i a m o n d
is the h a rd est. Both a re c a r b o n (C) . Graph ite occurs i n
i g n eous a n d meta m o r p h i c rocks-sch ists a n d marb les. I t
may f o r m when h i g h tem perature vei ns cut coa l deposits,
a n d an a rtificia l form is made in e lectric furna ces. Gra p h­
ite is ea rthy, or forms sca ly or fl a ky crysta ls w ith a meta l ­
l i c l uster, g reasy a n d flexible. H . 1 ; Sp. Gr. 2 . 0 . Com mer­
cia l de posits in this cou ntry a re l i m ited to three m i nes in
Alabama, Texas, a n d Rhode Island; these ca n n ot com pete
with the rich deposits of Korea, Ceylon, Mexico, a n d Mad­
agascar. Graphite is used for dry and wet lubrication a n d
f o r electrica l a n d chem ica l purposes Its best-known u s e i s
as "lead" i n lead penc i l s, w here i t is usua l l y m ixed with
other m ateria ls to g ive various deg rees of hard n ess. Graph­
ite is a strateg ic m i nera l . I ts latest use is a s a moderator to
slow down neutrons in atom ic p i l es.

62
CALC I T E
I C ELA N D S P A R
TWI N N E D
C RYSTALS
I c e l a n d S p a r is a tra ns­
parent cal cite which has the
o ptica l property of bend­
ing light two ways, making
words a ppea r double.
Dogtooth S p a r , a com­
mon crysta l l i n e form, with
crysta ls long a n d pointed.
C rysta l s from J o p l i n , Mo.,
a re we l l known.
Twinned C rysta l s of
ca lcite, g rowing together
a s shown above ( l eft) are
very com m o n . This is a ty pi­
col specta c u l a r form.
Sta lactites a n d Sta­
l a g m ites form i n caves by
dripping water. Cal cite a lso
forms in thin sheets or d ra­
peries from the roof.
63
 TRAV E RT I N E
Death V a l l ey, C a l .

C A L C I T E S A N D C RYSTALS
Badlands of South Dakota

CALC I T E (CaC0 3), m ost common a n d widespread of the

carbo nate m i n e ra l s, is interesting beca use of its many
a n d varied crysta l forms. C a l c ite occurs i n a n u m ber of
structu ra l forms a n d freq uently g rades into dolom ite ( p .
65). G reat masses of c a l cite occur i n l i m esto n es (pp. 1 26-
1 27); sma l l crysta l masses a re present i n rock open ings,
w h i l e rare, tra n s pa rent crysta l s occur as Ice l a n d spar,
va l ued for use in ra nge fi n ders and pola riz i n g m icro­
scopes. C a l c ite also occurs as a vein m i neral in a l most
a l l rocks. C rysta l s a re com m o n . H . 3; Sp. Gr. 2.7. C l eav­
age: perfect, rhombo hedra l . Most ca lcite is opaque,
s l i g htly colored by im p u rities; yel low, ora n g e, brown, and
g reen shades occur. Ca lc ite is often fl u orescent.
Other Forms of C a l c ite
N a i l - head Spar: fl atte ned, rhombo hedral crysta ls, ofte n
in c l usters.
Travertine: a genera l term for massive, nonc rysta l l i n e
calcite a s fo u n d in caves. Opaque, often colored .
Tufa : porous, white trave rtine from spring de posits.
C h a l k : w h ite, soft, compa ct she l l s of s m a l l sea a n ima ls.
Ala baster: a solid, banded traverti n e used for ornam ents.
See a lso gypsum (p. 66).
O nyx: an a labaster, often clearer and more tra n s l ucent.
Satin-spar: fi b rous, s i l ky fo r m . This name a l so a pp l ies to
a form of gyps u m . Calcite bubbles i n hydroc h loric acid.

64
A RAG O N I T E C RYSTALS P R E C I O U S C O RA L A RAGO N I T E C RYSTAL
Sicily Italy C u m be r l a n d , E n g l a n d

ARAG O N I T E is chemica l ly the same as c a l c ite (CaC03)

but is less c o m m o n and crysta l l izes in the orth orhombic
system . It is s l ig htly ha rder and heavier- H . 3 . 5 to 4; Sp .
Gr. 2.9. Aragon ite does n ot cleave as d istinctly as ca l cite,
a lthoug h it, too, b u b b les stro ng ly in d i l ute hydroc h l o r i c
a cid. Aragon ite is usua l l y w h ite, g ray, o r crea m . The
mothe r-of-pea r l l i n i n g of sea shells is aragonite. F l o s
f e r r i is a bra n c h ing g rowth of p u re w h ite aragon ite i n
m i nes a n d caves. C o r a l , fo rmed by pla nts a n d a n i m a l s
in warm seas, is a lso a ragon ite. Precious coral is val ued
for gem and orna me nta l use.
DOLOM I T E (MgCa(C0 3 ) 2 ) occurs in large bedded de­
pos its a n d as veins i n other sed iments. There a re exte n ­
s i v e deposits i n the Austria n Tyrol -the D o l o m ite A l ps.
Dolomite is both a rock a n d a m i n eral ( p . l 09). The best
m i n e ra l specimens come from veins or l i mesto ne cavities,
and i n c l u d e c rysta ls with cu rved faces. Dol om ite is harder
than ca lcite (H. 3 . 5 to 5; Sp. Gr. 2 . 8), but sim i l a r i n crysta l
form a n d cleavage. Rea cts slowly with hydroc h loric acid.
Wh ite or varicolored. Widely d istrib uted .

C R YST A L S
M e x i co

65

crysta l
Tru m b u l l C o u nty, Oh io
GYPSUM is a comm o n m in era l . It
is a sed imentary rock precipitated
from evaporating sea water under
dry o r arid conditions. Massive
beds of gyps u m are found in over
a dozen states and in Mariti m e
Canada. When m i n ed, gypsum is
the basis of a multi m i l lion-dollar in­
dustry producing paints, plaster,
plasterboard, ti le, a n d other con­
struction materia ls. A sma l l amount
of gypsum i n Portland cement
keeps it from setting too fast.
Gypsu m was known a n d used i n
Europe for centuries. It was first
burned in open fires, later in kilns.
H eati n g gypsum drives out part of
the water; the b u rned gypsum,
ground to a wh ite powder, is known
as plaster of Paris, as it was fi rst
made near there. When m oistened,
p laster of Paris a bsorbs water
again a n d hardens as gypsum rock,
so it is used in making plaster casts
and in plastering a n d a s an ingre­
d ient of many prepared construc­
tion materials.
Crushed gypsum is used i n agri­
cu lture, being added to the soil as
"land plaster." It a ids the growth of
peas and neutra l izes a l ka l ine soils.
Over 8 m i l lion tons a re m i ned an­
nually in this cou ntry-about one­
third of the world production.
 Gypsum is a color less or w h ite
m inera l, sometimes tinted by iron
o r other i m p u rities. It is ca lcium sul­
fate, with water (CaS04·2 H 2 0).
H. 2, Sp. Gr. 2.3. Luster is pearly,
g lassy-sometimes fi b rous. Streak,
w hite. Its crysta ls have two c l eav­
age p l a n es-o n e perfect. Does not
b u b b l e i n cold hydroc h loric acid,
but w i l l d isso lve i n hot. MASSI VE GYPSUM
Gra n d Rapids, Mich.
Most gypsum occurs i n bedded
deposits. A com pact m a ssive form
known as a labaster (a name a l so
a p p l ied to s i m i l a r- l ooking calcite)
is c a rved for o r n a ments. C rysta l l i n e
gypsum (se len ite) occurs i n caves
and l i meston e cavities-a lso in
c lays, sha les, and some san ds.
F I BROUS GYPSUM
C rysta l s may g row severa l feet M a m moth C a ve, Ky.
long, and may be twi n ned or
c u rved.
A n h yd rite (CaS04) is chemi­
ca l ly similar to gypsum, but d oes
not conta i n water. It is fo und in c rys­
ta l l i n e masses, though good c rysta l s
are r a r e . Sometimes it is fi b rous,
gran u l a r o r scaly. Color w hite to
g ray; strea k, w h ite. Luster, g lassy
o r pearly, often tra nsl ucent, rarely
tra nsparent. H . 3 to 3 . 5 ; Sp. Gr.
2 .9. It is often found with gypsum,
and may a lter to gypsum by ab­
sorb i n g water. A l so occurs i n s a l t
b e d s a n d w i t h sulfur i n "domes." c rystal

67
H A L I T E or common sa lt is so d i u m c h loride ( N a C I ) . It has
been used since prehistoric days, a n d there is n o substitute
for it in n utrition or i n i n d ustry. A l l h a l ite comes from the
sea. layers of rock salt mark a reas where seas dried u p i n
a n c i e n t t i m e s . I n many p l aces salt is sti l l m a d e by evap­
orating sea water i n shal low basins.
H a l ite is colo rless when pure, but is usua l l y d isco lored
some shade of ye l low, red, g ray, o r b row n . It is trans­
parent to tra n s l ucent, b rittle, and with exce l l ent c l eavage
para l l e l to its crysta l faces. H . 2 to 2.5; S p . Gr. 2.3. It
occurs i n g ra n u l ar, fi b rous, o r crysta l l i n e masses, easi ly
recogn ized by the cubic crysta ls a n d by the m i n era l 's
fa m i l iar taste . H a l ite is rarely pure. It occurs with other
salts of calcium a n d magnesi u m .

GLAUIER ITE, o s u lfate o f sodium SALTPETER, o fer I I zer, is iOc hu m

and calcium, occurs a r o u n d min­ n itrate ( N a N08). I t occu rs i n C h i l e
eral &p ritigs a n d with other evap­ a n d our Southw,..._ w ith msum,
orltn. H. 2-'1 white to gray, h a l ite, oncl g lauberite.

t a l ifomfa
 Sa l t a n d Rel ated Minerals a re part of the " a l k a l i "
whic h ma kes s o m e weste rn s o i l s d i ffi c u l t to u s e f o r a g r i ­
cu lture. T h e s e m i n e r a l s f o r m u n der sem i-arid t o a r i d c o n ­
d itions, often w i t h b o r a x ( p . 7 0 ) . H a l ite is m i ned by shaft
m i n i n g or by p u m p i n g water into the deposit a n d later
p u m p i n g out the brine. I n pu rification , potass i u m and mag­
nesium sa lts, bromine, and iodine a re obtained as by­
prod ucts. The h a l ite is rec rysta l l ized, beco m i n g very pure
in the process. In addition to its use in food and as a pre­
servative, salt is essentia l i n chem ica l ind ustries, i n the
rh a n ufacture of soda ash for g l ass
prod ucts, a n d i n soa p m a k i n g a n d
meta l l urgy. C h lorine f r o m s a l t i s
used as a b leach a n d i n water
purification.

69
 "Twenty-m u l e tea m " h a u l ing borax- Death V a l ley, C a L

BO RAX, origina l ly obta ined from deposits of volca n ic

origin, now comes mostly from brines a n d d ry lake beds
where ground water has con centrated the borax. Used in
making g lass and enamels a n d i n chemica l ind ustries.
Borax, sodi u m borate with
ten pa rts of water, occurs in
a l ka l i l a kes or a s a crust o n the
desert soil. O n ce h a u led i n
twenty- m u l e tea m s f r o m the
Death Va l ley reg i o n . W h ite to
g ray; H. 2, Sp. Gr. 2 .7; g lassy.
BORAX Kern ite is chem ica l l y simi­
Esmeral d a, Nev.
l a r to borax but conta i n s o n ly
four pa rts of water. It is often
colorless and transparent. H.
2.5; Sp. Gr. 2.0. Strea k w h1te,
l uster g lassy.
Coleman ite is a calcium
Kramer, Cal.
bo rate with five parts of water.
Prismatic crysta l s common. Col­
or, wh ite. H . 4 to 4.5; Sp. Gr.
2 . 3 . Streak, wh ite. luster, g lassy
to d u l l . Often found in white,
cha lky or hard, g lassy masses.

COLEMA N ITE
70 southern C aliforn i a
1vage t w i n crysta l s
Jment­
ohedral

F L U O R I T E i n commercial q ua ntities occurs i n both sedi­

menta ry and ig neous rocks. Veins of fl uorite (Ca F 2 ) with
quartz or calcite sometim es conta i n lead, cop per, and z i n c
m i nera ls. We a re t h e world's l a rgest producer of fl uo r ite,
most of it m i n e d i n I l l i n ois, Kentucky, Colorado, a n d N e w
Mexico. F l uorite is used t o produce a fl u id slag i n steel­
making a n d i n smelting ores. It is used i n making h i g h -test
gaso l i ne, F reon, a n d many other chem ica l products. F l u­
o rite is a most attractive m i n e r a l of varied colors-w h ite,
b l ue, g reen, a n d vio let. Tra nsparent to tra n s l ucent. H . 4;
Sp. Gr. 3.2. Streak, w h ite; g l a ssy
l uster. Good octa hedra l c l eavage.
C rysta ls and fine c l eavage frag­
ments make attractive spec i m ens
for the c o l l ector. Often fl uorescent
in u ltraviolet l i g ht.

71
 B A R I T E or ba rytes (BaS04) is a su lfate of barium, a sil ­
very m eta l . It is placed with the n o n m eta l l ics because it
is rare l y a so u rce of the m eta l a n d is widely used other­
wise. Ba rite occurs i n many ways, occasio n a l l y as l a rge
tra nsparent or tra n s l ucent crysta ls; sometimes as crysta l­
l i n e vein fi l l i ngs, with fl uorite o r c a l cite, o r with meta l l ic
ores. Large con cretions are fo u n d in South Da kota a n d
sma l l e r rose-sha ped o n e s ("d esert roses") i n the sa nds
of O k l a h o m a .
Barite is a f a i r l y soft ( H . 2.5 to 3.5) but heavy ( S p . Gr.
4.5) m inera l , colorl ess to wh ite, ye l l ow, g ray, and brow n .
Luster, g lassy, sometimes pear ly; strea k, w h ite. Some­
times g r a n u l a r o r earthy. Crysta ls
a re com mon, often broad a n d
thick. Barite is u s e d i n making l itho­
pone for pa int, a s an a id i n we l l
d r i l l i ng, i n making g l a ss, a s a fi l ler
i n g lossy paper, and i n cera mics.

72
 MASS I V E A P AT I T E
N o rway

A P A T I T E C RYSTALS
i n ca l cite
O nta rio, C a n a d a

APAT I T E g ets its odd name from the Greek word mea n ­
i n g " t o deceive" beca use i t s v a r i e d f o r m s a n d colors
caused e a r ly m i nera log ists to confuse it with a ha lf-dozen
other m inera ls. Apatite may be tra nsparent, tra n s l ucent,
or opaq ue, with a color that varies from w h ite to b rown,
g reen, ye l low, or vio let. Apatite occurs i n veins with
q u a rtz, fe ldspa r, a n d iron ores. Hexago n a l crysta ls a re
common, some s i m i l a r to gem m i n erals. Apatite is a p h os­
phate of c a l c i u m , usua l l y with some fl uorine (Ca 5 ( C I,F)­
(PO. ) J ) . H . 5 ; Sp. Gr. 3 . 2 ; l uster, g l assy; strea k, white.
Outsta n d i n g commercial depos its a re present i n Ontario
a n d Quebec, Canada. Phosp hate rock, used for ferti l izer,
contains m i n e ra l s related to apa-
tite. A thin chip of a patite will color
a gas flame ora n g e ( 1 ) . When
wet with su lfuric acid (caution!) it
colors the fl a m e a pale b l u ish-g reen ?
(2) due to l i berated phospho rus.
2 I
73
 TALC may form when mag nesium
rich rocks a re a ltered, especia l l y by
heated waters. Hence ta l c occurs
as a secondary m i n era l with ser­
pentine (p. 1 07), ch lorite (p. 1 06),
sch ists, and dolomite. It is fou n d i n
irreg ular deposits i n metamorphic
rocks. Ta lc has a variety of uses
ra n g i n g from cosmetics (ta lcum
powder) to fi l lers i n pai nt, i nsecti­
FOLIATED TALC
St. lawrence C o u n ty, N . Y . cides, rubber, and pa per. The use
depends o n the form i n which the
ta l c occurs-th is may be m assive,
fi b rous, or soft.
Soa pstone is rock usua l ly rich
in ta lc. Steatite is a massive ta lc,
usua l l y of high g rade. Ta l c is fre­
q uently sheetlike (fo l iated) or
granu lar. As a m i nera l , it is one of
G RA N U LA R TALC the softest ( H . 1 to 1 .5), S p . Gr. 2 .7.
St. lawrence C o u n ty, N.Y. Fol iated ta l c has good basa l c l eav­
age and breaks somewhat like
m ica, thoug h the scales are not
elastic. Tra nsl ucent to o paque; col­
or varies from w h ite to g reenish,
yel low, or pink. Pure ta lc has a
g reasy, soa py feel a n d w h e n pow­
dered acts as a l u b rica nt.
Ta l c and soa pston e were known
STEAT ITE
i n ancient times. Eskimos ca rved
l a m ps and pots from it, as did the
Mou n d Builders. The Egyptians,
Babylonians, and C h inese a lso
made use of it.
ASBESTOS is the n a m e g iven to
a group of m i nerals d ifferent i n
origin but o f s i m i l a r a p pearance.
Orig in a l ly the term was a p p l ied to
fi brous m i n e ra l s closely related to
a m p hibole (p. 1 00). Of the fi brous
a m p h ibo les, crocidol ite o r blue
asbestos is best known. Mounta i n
leather is a heavy, matted f o r m ; its
C ROC I DO L I T E ASB ESTOS
fibers a re usua l ly short a n d b rittle.
The best-known source of asbes­
tos is a form of serpentine (p. 1 07)
known as ch rysoti le. It is silky,
fi brous, a n d stron g . Most c h rysoti l e
comes f r o m the famous Quebec a n d
Vermont deposits, where it hon ey­
combs the serpe ntine rock. Here
the cross fi bers vary from Y:z to 3
inches in length. The long fibers are C H RYSOT I L E ASB ESTOS
Q u ebec, C a n .
i n short supply and a re va l ued
very h i g h ly. The U n ited States uses
about 50 per cent of a l l asbestos
produced; 90 per cent of this comes
from Canada.
C h rysotile frbers are so fi n e they
can be d ivided into a l most invisible
strands. They spin wel l a n d a re
used in woven i n s u l ation a n d for
LONG-F I B E R E D C H RYSOT I L E
fireproofi n g . The fi bers d o not burn Th etfo rd, Quebec, C a n .
a n d they cond uct heat very slowly.
Shorter fi bers a re m ixed with gyp­
sum to make asbestos board. Sight
identification of c h rysotile is easy­
n o other m i nera l is this fi b rous.
 common c rysta l forms

q u a rtz ra·d ia crystal q u a rtz prism silica crucible

QUARTZ is one of the most common m i n e r a l s i n t h e

e a rth's crust. As the chem ica l s i l ica (Si02) it f o r m s a n
i m p o rta nt p a rt o f most ig n eous rocks. Some san dstones
are a l most 1 00 per cent q ua rtz, and so are such m eta­
morphic rocks as q u a rtzite. At d ifferent tem peratures
q u a rtz c rysta l l izes i n d ifferent ways. For this reason its
crystal structure is often an aid in determ i n i n g the tem­
perature conditions under w hi ch a rock formed, since
o n e variety, a l pha-q ua rtz, c h a n g es to a n other, beta­
q ua rtz, at 573 ° C .
Quartz occurs i n crysta l l i n e masses a n d , when condi­
tions permit, forms hexagonal c rysta l s ( p p . 78-79). Doubly
term i nated qua rtz crysta ls (often fo u n d i n l i m estone cav­
ities) have such loca l n a mes as Herkimer d iamonds.
larger c rysta l s a re found l i n i n g cavities; they a re often
cut a s gem sto nes and are sold as rock c rysta l . Brazil is
famous for its deposits of crysta l q u a rtz. Q u a rtz a lso oc­
c u rs in a form in which the c rysta ls a re of m ic roscopi c
size a n d h e n c e not a p parent ( p p . 80-8 1 ) . Sil ica combined
with water is opal (p. 82).

76
 Qua rtz is sometimes colorl ess but more c o m m o n l y w h ite,
sometimes ye l l ow, b rown, pink, green, b l u e, o r b l a c k . Its
l u ster is g l a ssy in crysta l l i n e forms, waxy o r g reasy i n
cha l cedony. H . 7; Sp. Gr. 2 .6; streak, w h ite; brittl e with
conchoid a l fracture. Quartz is best recog n ized by its
ha rdn ess, l uster, a n d occurrence, and by its crysta l form
when evident. Ma ny kinds of q u a rtz a re valued as gems
a n d are classed as sem i p recious sto nes.
When c rysta l q ua rtz is cut at a n exact a n g l e to its axis,
pressure o n it gen erates a m i n ute el ectrica l cha rge. This
effect m a kes q u a rtz of g reat usef u l n ess i n rad io, television ,
a n d radar. T h e s u p p l y o f natural rad io q ua rtz is s o l i m ited
that methods for g rowing q u a rtz crysta ls in the l a b o rato ry
have been develo ped . Q u a rtz tra nsm its s h ort l i g h t waves
(u ltravio let) better than g lass. When not of rad i o q u a l ity,
c rysta l q u a rtz is m e lted to form b l a nks to make spec i a l
lenses a n d prisms. Optica l q uartz can b e m a d e o n l y from
c rysta ls. Less c l e a r q ua rtz is fused to m a ke l a b o ratory
ware that is h i g h l y resista nt to chemica l actio n . Q u a rtz
sand is used in m a k i n g g l ass.

77
 C RYSTAL L I N E Q U ARTZ is the m ost com m o n kind,
though wel l -deve l o ped c l e a r crysta ls are rare. Rock crys­
ta l (colorless crysta l q u a rtz) makes a fi ne gem. The colors
in crysta l q u a rtz may in part be d u e to i m purities ( m an­
g a n ese, iro n , n icke l ) or to radium a ctivity, a s i n smoky
q ua rtz; some d isappear when the q u a rtz is h eated .
The c rysta l s ofte n incl ude a i r b u b b l es a n d traces of othe r
m i n era ls. Hairl ike crysta ls o f r u t i l e f o r m ruti lated q u a rtz o r
sagenite. Cot's eye a n d tiger's eye may conta i n fi bers of
asbestos. Ferrug i n o us q u a rtz is c o l ored by hematite.
ROSE QUARTZ occ u rs in c rystal­ AMETHYST color may b e due to
line masses-ra rely as individ u a l traces of m a n g a n ese. Deeper col­
crysta I s . S o m e rose q u a rtz is as­ ored s P ecimens a re cut a s gems.
teriated-that is, the cut stone re­ Once h i g h ly prized, a methyst l ost
flects or transmits light i n a sta r­ much of its value after the g reat
l i ke pattern. The color is probably Bra z i l i a n deposits were fo u n d .
due to traces of manga nese.
SMOK Y QUARTZ, also called
BLUE QUARTZ is an u ncommon cairngorm o r Scotch topaz, varies
variety, d ifferent from the violet i n color from smoky yellow to
amethyst. It is fou n d in the Blue brown a n d black. The latter form
Ridge Mountains, a n d with blue is called marion. A well-known
fe l d s p a r i n the Smokies. Scotch gem stone, though a l so
fou n d a n d prized elsewhere.
CITRI N £ is a y e l l ow q u a rtz a l so
c a l l e d false topaz beca use of its MI LKY 'QUART Z , fo u n d in veins,
color. Good crysta l s of gem q u a l ­ is the most com m o n crysta l l i ne
i t y c o m e from B r a z i l . N o t t o b e q u a rtz. I t is translucent to opaque
confused with p a l e smoky q u a rtz. a n d is n ot often used a s a gem.

Q U A RTZ W I T H I NC l U S I O N S

tiger's eye with rutile with iron oxide

78
 AMETHYST
Brazil

ROSE QUARTZ
South Da kota

S MOKY Q U A RTZ
Scotla n d

B L U E . Q U A RTZ
P e n n sy l va n ia

CA I R NGORM (MO R I O N )

C IT R I N E Q U A RTZ M I LKY Q U A RTZ

Brazil New H a m ps h i re
79
 C RYPTOC RYSTALLI N E QUARTZ merely means q ua rtz
w ith h idden or m icroscopic crysta ls, in contrast to the
va rieties described on the preced ing page. This group in­
c l udes the chalcedon ies and the fl i n ts, c herts, a n d jaspers.
Most of these a re tra n s l ucent o r opaque; some a re color­
f u l a n d o re prized as gems.
CHALCEDONY is a group term CHR YSOPRASE is a transl ucent,
far a waxy, smooth form of q u a rtz app le-green chalcedony; coloring
often l i n i n g cavities, fi l l i n g cracks d u e to nickel oxide.
o r formi n g crusts. Sometimes
transpa rent, u s u a l ly tra nsl ucent. AGATE is chalcedony with a
C o l o rs from wh ite to g ray, bl ue, banded or irreg u l a r, variegated
brown, o r black. a p pearance. Bands may be wavy
or para l le l , from d ifferences i n
CARNE L I AN (sard) is a clear deposition. Petrified w o o d i s usu­
cha lcedony, usually some shade a l ly a n a gatized wood . Agate
of red o r reddish brown. may be a rtificia lly colored. See
p . 52 for moss ag ate.
JASPER is a n opaque q u a rtz usu­
ONYX i s a gate with even, par­
a l ly red, yellow, o r brown, or a
a l l e l bands usually of black a n d
mixture of these colors. Sometimes
wh ite o r brown a n d w h ite.
b a n d e d . May grade into chert.
SARDONYX is a fo rm of onyx
F LINT is a g ray, brown, or black with a lternating bands of s a rd
q u a rtz freq uently fou n d a s nod­ (ca r n e l i a n ) a n d w h i te-that is, of
u les i n c h a l k . D u l l e r, more red a n d w h ite bands.
opaque and rougher than chal­
cedony, it b reaks with co nchoidal CHERT, o r h or n sto ne, i s a n im­
fracture, produci ng sharp edges. p u re form of fl i nt- usually more
Widely used by early m a n for brittle. Color: wh ite, y e l low, gray,
m a k i n g tools. o r brow n .

Dover, E n g l a n d C H ERT- I l l i n o i s
80
 C A R N E L I A N-Brazil

C H RYSOPRASE-Califo r n ia

ONYX-Brazil

BAN D E D AGATE-Mex ico EYE AGATE-Brazil

C HALC EDONY-Tampa, F la. JASPE R-MiCh i g a n

81
 OPAL is a n oncrysta l line form of
quartz - a sil ica gem conta ining
·

varying amou nts of water (usua l ly

3 to 9 per cent). O pa l forms as a
low-temperature d eposit around
hot springs and in veins, as in Ne­
vada . It makes up the skeletons of
diatoms and sil iceous sponges. O pa l
is usua lly colorless or white, with
color only in gem forms. H . 5.5 to
6.5; Sp. Gr. 2. 1 . luster g lassy,
pea rly, or resinous. Streak wh ite.
Among the varieties a re:
Common Opal Milky white,
g reen yel low to b rick red; some­
what tra nslucent, glassy, or resin­
ous. Widespread, often in volcanic
HYALITE rocks. Various names for d ifferent
Walbch, Bohemia colors and gem forms (p. 86).
Hyalite is a clear, colorless,
g lassy opa l en crusting rocks or fi l l­
ing sma l l veins. Sometimes tra nslu­
cent or white.
G EYSER I T E-Wyom i n g Geyserite or sil iceous sinter is
a form of opa l found around gey­
sers and hot springs. It may be
fi rm, porous, or fi brous; usua lly
�. gray or white, a n d opaque. Often
• D I ATOMS (magn ified)
forms odd structures.
Tripol ite is formed of m icro­
scopic shells of d iatoms (diatomite)
and other organ isms. White,
cha lky, fi n e-grained, but hard. Wil l
scratch glass.
> -
T R I POLITE
82 Ma-ch usetts
 GEM M INE RA LS

G EMS are the m ost p rized and famous of a l l mi neral s.

A l l a re better, c lea rer, o r m o re c rysta l l i n e forms of m i n ­
era l s which in common occurren ces are less beautif u l a n d
less specta c u l a r. D i a m o n ds, emera lds, rubies, a n d sap­
p h i res sta n d out as the true gems. Other stones a re c l a ssi­
fied as semiprecious and orna menta l sto nes. Scarcity and
fashion a re i m porta nt i n dete r m i n i n g the va l u e of a g e m ,
but the fo l lowi n g p hysica l pro perties are prized : l u ster,
tra n s pa rency, c o lor, a n d hardness.
l uster depends o n how l i g h t is refl ected b y the m i n e ra l .
T h e tra nsparent gems a lso refract or bend l i ght a n d a re
cut to turn the light back into the observer's eye. C o l o r is
essential i n some gems, and incidental i n others. It m a y
a d d o r d etract g reatly f r o m the gem's va lue. T h e h a rd e r
the gem, the better it resists scratching of i t s p o l ished s u r ­
faces. H e r e a re some of the best-known g e m s a n d semi­
precious sto nes. Many other m i nera l s and some rocks are
occasion a l l y used a s gems.

b rown

yellow

D I AMON D S are p u re carbon (C);

H. 1 0; Sp. Gr. 3.5. F o u n d as iso·
metric crystals or crysta l l i n e masses.
Colorless o r with t i n ts of yellow, pink,
b l ue, brown, a n d b lack. When not of
g e m q u ality, diamonds have impor· D I AMO N D IN MAT R I X
tant i n d u strial uses a s a b rasives. South Africa

83
 TRANSPARENT G EMS are striking fo r their l uster a n d
b r i l l i a n c e a n d often f o r hardness a n d c o l o r too. Most a r e
oxides o f a l um i n um , bery l l i u m , a n d mag nesium, some­
times with s i l ica. All q u a rtz gems (pp. 86-87) are si l ica.

AQUAMAR INE is a l ig ht b l ue­

g reen fo rm of beryl (3BeO·AI,03•
6Si02), o n l y ore of t h e metal
bery l l i u m . H . 7 .5 to 8 . It a lso oc­
curs as y e l lowish g o l d e n bery l .
F o u n d i n many New E n g l a n d l o ­
cal ities.

CH RYSOBER Y L d iffers from

beryl in being BeO•AI 203 . H a rd­
ness 8.5; Sp. Gr. 3 .6. Color: green,
possibly d u e to chrom i u m . Alex­
a n d rite, a dark g reen form, is red
by transmitted light.
C H RYSO BERYl-New Yor k
E M ERA L D is a form of beryl
varying i n color from light to
deep emerald green. Oriental
emerald, a green coru n d u m gem,
is harder a n d may be the most
va l u a b l e gem.

CORUNDUM M INERALS are a l l

r a r e f o r m s of a l u mina (AI203).
The gems va ry i n color. Deep red
r u b ies a r e val u e d m o re than d ia ­
monds. Sta r s a p p h i res reflect
light i n a six-pointed star, a s do
a few other minerals. Green, p u r­
ple, a n d yellow coru n d u m a re
known as o riental emerald, orien­
tal amethyst, and o r ienta l topaz.

STAR SAPP H I R E
Tasmania

c u t sapphire
84
TOPAZ, a m i n e ra l of g r a n ites
and other igneous rocks, is a n
a l u m ino-fl u o ro-sil icate. la rge crys­
ta l s have been fou n d , some of
gem q u a l ity. These a re usually
yellow, brown, o r p i n k (when
heated ) . H . 8 ; S p . Gr. 3.5. False
topaz is brownish q u a rtz.

GARNETS are a common group

of sil icate m i n e r a l s ( p p . 1 04 - 1 0 5),
sometimes of gem q u a l ity. Pyrope
and a l m a n d ite a r e best known.
Green dema ntoid is a l so a gem. DEMANTO I D
PYROPE
N o rway
New Yo rk
SPODUMENE ( LiAISi206) occurs
i n pegmatite rocks, often form­
ing long crystal�. Two g e m forms
exist: H i d d e n ite, a g reen gem
spod u m e n e from N orth C a r o l i n a ,
a n d k u n zite, p i n k colored, fi rst
fou n d near San Di ego, C a l . Gem
spodumenes a l so occur i n Brazil.

Z IRCON (ZrSi04) i s common in

igneous rocks, b u t fairly rare as a
gem sto n e. C l e a r brown crysta ls
turn blue w h e n heated a n d hence
m a k e better gems.

TOURMALINE, commo n l y black

( p . 95), fo rms l o n g crystals, some­
times varicolored. Red, g reen,
b rown, a n d b l u e t o u r m a l i n es are
TOURMAL I N E - B r a z i l
known.
SPINE L (MgAI204) someti mes
reaches gem q u a l ity, the best red
gems com i n g from C eylon. Brown,
green, and even blue spinels oc­
Cey l o n
cur. H . 8 ; Sp. Gr. 3.8.

Some transparent gems a re identica l m i n e r a l s that dif­

fer o n l y in co lo r, as the ruby a n d the sa p p h i re. Tra ns­
paren cy, lack of flaws, c o l o r, and size dete r m i n e the va l u e
of these g e m s . For synthetic g e m s , see p p . 92-93.

85
 Q U ARTZ G EMS, the best known semi precious stones,
are the same a s the m i nerals described on pp. 76-82. Of
these gems, opa l s a re the m ost va l u a b le, some b e i n g c l as­
sified as precious. The tra nspa rent q u a rtz g e m s range
from colorless through yel low, brown, b l ue, b l ack, purple,

C ITR I N E
AST E R I AT E D ROSE Q U A RTZ

SMOKY Q U A RTZ
AMET HYST

T H R E E C UTS OF ROC K
Brazil

PREC I O U S OPAL F I R E OPAL BLAC K OPAL

Australia · · Mexico Austr a l i a
86
 p i n k a n d , rarel y, green. The translucent or opaque q u a rtz
gems have an even wider array of colors a n d forms.
Some are banded, striped, o r mottled. Names of a l l these
gems vary loca l ly. Some bea r several names; some names
are used for severa l stones.

W H ITE C H ALC E D O N Y - U ruguay AGAT E -Iowa

ONYX-Brazil

�
•

:�-��-,�/ 'k-�-��-�..
·�\o.
'

'
\r '>
...
-
.
• I

J A S P E R-Monta n a

C H RYSOPRASE-Col. C A R N E L I A N - N . Mex.

87
 CARVED J A D E
Tibet Australia early C h i n ese
JADE is the n a m e given a group ite, a gem form of pyroxene. The
of opaque, waxy o r pearly m i n ­ other i s neph rite, a form of am­
erals, usually g r e e n but a l s o y e l ­ phibole (pp . 1 00- 1 0 1 ) . light,
l ow, white, o r p i n k . There are two transl ucent, emerald g reen jade­
kinds of "true jade." One is jade- ite is considered a p reci o u s stone.

M OONSTONE is a l bite (p. 99) AMAZON I T E i s a green form of

with a b l u ish shee n . gem-q u a l ity microcl i n e (p. 99).

LAP IS-LAZ U L I is a rock r i c h i n MALACH ITE, often with a z u rite

! a z u rite. U s u a l l y a n ornamental (pp. 32-33), occurs in m a sses. C u t
stone, it i s a l so u sed a s a gem. fo r g e m s or o r n a m ents.

OPAQ U E G EMS, with the exception of jade, g rade off

into ornamenta l stones. The group incl udes representa­
tives of meta l l ic o res and rock-forming m i nerals. Some,
l ike obsidian, lapis, and jet, are better classified as rocks.
One u n usua l m i neral that could fit in t h is gr oup is the

88
R HODO N I T E may be used as a R HODO C H ROSITE, softe r t h a n
gem sto n e because of its color a n d rhodonite, has the s a m e attractive
h a r d ness. See also p p . 52-53. p i n k color. See a l so pp. 52-53.

HEMATITE, an i ro n mineral (pp. JET, a tough form of soft coal,

40-42), is cut a s a b lack, shiny takes a high polish. A sem i p reci­
gem w h e n crysta l l i n e . ous gem from E n g l a n d and S p a i n .

OBSI DIAN o r v o l c a n i c g lass ( p . TURQUOISE, a copper-a nd-a l u ­

1 1 6) has l o n g been u s e d f o r a r­ minum phosphate m i n e r a l , is
rowheads a n d p r i mitive cutti n g prized by weste rn I nd i a ns. Good
tools. I t polishes w e l l a n d ma kes q u a lity turquoise is rare. C h e a p
an attractive s e m i p recious stone. sto nes a r e often dyed b l u e .

pearl, formed by a number of fresh-water a n d m a r i n e

m o l lusks w h e n sa n d o r some o t h e r m ater i a l irritates the
a n i m a l 's mantle. layers of a ragonite form the pearl, w h i c h
g rows year b y year. P e a r l s are soft ( H . 4), but h a v e a
u n iq u e l u ster.

89
 b a g uette

brilliant

emerald

GEM C U T T I N G is on a ncient a rt w h i c h has often been

successf u l l y pursued by amate urs. With compa rative ly
l ittl e equipment a person con cut and pol ish gems a n d
ornamenta l stones a n d con l e a r n t o m o u n t them i n h a n d ­
m o d e o r purchased settings. As a creative, satisfying hob­
by, gem cutting g rows more p o p u l a r each yea r. Enth usiasts
often form c l ubs for m utua l aid or do their work as one
activity of a rock a n d m ineral c l u b . Ski l l i n cutting and
polishing comes with practice. If one ca n n ot fi n d gems or
semiprecious stones, rough materia l o r portly worked
" b l a n ks" con be purchased from dea l ers by the piece or
by the pou n d or ca rat, depending o n the sto ne.
With a p p a ratus powered by a sma l l e l ectric motor, the
a m ateur fi rst learns to cut stones a n d m a ke cabochons,

Dop stick h o l d s
gems for cutting
ond polishing

90
 s i m p l e gem cutti n g
a n d polish i n g outfit

pieces with round o r cu rved s u rfaces. Later h e learns to

cut stones with fa cets o r faces, which brings out the b r i l ­
l iance of tra nsparent gems. F ive common types of faceted
c uts are shown a t the top of p . 90.
As i n m ost other h obbies involving ski l l , one learns best
by work i n g a n d studying with a person of experie nce.
After you have begun, the books and magazines o n gems
a n d gem cutting l isted below w i l l be of va l u e.
POPU LAR G E M O LOGY, Richard M. Pearl. J o h n Wiley & Sons, I n c., New
Yo rk, 1 94 8 . A n i ntroduction to gems by a n outsta n d i n g coll ecto r.
T H E ART OF G E M C U TT I N G, Dake a n d Pearl, M i n e ra l og i st Publishing
Compa ny, Portl a n d , Ore., 1 954. A short, a b u n d a ntly i l l u strated guide.
T H E LAPI DARY J o u R N AL, Pa l m Desert, C a l . , a bimonthly j o u r n a l of a m a ­
teur collecti n g a n d g e m cuttin g .
RoCKS A N D M I N ERALS, B o x 2 9 , Peekski l l , N . Y., a b i m o n t h l y j o u r n a l
d e a l i n g w i t h a m a t e u r activities a n d hobbies.

d i a m o n d wheel
cuttin g agate

d i a m o nd wheel
91
 hamme r�

interior
of boule

SYNTHETIC G EMS-once a d ream-during the past few

decades have become a rea lity. Besides the economic
problems there were ample scientific ones. Attem pts to
make synthetic d iamonds about the turn of the century
met with d ubious success. The pro b l e m seems to have been
solved by ren ewed efforts i n 1 955. The goa l here was to
produce i n d ustria l diamon ds, rather than gems. In this
d i rection, a new synthetic, borazon, p roduced i n 1 957
seems to be a s hard as diamond and m u c h bette r a b l e to
withsta n d h i g h tem peratures. It is with coru n d u m , how­
ever, that the best synthetic gems have been made. A
method of fusing fi n e a l umina (A I 2 0 3 ) in a very hot flame
was perfected in 1 902. By a d d i n g the a ppropriate m inera l
pigments, synthetic rubies, sapphires, e mera lds, a n d simi­
lar gems of large size a n d fine q u a l ity have been formed.

92
 " Emera l d " " B l u e Zirco n " "Topaz"

"Spinel" "To u r m a l i n e " "Sapp h ire"

SY N T H E T I C D I AMO N D (actual size) "Aiexa n d rite"

In the apparatus shown on p . 92, the a l u m ina m ixture

sifts down through the oxyhyd rog en fl ame and forms a
s l ow-growing boule at the e n d of the cera m ic rod. Syn ­
thetic jewe l s a re u n iversa l ly used for watches, a n d it is
hard to te l l synthetic corun d u m gems from n atura l ones.
Besides the coru n d u m gems, a n u m ber of other syn ­
thetic g e m s have been produced. These a r e chem ica l l y
identica l t o the natura l gems. Other m a n - m a d e gems a re
without n atura l cou nterpa rts a n d , fi n a l ly, there a re i mita­
tions made of g lass. Gems may a lso be dyed (as ag ates)
or have their color changed by heat, chemical action,
or radioactivity. A thin layer of precious ston e is some­
times mounted on a larger backi ng of i n expensive ma­
teria l ( p . 1 5) . For these a n d other reasons it i s wise to get
expert h e l p when selecti ng va l ua b l e stones.

93
 IU>CK.-FOR.M J HG M l WERALS

The m i nerals on this tree are the ones that are of major
i m po rta nce i n forming the rocks of the e a rt h 's crust. Some
rocks have no defi n ite m inerals-just orga n ic o r g lassy
materia l . But most of them do conta in d iscrete m i nerals­
those from the groups pictu red above predom inating.

94
 ROC K - FORMING MIN ERA LS

ROCK-FO R M I N G M I N ERALS are as m isce l l a neous a

group as the gems. They are im porta nt as the b u i l d i n g
b locks of the solid earth, f r o m which mountains a re m a d e
a n d va l leys c a rved. T h e y furn ish t h e m inerals of our so i l
a n d the s a l t of t h e seas. Most of these m i n er a l s conta i n
meta ls, but they are not m eta l l ic ores. S o m e are valued a s
gems w h e n , u n d e r r a r e c i rc umsta nces, t h e y atta in gem
q ua l ity. A few are of commercial val ue, but it is as basic
constituents of rocks (p. 1 09) that the true va l u e of the
group is rea lized.
Nearly all the rock-forming minerals are s i l i cates, that
is, they consist of a meta l comb ined with silicon a n d oxy­
gen. So m e are co m pl ex sil icates, involving severa l meta l s
and severa l s i l icate g ro u ps. T h i s com p l exity m a kes chemi­
cal testing of rock-fo r m i n g m i nera l s a difficu l t matter. But
the common m inerals of ig neous and meta m o r p h ic rocks
can be identified by paying c l ose attention to their physica l
properties.
I n the rock-fo rming group are some minerals treated
elsewhere. Q u a rtz (pp. 76-82 ), especia l ly i n its crysta l l i n e
forms, is very common i n rocks. Calcite a n d d o l o m ite ( p p .
63-65) can a lso be ca l le d rock-forming m i nerals; so can
h a l ite a n d gyps u m .

TOURMAL I N E , a sil icate o f a l u m i­

n u m with boron a n d several other
metals, i s occasion a l ly a b u n d a n t with
m ica and feldspars i n granitic rocks.
It is mostly black-other colors form­
ing gems (p. 8 5 ) . Note the tria n g u la r,
striated crystals. H. 7; Sp. Gr. 3 .
 M I CAS are an u n usua l fa m i ly of m i nera ls, fa m e d beca use
of t h e perfect basa l c l eavage which enables one to cleave
off paper-th i n , flexi b l e sheets. Such sheets from large
"books" made the "ising lass" heatproof w i n dows of old
stoves a n d ranges. Because of their h i g h e l ectriCa l resist­
a n ce, the iron-free m icas are widely used in many kinds
of e lectrical a n d e lectron ic equi pment. This i m porta nt use
has led to the experimenta l prod uction of a rtifi cia l m icas.
Micas a re s i l icate m i n erals. A l l i n c l ud e oxides of a l u­
m i n u m a n d silicon with other meta ls, s i n g l y or in combina­
tio n . They a l so conta in some water i n c o m b i n ation with
the oth e r elements. Part of this water (a bout 5 per cent)
is l ost when m icas a re heated. Micas a re common i n
gran ites a n d s i m i l a r igneous rocks. La rge, six-sided crys­
ta l s-so m e weig h i n g as much as 1 00 l bs.-occu r i n peg ma­
tites. Muscovite, the most common m ica, is mined com­
m ercia l l y i n the Black H i l ls of South Da kota and i n a few
other places i n this cou ntry. The best a n d m ost perfect
"books" are from large deposits i n I n d i a .
M i c a s a lso f o r m i n metamorphic rocks as o t h e r m inerals
a re a ltered by heat a n d pressure. The mica i n m ica sc hist
a n d in g n e iss is of this orig in , as is the m ica i n some kinds
of crysta l l i n e marble.

V ERMICULITES a re c l a y m i n er­
a l s conta i n i n g water, closely re­
l a ted fa the micas. When they
a re heated, stea m farms a n d
p ractically exp lodes the fl a ky
mineral, expa n d i n g it to many
times its ori g i n a l vo l u me. A soft
yel low or bronze material, i t is
used for i n s u lation a n d for l ight­
weight agg regates. It is excel­
lent for growi n g cuttings a n d
seed l i ngs.

96
BIOTITE is a d a r k -colored mica,
brown o r black, sometimes g reen,
conta i n i n g magnesium and iron.
I t is a b u nd a n t i n some g r a n ites
a n d is a lso common in schists a n d
g neiss. Small barrel-sh aped crys­
tals a re sometimes fou n d . Biotite
may occur with m u scovite in
metamorphic rocks. T h i n cleavage
sheets ofte n show light spots, rings,
or h a los. H. 2.5-3; Sp. Gr. 2.9.

MUSCOV ITE is a pale, a l most

colorless mica - H . 2.2; Sp . Gr.
2.8. It is a potash mica of vari­
able chem ica l composition. Named
after M u scovy, where i t was used
a s a su bstitute for g l a ss, this com­
mon m ica occurs i n many places.
C rysta ls are common and may
i nclude fl a ttened g a rnets, q u a rtz,
or to u rmaline. A b u n d a n t i n gran­
ites a n d pegmatites.

P HLOGO P I TE, related to biotite

a n d fou n d with it, i s a magnesium­
p otassiu m mica often conta i n i n g
iron a n d fl uorine. H a rd n ess a n d
specific g ravity m u c h l i ke m u sco­
vite. large crystals of p h logop ite
are min e d in Ontario and Mada­
gascar. I t is the mica u s u a l ly seen
a s b rown flecks i n crysta l l i n e dolo­
m ite and marble.
Bancroft, Onta rio, C a n a d a

LE P IDOL I TE is a lith i u m mica

with potassium and fluorine, a l so
q u ite variable in compositi o n . I t
i s a n ore o f t h e l i g h t metal l i t h i u m .
S o m e deposits occ u r i n New E n g ­
l a n d ; m o r e near S a n D i e g o , CaL,
w h e re o n e fi n d s both a n attrac­
tive lavender a n d a p a l e yellow
fa rm. lepidolite gives a crimson
flame color.

Keystone, S . D a k .
97
 F E L DSPARS f o r m the m ost a b u n ­
dant group of m i n e ra l s. I f t h e
group w e r e considered a s i n g l e
mineral ( a n d there is g o o d rea ­
son for th is) it wou l d be the m ost
common m i n era l by far - five
times as common as q u a rtz. Feld­
L A BRADORITE - a n i ri­
descent blue p l a gioclase spars are fou n d i n nearly a l l igne­
feldspar used in ornament ous rocks and i n rocks formed
a n d decoratio n . from them. A l l a re a l u m i n u m sili-
cates c o m b i n e d w i t h o n e or tw o more m eta ls. Fel dspars
have c o m m o n physica l pro perties. Their crysta l forms are
very s i m i l a r and the crysta l a n g les are all c l ose to 60 ° and
1 2 0 ° . Feldspa rs show two good c l eavage faces, at right
a n g les o r nearly so. Their hardness is 6 o r a bit m o re, and
their specific g ravity about 2.6. They usua l ly have a
s m ooth , g la ssy, or pearly l uster.
Feld spars may be classified by crysta l structure or by
chemical com position. Neither is of m u c h h e l p to the
a m ate u r. From the chem ica l point of v iew, the potash
feldspars (orthoclase and m icroc l ine) a re put in one g roup.
T h e other group, conta i n i n g t h e p l a g ioclase feldspa rs,
b e g i n s with a l b ite (a sod i u m feldspar) a n d e n d s with
a north ite (a calcium feldspar). Between these a re feld ­
spars that a re d ifficult to identify beca use they conta i n
varying proportions o f s o d i u m a n d c a l c i u m , as o l igoclase,
a n desine, and l a bradorite. Rarer feldspars with barium
and other m eta ls a re a lso known to occur.
Fel dspars a re widely used i n
cera mic i n d ustries i n the m a n ufac­
ture of g lazes, fl ux ena mels, a n d
b i nd ers. T h e y ultimately d ecay to
form kaolin (p. 49) or other clay
m i n era l s (p. 1 50).

98
ORTHOCLASE, a fairly common
fel dspar, is usually w h i te, ye l l ow,
o r p i n k . I t is a potash feldspar,
some varieties conta i n i n g sodi u m ;
i n o t h e r s barium may replace t h e
potassi u m . A va riety known as
a d u l a ria, with a bluish reflected
sheen, is sometimes cut a s moo n ­
stone, a semip recious sto ne. An­
other variety, s a n i d i ne, is fo u n d
i n volca n i c rock.

MICROCLINE is a lso a potash

feldspa r-the most common one.
Both i t a n d orthoclase lack the
fi n e l i nes o r striations seen o n the
cleavage faces of p l a g ioclase
feldspars. Microc l i n e is a lso fou n d
i n a p a l e green color (amazon ite,
p. 88), sometimes of gem q u a lity.
The best c rysta l s a re from granites
near Pikes Peak.

A L B I TE is o n e of the p l agioclase
feldspars. I t is a sod i u m feldspar
with a slightly lower specific g rav­
ity than others, and freq uently
contains potassiu m . The basal
cleavage s u rface i s ma rked with
fi n e lines.. Color wh ite, g ray, o r
b l u ish, ofte n w i t h a b l uish sheen.
Some are cut a s moon ston es. AI·
b ite is common i n g r a n itic rocks
A lbite tw i n n i n g
and i n acidic lavas.

ANORTH I TE is a calcium feldspar

which ends the series beg i n n i n g
w i t h a l bite. Betwee n t h e m is o l i ­
goclase, w i t h 1 5 to 25 per c e n t
calcium. O l igoclase is common i n
East Coast g r a n ites. Anorth ite is
less com m o n ; it occurs i n seve ral
forms, mainly wh ite, g ray, o r
glassy. Sma l l a m o u nts of sod i u m
a re u s u a l l y p resen t.

99
 Massac h u setts

ACT I N O L I TE - g reen; fi b rous or

radiating, g l a ssy crystals.

HORNBLE N D E H . 5 to 6; Sp. Gr.

3 to 3.4. C rystals com mon.

Massac h u setts

TREMOLITE-white, g ray, o r
colorless; usually l o n g , bladed
crysta ls.

AMP H I BO L E S are comp lex hydrous s i l icates conta i n i n g

c a l c i u m , mag nesium, a n d i r o n . C rysta l s a re often long o r
need l e - l ike; sometimes fibrous (p. 7 5 ) . W h e n s h o rt, they
a re six-sided. The c leavage p l a nes a re a t about 55° a n d
1 25 ° , form ing wedge-shaped c leavage frag m ents. These
cha racteristics a re i m porta nt i n separati n g a m phiboles
from pyroxenes ( p . 1 0 1 ). Horn b l e n de, dark g reen to
b lack a n d g la ssy, is fo u n d in basic igneous rocks a n d i n
such a l tered rocks as horn blende sch ist. I t conta ins a l u­
m i n u m a n d is most often of secondary orig i n .
Act i n o l ite a n d tre m o l ite may be considered o n e m i n ­
era l o r two . The crysta l forms a re the sa m e but i n actino­
l ite some of the m a g n esium is rep l a ced by i ron, giving
the m i n e ra l a green color. Both a re secondary m i n e r a l s
related to a m p h i b o l e j a d e s a n d asbestos (p. 75).

1 00
ENSTATITE H . 5 . 5 ; Sp. Gr. 3 . 5 . AUGITE H . 5 to 6; Sp . Gr. 3 . 5 .
C o l o r va riable. G reen to black; g l a ssy.

DIOPSIDE H. 5 to 6;
Sp. Gr. 3.4. C o l o r ,
white to g reen a n d
b r o w n - sometimes
tra n s p a r e n t.

PYROXENES a re comp lex s i l icates, c l osely related to

the a m phibo les. Pyroxenes a re often fo u n d as primary
minerals in i g n eous rocks. Their c leavage a n g les are
c l ose to 90 ° , g iving squar.ed c leavage frag ments. They
too a re ofte n fi brous o r need l e - l i ke. Most a re gray or
green, grading into b l ack. The kinds of pyroxe nes are not
d istin ct. They vary chemica l ly as iron replaces ca l c i u m
a n d m a g nesiu m . When this occurs, enstatite becomes
hypersthene a n d d iopside becomes heden bergite. En­
statite is sometimes f o u nd i n m eteorites from o uter space.
Diopside, usua l l y a l ig h t g reen, is m ost common i n m eta­
morp hosed d o l o m itic m a r b l es. Aug ite, the m ost c o m m o n
pyroxene, is a c o m p lex of a l u m i n um , m agnesi um, ca l c i u m ,
a n d iron sil icates f ound i n n e a r l y a l l b a s i c i g n e o u s rocb
and dark lavas, d i kes, and s i l ls.

101
 Z E O L I T E S a re not major rock formers but they a re wide­
l y distributed. All are chem ica l l y related to the fel dspars
-with the a d d ition of water, chemica l ly combined. This
water is held l oose l y, so a l l zeo l ites boil and b u b b l e w h e n
h eated by a b l ow p i pe. T h e i r n a m e means "boi l i n g sto ne."
About 25 m i n e ra l s fit into the zeo l ite g ro u p . I n a d d ition
there a re severa l zeol ite associates- m i nera l s c h e m ica l l y
s i m i l a r but n o t o f t h e zeo l ite pattern. Zeo l ites a n d their
associates are often fou n d i n lavas, fi l li n g cavities a n d
veins. A l l a r e pale, fa irly soft m inerals o f l o w density. The
a b i l ity of zeo l ites to interc hange i o n s of calcium a n d
sodium has prom oted the man ufa cture of a rtifi cia l zeo­
l ites for use a s water softeners.
Sti l b ite often occ u rs i n pearly, s h eaflike m a sses of
twi n n ed crysta ls. Rad iati n g c rysta ls, often tra n s l u cent,
m a y a lso form ro unded knobs. Color: w h ite, yel low, to
reddish-brow n . H . 3.5 to 4; Sp. Gr. 2 . 1 .
C h a bazite occurs with sti l b ite, usua l l y i n the form
of large rhombohedra l -a l m ost cubic-crysta ls. It is w h ite,
occasio n a l l y pink, with a g lassy l u ster; tra nsparent or
tra n s l ucent. H. 4 to 5; Sp. Gr. 2 . 1 .
N atrol i te forms slender, prismatic n eed l e - l ike crysta ls.
I t fuses i n the heat of a c a n d l e fl a me-a d istin g u i s h i n g
c hara cteristic . C o l o r, w h ite t o yel lowish. H . 5; Sp. Gr. 2 . 2 ;
l u ster, g la ssy.
Pecto l ite is seen i n ta pering masses of t h i n need l es
sometimes severa l inches l o n g . H . 5; Sp. Gr. 2 . 8 . Color
usuall y w h ite; l uster silky. It is a l so fi brous o r m a y form
radiating masses. Pecto l ite needles a re d a n g erously sharp
a n d s h o u l d be h a n d led with ca re.
Prehn ite and pecto l ite a re zeo l ite associates w h i c h
may occ u r together. Prehn ite is usua l l y i n compact m a sses
of flat l i g ht-green c rysta ls. luster, g l a ssy; b rittle and trans­
l ucent. H . 6 to 6.5; Sp. Gr. 2 .9.

1 02
 Pen nsylva n i a
ST I LB I T E
New J e rsey

NATRO L I T E- Oregon

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P R E H N ITE-New J e rsey

1 03
GARN ETS are better known as gems tha n as rock-fo rm­
i n g m i n erals, but they a re common a n d form a sma l l but
conspicuous i n g redient of igneous and meta m o r p h i c rocks.
Ga rnets are a c l ose -knit fa m i ly of s i l icate m i nerals with
many common cha racteristics. They a l l form crysta ls i n
the isometric syste m , usu a l ly w i t h 1 2 or 2 4 sides, t h o u g h
sometimes com b i ned forms w i t h 36 o r 4 8 faces are fou n d .
Chem ica l ly, garnets conta i n the elem ents calcium,
magnesium , iron, a n d a l u m i n u m , combined with silicon
a n d oxygen. Other, less common meta ls may a l so occur.

i n p hy l l ite- Pen nsylva n ia
GROSSULARITE i s a calcium­
a l u m i n u m garn et, normally c6lor­
less to w h ite, but colored w h e n
i t conta i n s i ron a s a n i m p u r ity.
It is fo u n d m a i n ly i n m a r b l e . A
warm-brown va r iety from Ceylon
i s cut as a g e m . The name refers
to a Siberian "goosebe rry g reen"
va r iety .

PYROPE is sometimes ca l led

precious g a r net, t h o u g h it is
mined i n l a rg e q ua ntities for
g a r n et paper. C l ear, perfect
specimens are found in South
African " b l u e earth" with dia­
monds; they make fine gems.
Pyrope is a magnesium-alu­
cut g e m c rysta l
minum garnet.

ALMANDITE i s the "common

garnet" fo u n d i n many metamor­
p h i c rocks. I t i s a n i r on -a l u m i n u m
g a rnet, t h o u g h part of the i ron
may be replaced by mag nesium­
making such forms similar to
pyrope. When i t has a c l e a r red
color it is sometimes-like pyrope
-ca l led p recious g a r n e t a n d is
cut as a gem.
crysta l s in m ica sch i st, N e w Yo rk
Crystals are abundant-from pinhead size up to 4 in. in
diameter. Fresh crystals have a glassy luster. There is
no distinct cleavage. All garnets have a hardness of about
7. Their density is more va riable, between 3 . 4 and 4.3-
depending o n the metals i n them. Most garnets are found
in schists, gneiss, and marbles. Some occur in lavas and
in granites.
Only a small percentage of garnets are of gem qual­
ity. In a few large deposits, garnets are mined and
crushed for garnet paper and other abrasives.

c rysta l i n
SPESSARTITE is q u ite a rare
s c h i st
member of the group of a l u m i n u m
garnets. I t co ntains manga nese
and a l u m i n u m . The m a n g a nese
ofte n g ives t h e g a r net a violet t i n t
which ma kes g e m - q u a l ity speci­
mens pa rti c u l a r l y v a l u a b l e . Such
gem·q u a l ity stones have come
from V i r g i n i a g r a n ites.

ANDRADITE is a g a rnet conta i n ­

i n g ca l c i u m a n d i r o n . It, t o o , i s
ve ry co m m o n a n d l i ke a l m a n d ite
is called common g a r n et. C o l o r
v a r i e s f r o m y e l l o w to g reen, red,
and b l o c k, depen d i n g o n i m p u ri­
ties. It occurs i n igneous rocks
and i n some meta m o r p h osed
l i mestones. The g reen form, de­
m o n toid, i s a gem (p. 8 5 ) .

UVAROVITE is a l e s s common
ga rnet fo u n d i n serpentine rock
and i n l i mesto nes a ssociated with
chro m i u m ores. I t is a c a l c i u m ·
c h romi u m g a r net. T h e ch romi u m
g i v e s i t i t s rich g reen color. I t i s
u n l i ke m o s t g a r n ets i n that a
s p l i nter of it w i l l n o t fuse when
h eated with a blowpipe.

1 05
 crysta l 0. 1 i n .
O L I V I N E, a lso ca l le d c h rysol ite
or peridot, is the most common
member of a g ro u p of s i l icates.
O l ivine is a m a g n es i u m-iron s i l i­
cate, colored various sha des of
g reen (ra rely, brow n ) ; H. 6.5 to 7;
Sp. Gr. 3.3. L uste r, g lassy; trans ­
parent to tra n s l ucent. C le a r vari­
eties a re cut as the g e m peridot.
O l ivine is fo u n d i n igneous rocks
J ackson Cou nty, N .C .
that are rich i n m a g nesium a n d
low in q u a rtz, as basa lt a n d g a bbro; a lso i n m eta mor­
phosed d o l o m ites. It is often found i n the form of sma l l
g r a i n s o r i n l a rge, g ra n u l a r masses. The c rysta ls are
relative l y ra re, though occasio n a l l y some have been
found u p to severa l inc hes long .

C H LO R I T E is o n e, two, th ree, or more m i n e r a l s depe n d­

i n g on how ca refu l l y th e constituents a re separated. If
considered a s i n g l e m i n e r a l , c h l orite is a m ixture of mag­
nesium a n d iron-a l u m i n u m s i l i cates, with water. It often
forms as an a l teration of rocks rich i n pyroxen es, a m ­
p h i b o l es, a n d b iotite. It may a lso f o r m i n cavities of
basic igneous rocks. C h l orite is
usua l l y g reen but may vary from
w h ite to b rown and b l ack. H. 2
to 2 .5; Sp. Gr. 2 . 8 ; pea r l y l u ster;
streak, g reenish or w h ite. It forms
in masses, crusts, fi bers, o r b l a ded
crysta l s . The crysta l s have a per­
fect basa l c l eavage a n d, l i ke
m ica, s p l it i nto t h i n s heets. These
may bend s l i g ht l y, l ike se len ite,
but a re not e l astic l i ke mica.

1 06
FOLIATED SERPENT I N E
Pennsylva n i a

carved serpe ntine

VERD ANTIQUE baok end

C OMMO N S E R P E NT I N E - N o rway

S E R P E NT I N E (chem ica l l y s i m i l a r to c h lo rite) is a mag­

nesium s i l icate with water, but may i n c l ude sma l l a m o u n ts
of iron or n ic k e l . The fi b rous form of serpentine, c h ryso­
tile asbestos, is described o n p. 7 5. A n u m be r of other
varieties depend o n physica l cha racteristics, especia l ly
color a n d l u ster. C o m m o n or massive serpentine
(H4Mg 3 S i 2 0 9 ) va ries from cream wh ite throug h a l l shades
of green to b lack. Strea k is wh ite. H . 2 .5 to 4; Sp. Gr. 2 .6;
tra n s l ucent to opaque. Note the g reasy o r waxy l u ste r
a n d fee l of serpentine. Some weath � red spec i m e n s a re
earthy. There a re m icaceous, fi b rous, a n d mottled va rieties,
some of them fl uo rescent.
The m i nera l serpentine is a seco n d a ry m i nera l w h i c h
a l so occurs as m eta morphosed serpentine r o c k . De posits
are l a rge but a t present have only m i n o r use in fi rebricks.
Serpe ntine m a r b l e (verd a n tiq ue) a n d deeply colored com­
mon serpe n t i n e a re used for carvi ngs.

1 07
 STA U R O L I T E is an iron-a l u m i n u m
s i l icate often fo u n d with g a r n ets i n
such m etamorphic rocks as sch ists,
twinned phy l l ites, a n d g n e isses. Brown to
crysta ls b lack in color; strea k, g ray; H. 7 to
7.5; Sp. Gr. 3.7. Sta u ro l ite a l m ost
a l ways occ u rs in c rysta ls-as ortho­
rhombic prisms and c o m m o n l y as
twi n n e d crysta ls. Tw i n n i n g may be
at 60 ° or 90 ° . When at 90 ° , the
New Mexico twi n crysta l s form a perfect cross.
Such crysta l s (fa iry crosses), broken
o r weathered from the bedrock, a re so l d as charms or
souve n i rs. T h ese may be u p to 2 i n . l o n g , but a re usua l ly
an i n c h or l ess. Exce l lent specimens occur in schi sts near
Minera l Bluff, Georg i a . Tra nsparent crysta ls occur rare l y,
a n d may be cut as gems.

E P I DO T E is o n e of a g ro u p of c o m p l e x s i l icates of c a l ­
c i u m a n d a l um i n u m w i t h water. It f o r m s i n n e a r l y every
type of m eta morphic rock, in cracks a n d seams, as crys­
tals or a s t h i n g reen crusts. It is a ty pica l m i n e ra l where
igneous rocks have come in contact with l i m esto nes. Crys­
ta l s a re usu a l l y s l e n d e r prisms, g ra d i n g i nto need le-like
forms. C o l o r, g reen to b rown a n d b l ack; H. 6 to 7; Sp.
Gr. 3.3. Easi ly identified by hard n ess a n d color.

"
/•
•. . .

. � .
cryst a l ' � · . i ... �
Alaska
I
·' '-
'to.L.. .t . �. ., ,. .
p----v., "' ' " .. .
�, . . ..., .. /.:
.,
; , ·�--- ,,
.
r , .. · . .. � . -� , ''
:.
', • .?... ". , ,.
. 't ! 1' ..·....
. � ..
�
.
.
. .· -·

'4'
.0
....
" .. ,_ �·

m a ssive
1 08 C a l ifornia
 at h i g h temperatu res or from
molten materials. Pp . 1 1 0- 1 20.

2 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS o re
formed by action of w o.t e r, w i n d ,
o r o r g a n i c a g e n t s . Pp. 1 2 1 - 1 3 2 .

3 METAMORPH I C ROCK S hove

ROCKS
Rocks are l a rg e masses of material that make u p the earth's
crust. Some d o n ot have discrete m in e ra ls but are com posed
of g lasses or of organic m ateria ls l ike coa l . Many rocks
are not s o l id-as so i l , g rave l , sand , and c lay. A rock may
consist of a s i n g l e m ineral, a s q ua rtz, gypsum, or d o l o m ite.
Most rocks conta i n several m i n erals, o r were formed from
o lder rocks i n w h ic h these m i nerals were present.

1 09
1 00 % soda - l i m e
pota s h pota s h s od a - l ime sod a - l i m e feldspar

" "
75
&.

� E 0
0
0 a.
""
so �

feldspa r
25
Quartc

0 't 't
m i ca s micas biotite m i c a biotite mica olivine
pyroxene pyroxene pyroxene py roxene pyroxene
amphibole amphibole a m p h i bo l e a m p h i bo l e amphibole

GRAN ITE SYEN ITE DIORITE GABBRO P E R I DO T I T E

/ /
FELSITE BASALT

PUMICE OBS I D I AN SCOR I A

I G N E O U S RO C K S

Igneous rocks are classified by their texture, mineral

content, and origin. They all come from magmas-molten
mixtures of minerals, often rich in gases, found deep
below the surface. If magmas cool beneath the surface
they form intrusive rocks and develop typical structures
that may later be exposed by erosion. Magmas reaching
the surface form extrusive rocks, such as the spectacular
volcanic rocks.
Igneous rocks usually contain ferro-mag nesian minerals
(amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas, or olivine) and feldspar
or feldspar-like minerals. Many contain quartz. Those rich
in light minerals (quartz and potash feldspar ) are called
acidic. These are light not only in color but in weight
(average Sp. Gr. 2 . 6 to 2.7). Those richer in ferro-mag­
nesian minerals are called basic. They ore darker and
heavier (Sp. Gr. 3 . 0 and more) . In texture, igneous rocks
range from those with large crystals to glassy rocks with
no crystals at all.

1 10
I NT R U S I V E ROCKS form as magmas cool. This is a
gradual process in which the more volatile chemicals re­
main as · liquids and gases lo nger. Some intrusive rocks,
very near the surface, grade into extrusive types. Those
that cool deeper are more coarsely crystalline.
G r a n i te is the best known of the deeper igneous
(plutonic ) rocks. It is usually light-colored, formed mainly
of potash feldspar (about 60 per cent) and quartz (about
30 per cent}, usually with mica or hornblende. The inter­
grown mineral crystals are all about the same size-a
characteristic of slow cooling . Fine granite has a salt-and­
pepper pattern. Feldspar may redden it. Granite is hard
and tough, widely used in con struction and monumen ts.
Some granites may be metamorphic rocks (p. 1 40 ) .

M E D I UM-G R A I N E D
GRAN ITE

F I N E- G RA I N E D
GRAN ITE

R E D G RA N I T E
M i n n e sota

111
 O T H E R I NT R U S IVE ROCKS include some w h ic h have
cooled near the surface. These may conta in a g roundmass
of crysta l l i n e grains surrou ndi ng l a rger crysta ls. Such
igneous rocks made of crysta ls (phen ocrysts) i n a fi ner
groundmass a re known as porphyries. Porphyries a re

PEGMATITE i s a coa rse-g rained v e i n o r

d i k e rock w i t h crysta ls that range f r o m a n
i nch o r so t o many feet i n l e n gth. Pegma­
tites are mined for the i r mica a n d feldspar,
o r fo r gems a n d other accessory m i nerals.
They often co nta i n cavities or vugs lined
with crysta ls. In o n e fo rm, graphic gran ite,
the q u a rtz fa rms a n g u l a r fi g u res which look
l i ke writi n g .

Some aece ssory pegmatite minerals:

garnet arsen o p y r i te spodumene
a patite tourma l i ne emerald
Shel by, N . C .
to paz l e p i d o l ite c r y o l ite
bery l ch rysobery l sapphire
ruby mo l y b d e n i t e r u be l l ite
p y r i te aquamarine w o l f ra m i te
fl u o r i te ca ssiterite u ra n i n i te

SYENITE is less common t h a n g ra n ite. I t

lacks q u a rtz entirely or m a y have a sma ll
amou nt, i n w hic h c as e it i s k n own as
q u a rtz-syen ite. Syenite is mainly potash
Wa u s a u, Wis. feldspars with some mica or hornblende.
The crystals are usually s m a l l a n d the rock
is even-textured. Syenite a lso forms por­
phyries with phenocrysts of feldspar.

GRANITE PORPHYRY, which fo rms u n d e r

somewhat different conditions f r o m gran ite,
has a granite g r o u n dmass i n which phe no­
crysts of feldspar, q u a rtz, o r biotite mica
a re embed d e d . A porphyry i s named after
the matrix o r groundmass-such a s syen ite
porphyry, basalt porphyry . They a lso occur
i n extrusive rocks (p. 1 1 6) .
St. Cloud, M i n n .

1 12
fo u n d in intrusive rocks formed near the surface, a n d in ex­
.
trusive rocks, b ut do not occur in dee p-seated i n trus ives.
Peg matite, g ra n ite, and syen ite a re l i g ht-colored intru­
sives. Diorite, g a b b ro, a n d peridotite a re d a rk, with more
ferro- magnesian m i nerals.

DIOR I T E is a basic rock rich in m i nerals

such as a m p h i boles, biotite, o r pyroxenes.
II> texture is like that of g r a n ite, b u t it is
composed m a i n ly of plagioclase fel d spa r
a n d ferro-magnesian m i nerals. Oth e r fe ld­
spars may b e p resent, a n d sometimes a
bit of q u a rtz. I ts color is usually g ray or
d u l l green. Granites grade i nto dio rites
through intermediate fo rms-the g rano­
d i o rites.
S o l e m , Moss.
GABBRO, like d i o ri te, has a g r a n itic tex­
tu re. Since texture depends upon rate of
cooling, rocks of gabbro com position vary
from fi ne-grained (diabase) on the out­
side of a dike o r sill (p. 1 1 4 ) to o typica l
g a bbro with i n . Gabbro is mode mai n ly of
plagioclase feldspa r a n d pyroxene, with
some olivine, traces of i l m e n ite, but no
q u a rtz. A dark rock, its m i n e r a l crysta ls o r e
d e e p l y i n termeshed, m a k i n g it o very t o u g h
r o c k . Porphyritic g a b b ros a re rare.
Dolerite (or d ia b a se) is the fi n e-g rained
g a bbro w h ich often occurs i n s i l l s o r d i kes.
I t grades i n to basa l t at the edges, where
Salem, Mass.
it has coo led more raoidly .

P ERIDOTITE is a dark, heavy intru sive rock

composed m a i n l y of olivine with pyroxene
and tiny flecks of p h logopite m ica or horn­
blende. Little o r n o fe ldspar is p resent.
F resh rock i s n e a r l y black, b u t the more
common weathered speci mens a re g reen ish
and softer. Peridotite a l te rs i n to serpentine.
The South African diamond deposits occur
i n perid otite, which, i n other places, con­
tains im porta nt de posits of nickel, chromi­
um, and plati n u m . Baste,
Harz Mts., Germany

113
 I NT R U S I V E RO CK ST R U C T U R ES are the natura l forms
taken by intrusive rocks. Sometimes these structures form
deep beneath the surface. With the passing of time, they
may later be exposed as covering rocks a re rem oved by
water, ice, o r wind. When i ntrusive structures a ppea r at
the s u rface t h ey may beco m e specta c u l a r features of the
l a n d scape. As they weather they produce typica l kinds of
soil. Rich ore deposits formed with their i ntrusion may then
becom e available.

D I KES a re sheetlike intrusions rising from

Palisades o f t h e H udson
(sca l e distorted)
a batholith (p. 1 1 5 ) o r from some other
source of m a g m a . These sheets may va ry
in thickness from a few i nches to h u n d reds
of feet, and may extend from a few feet
to many m i l es. The magma formi n g the
d i k e fol l ows cracks a n d joints below the
s u rface, hence d i kes cha racteristica l l y cut
a cross the rock structu res. Magma cools
rapidly i n contact with the s u r rou n d i n g rock.
Hence the dike may d iffer i n texture a n d
composition i n t hese contact zones. T h e heat
of the i n jected materia l may meta morphose
the a d j o i n i n g rock (p. 1 39 ) . Miles of well­
developed d i kes a re exposed near Spanish
Peaks, Colorado. ·
S I LLS are s i m i l a r in origin to d i kes. W h i l e
d ikes cut across the existing rocks, s i l l s
f o r m para l lel to them, frequently s h o u l ­
dering their way i n between layers of sed i ­
mentary rocks. I f t h e s e layers a re tilted,
the s i l l w i l l be tilted also. The P a lisades
along the H udson River near N ew York is
a tilted sill of d i a base and gabbro. Sills
a n d d i kes may occur near volca noes when
lava fills u p cracks i n p revious lava flows.
Joints fo r m i n g reg u l a r 5- or 6-sided col­
umns mark some fi ne-g rained intrusive
rocks, as i n the Giant's C a u seway i n I re­
land and Devi l's Tower in Wyoming.
 I n trusive structu res originate from deep reservoirs of
m a gm a whose o r i g i n s are sti l l not clear. Mag m a s a re
capa b l e of producing both acidic a n d basic rocks. Acidic
rocks tend to form m a jor structures-batho l iths, the cores
of m o u n tain ra n ges, and the g reat contine nta l s h i e lds.
Basic rocks o c c u r m o re freq uently i n d i kes and s i l ls, often
g rad ing into extrusive rocks. A l l extrusive rocks, at o n e
p l a c e or a n other, g ra d e or j o i n into i n trusives. Recog n i z i n g
such structures e n a b les one to interpret the l a n d scape.

LACCO L I T H S m i g h t be l i kened t o b l isters

with i n the e a r t h ' s thin skin of sed i m entary
rocks. M a g m a spreads o utward between
rock layers and ra ises those a bove it into
a dome that may be a thousa n d feet o r
more h i g h a n d f r o m one to te n m i les
across. Sedi mentary layers lifted by the
m a g m a may crack, s u bjecti n g them to a
more r a p i d erosion w h ich may eventually
expose the igneous core. The edges of
resista n t u p t u r n e d sed i menta ry layers
a r o u n d t h e laccolith may form c i rcu l a r
ridges c a l l e d h og backs. lacco liths a r e
common i n the West, p a rticula rly i n Uta h .

BAT HOLIT HS, the l a rgest i ntrusio n s, may

cover 1 00,000 sq u a re m i les. O u r l a rg est, i n
central I d a ho, spreads over 1 6,000 square
m i les. I n the Rockies a n d S ierra Nevada
batholiths a r e exposed i n the m o u ntain
cores. T h o u g h some are ancient, some are
new, i n d icati n g t h a t they a re part of the
conti n u a l b u i l d i n g u p of the earth ' s crust.
As magma wells u p it may d issolve some
of the s u r ro u n d i n g rock. I t may spread
u neven ly, tra p p i n g islands of o l d e r rock.
Batho liths g e n e r a l l y conta i n coa rse-g rained
rocks. T h ey are deeply b u ried a n d may not
be u n covered fo r m i l l i o n s of yea rs. Sm al l
batholiths a r e c a l l e d stocks.
 EXT R U S I V E ROCKS em brace a large g roup, the m ost
common member of which is l ava . T h is m o lten materia l
pours o u t through fi ssures a n d volca n oes. It s p reads i n
g reat lava fl ows o r b u i l d s u p cones. Volca n ic explosions
th row fra g m e nts i nto the air as volca n i c ash o r volca n ic
bombs. The forms a n d structu res of these rocks are shown

RHYOLITE is a l i g h t-co lored acidic rock

RHYOLITE-Colorado
which has very much the same c hemical
composition a s g r a n ite. Its texture i s very
fi n e . When m i n e ra l s can be seen in it­
p h enocrysts of q u a rtz a n d a g l a ssy fe ld­
s p a r (sa n i d i n e)-the rock i s a rhyol ite par·
phyry. Color wh ite to p i n k to g ray, though
often reddish from i ron sta i n s .

OBSIDIAN a n d PUMICE a re chemically

O BS I D I A N -Wyo m i n g
the same as rhyol ite. Obsi d i a n o r natu ral
glass is formed w h e n rhyolitic lava is
q u ickly chilled. Though it i s da rk-co lored,
t h i n fragme nts a re light and transparent.
I n d ians made k n ives, a rrowheads, a n d or­
n a ments from this unusual rock . Pitch sto ne
is a d u l l e r, ro u g h e r form of obsi d i a n . Rhyo­
l ite lava blown to a spongelike consiste ncy
by the release of gases fo r m s p u mice-a
volcanic frot h . Pumice i s so light it floats o n
water, a n d frag ments may be washed
ashore far from the volcano.

ANDESITE is n a med for the A n d es Moun·

tains, where it i s ubundant. I t contai n s
l ittle or no q u a rtz, a n d has a greater p ro­
portion of ferro-magnesian m i n e r a l s, w h ich
P U M I C E-M i l l a rd Co., Utah
give the rock a d a r k e r color than rhyolite.
Porphyries a re common, with phenocrysts of
feldspar or dark minerals. Andesite is i n ter·
mediate i n compositi o n between rhyolite
a n d basalt. Si nce rhyolite a n d a n d esite are
d ifficult to d i sti n g uish i n the fi el d, the term
felsite i s used for both w h e n more accurate
i d entification is imposs i b l e .
ANDESITE

1 16
 on pp. 1 1 8- 1 1 9. I n color the rocks themse lves may be
l i g h t (acid ic) o r dark (basic). Like intrusive rocks, the
extrusives g ra d e from those rich in q u a rtz to those with no
q ua rtz at a l l . Most of the rocks are fi n e-grained beca use
of rapid coo l i n g , and a re difficult for the amateur to
ide ntify and c l a ss ify.

BASA LT i s the co m m o n dark, h eavy lava

that i s widespread the world over. I t is
m a i n l y pyroxene and a p l a g ioclase feld­
spar, b u t the texture is so fi n e that these
i n d ivid u a l minerals eire ra rely see n . Olivine
may also be present. In tota l, the rock is
a bout half fel d spar, half ferro·.magnesian
m i nerals. Basalt varies from a d a r k g ray
with a greenish tinge to a l most black. I n Somerset C o u n ty, N . J .
a r i d regions exposed basalt su rfaces fre­
q uently d evel o p a w h ite, l i my encrusta­
tion. In h u m i d a reas the iron i n basalt
a ri d
oxidizes, coloring t h e su rface a ru sty brown.
weath ering
I n a d d ition to t h e d ense r o c k fou n d i n
l ava flows, d i kes, a n d s i l l s, b a s a l t has sev­
e r a l other forms. U p pe r su rfaces of basaltic
fl ows may co ntain gas b u bbles w h ich form
a porous and c i n d e ry rock called scoria.
later the holes o r vesicles may become fo i led
with m i n e r a l s such as calcite, agate, a n d
a m ethyst, a s well a s zeol ites. When t h e
o p e n i n g s are a l m ond-shaped the n a m e
amygdaloidal b a s a l t is u s e d . large d eposits
of native copper h a ve been fo u n d i n such
basalts, especially in Mich i g a n .

AMYGDALO I DA L BASALT

1 17
VOLCANOES A N D LAVA F LOWS are the str.uctures
most typic a l of extrusive rocks. The Col um bia lava p latea u,
consisting of a large n u m ber of lava fl ats, covers over
200,000 square m i l es; in places it is up to a m i le thick.
Volca n i c cones vary from steep cinder cones ( 1 ) rare l y
1 000 f t . high t o sma l ler spatter c o n e s (2) a n d l ow, broad
shield lava cones (3) with s lopes of o n l y a few deg rees.
Most volca n oes a re compou n d (4), with cind ers, ash, a n d
broken fragments ( b reccias) interbedded with lava (see
below). Some have radiating dikes of basalt (5); others a re
associated with extensive lava flows (6).
 Pahoehoe is the Hawaiian
n a m e for a fl u id lava which flows
freely and coo l s with a smooth,
ropy surfa ce. Such lava flows look
l i ke frozen rivers of b lack, tinted
with iridescen t purple.
Viscous Lavas form crusts
which break a n d rol l over. This
j u m b le, m ixed with scoria, forms
sha rp, jagged fl ows. Such l ava is
ca l led aa, a nother Hawa iian name.
Volca n ic lavas have been studied
i ntensively at Mauna Loa and K i l ­
auea, b o t h s h i e l d cones.
V o l c a n i c Bombs a re ma sses of
l i q u i d lava thrown into the a ir.
Their motion g ives them the el on­
ga te shape a n d s mooth s u rfa ce.
Active volcan oes th row vast q uan­
C raters o f t h e Moo n , I d a h o
tities of gases a n d steam into the
a i r as we l l as d ust, ashes, and frag­
ments ra n g i n g fro m la p i l l i ( less than
1 i n . ) to- b l ocks weig h i n g tons.
L a v a Caves and T u n n e l s form
when a stro n g crust ha rdens under
w h ic h the l iq u id lava keeps flow­
ing, leaving a h o l low. Crude caves
form i n ove rturned m asses of aa
lava. I n some, dripping lava forms · New Mexico
sta lactites. Ice a n d snow which fi l l
some l ava caves i n w inter a re so
protected that they do not melt by
summer - m a k i n g "ice caves," a
tourist attracti o n .
 I G N EO U S ROCKS have long been known to be associ­
ated with m eta l ores. Hot l i q u ids and gases from magmas
coo l to prod uce o res d irectly, or form ores as they react
with the loca l rocks they penetrate. Co ntact d e posits a re
formed aro u n d the edges of batho l iths or other l a rge in­
trusions, especia l ly when these have penetrated i nto l i m e­
sto nes. Ve ins may extend from ig neous masses i n to the
loca l rock, ca rrying m i nera l izing l iqui ds a n d g a ses. A sys­
tem of veins w h i c h can be m i ned as a unit forms a lode,
like the fa mous Mot her Lode of C a l ifo rnia g o l d days.
Other veins form as m i n era l i z i n g so l utions penetrate
cracks a n d deposit ores in natura l openings o r zones of
crushed rock.
Most primary ores are sulfi des. These a n d other o res
ofte n occur i n specific m i n e ra l associations. One exa m p l e
i s t h e lead-zinc deposits of Ka nsas a n d O k l a homa (sp h a l ­
erite, g a l e n a , a n d many accessory m i n e ra ls), a n other i s
t h e z i n c , iron , a n d manga nese deposits at Fra n k l i n , N . J . ;
a t h i rd is the iron-tita n i u m ores of the Adirondack s.

1 20
 SE D IMENTARY ROCKS

S E D I M E NTARY ROCKS are extremely varied, d iffering

widely i n textu re, col or, and com positio n . Nearly a l l a re
m a de of materia l s that have been m oved fro m a p lace of
orig i n to a new place of de positio n . The d ista n ce m oved
may be a few feet or thousands of m i les. R u n n i n g water,
w i n d , waves, currents, ice, and gravity m ove m ater i a l s on
the s u rface of the earth by action that takes place o n l y
o n o r very near the surface. I n tota l these r o c k s cover
a bout t h ree- q u a rters of the earth's s u rface.
U n consol idated mud or sa n d is usua l l y referred to as
a sediment, w h i l e consolidated materia l s are ca l le d sed­
i m e nta ry rocks. Rocks m a d e u p of g ra i n s or pa rticles a re
cal led c l astic; they may range from less than a tho usa n dth
of a n inch to huge b o u l ders. Other sed i m e ntary rocks a re
of c h e m ica l or o rg a n ic orig i n . Most sed i m e ntary rocks
form i n layers o r strata ; m a n y conta i n fossi l s. Major sedi·
menta ry strata form slowly over m i l l ions of years.

121
 Great Wh ite Throne (sa n dsto ne) at Zlan National Park, Utah.

SAN DSTO N E is formed by the action of wind, water,

and ice o n o l d e r rock. It is m a i n ly grains of q ua rtz cement­
ed by s i l ica, l i me, or iron oxide. S i l ica cement m ay produce
h a rd, durable sa ndstones; the other ceme nts a re n ot as
resista nt. Sa n d stones g rade off on the coa rse side into
c o n g l omerates (p. 1 28) and on the fi ner side i nto sandy
s h a l es (pp. 1 24- 1 25). Most sa ndsto nes formed in sha l low
seas a n d show sig ns of near-shore orig i n -they often in­
clude foss i l ripplemarks a n d she l l s of sha l l ow-water a n i­
mals. I n some san dsto nes, nod u l es of soft l imonite o r
hemat ite f o r m "paintpots" once u s e d by I n d ia ns.

1 22
 SAN DSTO N E
M E D I UM-GRA I N E D cemented b y iron
SANDST O N E oxide- U tah
A R KOSE-showi n g
N e w Yor k fe ldspor g r a i n s
M t . Tom, Mass.

" I nd i a n paint pot"

Glen C ove, N.Y.

C ross-bedded sand ston e fo rmed from a ncient d u nes-Kanab, U ta h .

 Livingston County, N.Y. Kent. N . Y.

SHALES or m udstones a re m a i n l y c l ays w h ich have hard­

ened i n to rock. Sha les may grade into fine sa n dstones
o r, when m uc h lime is prese n t, into s h a l y l i m esto nes. Since
c l a y particles a re exceedi n g l y fi n e, they tend to be ca r­
ried into deep or q u iet water. S h a les are often t h i n-bed­
ded o r l a m i nated, with fairly u n iform texture. Their color
is usua l ly gray, but varies from b l ack to d u l l red.
C lays a n d sha les are freq uently so fi ne-g ra ined that
they serve a s a barrier to movem ents of water. C lays a n d
si lts t h a t f o r m i n lakes may s h o w d a r k a n d l ight a lternating
layers c a l l e d va rves, each pair of layers representing a
year's de posit. By counting the va rves t h e age of g lacial
l a kes and other depos its can be esti mated. For i n stance,
va rve cou nts i n d icate that the sha les of the Green River
formation in Wyo m i n g took over 5 m i l l ion yea rs to form.
Other structures fo u n d i n sha les a re shown o n the next
page. S h a les are used in the m a n ufacture of cement. U n ­
consol id ated clays (p. 1 5 1 ) a re of tremendous va l ue for
cera m i c a n d other uses. Since c l ays a n d sha les a re com ­
m o n l y f<?rmed from rocks rich in fe ldspa r, they conta i n
m uc h a l u m i n u m s i l icate. S o m e sha les a re o i l reservoirs.
B i l l ions of to n s of oil s h a l e a re a pote n tia l source of petro­
l e u m for future use-when p resent hig h-yie l d sou rces w i l l
h a v e b e e n d e p lete d .

1 24
 I RO N C O N C R E T I O N

S E PTA R I A N C O N C R E T I O N
(cross section)
Texas

C O N C R ET I O N - S a n d usky, O h i o

CO N CRET IONS are ofte n fo u n d may be ve ry sma l l or u p t o sev­

i n sha les, s a ndstones, a n d l i me­ eral feet i n d i a m ete r. C oncretions
stones. They may b e spherical or are often h a r d e r than t h e e n ­
flattened m a sses fo rmed a r o u n d a closing r o c k a n d h e n c e a r e
fossi l or some other n ucleus. They fo u n d as they w e a t h e r out of it.

MUD CRACKS form as d eposits

of m u d a n d clay in shal low l a kes
o r o n m u d fl a ts d ry i n the s u n . The
shrin kage forms rou g h six-sided
blocks. later fresh mud may be
washed into the s h r i n kage cracks.
M u d cracks i n d icate the sha llow­
water origin of the rock.

raind rop i m p r i n ts i n ,sh a l e

I llinois

RAINDROPS fa l l i n g on m u d or
clay of j ust the right consistency
w i l l leave s ma l l pits. C o n ti n ued
rain w o u l d wash th ese away, but
a brief shower fol l owed by a
period of d ry n ess may p reserve
rai n d rop i m pressions. These are
rarer and h a rd e r to find than
mud cracks.

1 25
 LIM ESTO NES a re exceedingly va riable in color, texture,
and origin. They consist m a i n l y of the m inera l ca l c ite (p.
63) and react l ike calc ite chemical ly. Most of them are of
marine origin-some for mi ng at great d epths . Both p l a n t
a n d a n i m a l l ife, d i rectly a n d i n d i rectly, contribute t o t h e i r
formatio n . Ma ny kinds of a n ima ls contribute the m i nerals
that form l imestone-cora ls, worms, crinoids, m o l l u sks, a n d
certa i n protozoa. A l g a e a re a l so i m portant l i me-precip­
itating p l a n ts. Some limestones a re chem ica l preci pitates,
w h i l e others a re cemented fragments of l i m e .
A u n iq u e a n d complex natura l balance is k n o w n to i n ­
v o l v e the carbon-d ioxide content of t h e a i r, the carbon­
d ioxide a n d l ime d issolved in the sea, l im esto n e formation,
and c l im atic change. Limestone rocks a re a keyston e in
this structure because they a re g reat reservoirs of carbon
d ioxide as wel l as of l i me. Since lime i s so l u b l e in acid
water, l im estones d issolve and recrysta l l ize easily. They

S HE L L LIME STONES include

coq uina, formed recently of shells
a n d fragments loosely cemented.
Chalk is a limesto ne made of tiny
p rotozo o n shells. Older shell
l i mestones may contain fossil
brachiopods, bryozoans, corals,
a n d crinoids. Some of the o ldest
known sedimentary rocks a re l ime­
stones formed from a l g ae.

OOLI T I C L IME STONES usually

consist of a mass af s m a l l concre­
tions, each b u i l t up layer upon
l ayer around some small n ucleus.
The res u l t i n g rock is composed of
spherical grains. Ool itic lime­
stones may be formed i n sha llow
water. Each g ra i n g raws a s it is
railed by waves o r c u r rents.
lodlatlo
} 26
weather ra p i d ly in h u m i d c l i mates; very s l ow l y in arid o nes,
where they a re good c l iff formers-as at G ra n d Canyo n .
limesto nes v a r y f r o m a l most u nconso l i d a ted masses o f
s h e l l s ( s u c h as the kind shown on p. 1 26) t o com pact, crys­
ta l l ine rocks. I ntimately conn ected with p l a n t a n d a n i m a l
l ife, they are a rich sou rce of fossils ( p p . 1 30- 1 32). l i m e ­
sto nes rich i n clay a re k n o w n as mar ls . They a lso g ra de
into sha les a n d i nto san dstones. Some conta i n s i l ica con­
cretions in t h e form of chert, fl i nt, or c h a l ce d o n y ( p p . 80-
81 ) . A carbonate rock w h ich conta ins c a l c i u m and mag­
nesium carbonate is a d o l omitic l i m eston e o r a true dolo­
m ite ( p . 65) .
The econo m ic i m p o rtance of l i m estones is a l m ost be­
yond estimation . Lim esto nes a re widely used for road
meta l, i n conc rete, and for l i me. Shaly- l i m esto nes a re a
source of cement. Lead, zinc, fl uorite, su l f u r, a n d o i l de­
posits a re often associated with l i m esto nes.

TUFA i s a l i g h t, p a ro u s l i mestone
often colored with i ro n . I t fo rms
i r s p r i n gs, where calcite may be
d e posited on water p l a n ts, twigs,
o r debris. In caves, the seco n d a ry
deposit of calci u m carbonate (trav­
ertine) forms flowstone, cove ring
w a l l s a n d floor a n d sometimes
form ing sta l actites and sta lag­
mites (pp. 63-64) .
Massa c h u setts
CRYSTA L L I N E L I MESTONES
form a s l i m e ecrysto l l i zes to o
greater or lesser extent. These
l imestones ore closely a k i n to
marbles {p. 1 34) but o re consid­
ered sed i m e n ta ry rocks when
there is no indication that they
hove been deformed by p ress u re .
C rysta l l i n e l imestones used for
decoration and orna mentation
o re sometimes sold a s marble.
Ohio
1 27
 C O N GLOME RATE

C O N G LOMERATES are sed ime ntary rocks com posed of

rounded pebbles on e-fourth of an i n c h in d i a m eter or
l a rg e r, cemented in a matrix of fi ne r materi a l . In ti l l ite,
a c o n g l o m e rate of consol idated g lacial t i l l , the u n a ssorted
fra g m e nts may ra nge from g rave l size to great bould ers.
The larger ones may show typica l g lacia l scratches. The
coarse materia l s which form c o n g l o m erates a re de posited
close to shore at the mouths of swift rivers or canyons, in
a l l uvia l fans, or in d e ltas. The pebbles in co n g l omerates
a re frequently q uartz o r q u a rtzite. The cement may be
iron oxide, s i l ica, calcium carbonate o r, occasiona l ly,
clay. C o n g l o m e rates g rade off i n to san dstones.
C o n g l o m erates i n which the fra g m e nts are sharp and
a n g u l a r because they a re fresh l y b roken and not worn
i n tra n s port are ca l led breccias. The various kinds of
breccias have l ittle i n common oth e r than the a n g u l a r
sha pe of t h e i r components. S o m e a re o f v o l c a n i c origin,
some represent cemented materia l s i n ta l u s s l o pes or a l­
QUARTZ BRECCIA
l uvia l fa n s, a n d some have formed
from Texas-fragments a long fa u l t zones. Breccias may
cemented by silica. be barely consolidated or tightly
cemented, depe n d i n g o n their
age and on conditions of forma­
tio n . Com m o n l y they are formed
c lose to the point of origin of the
fragments.

1 28
 BOG I R O N O R E ( L I M O N I T E )
Mich i g a n

O O L I T I C H EM A T I T E
C l i n ton, N . Y .

C H EM I C ALLY FORMED sed i m enta ry rocks a re per h a ps

the most i m porta nt commercia l ly. Some l i mesto nes are
precip itated c h e m ica l ly from sea water. An hydrite, gyp­
sum, a n d h a l ite ( p p. 66-69) form d e posits large enough
to be considered chemical sedimentary rocks as w e l l as
m i n erals. They are often resid ues from sea water, which
contains a b o u t 3 Yz l bs. of chemica l solids i n every 1 00 lbs.
of water. Such d eposits genera l l y i n d icate an arid c l i mate
at the time of their formation .
Other sed i m e n ta ry rocks a n d fuels a re formed through
bioc h e m ica l action, a n d of these coa l a n d o i l ( p p . 1 42-
1 45) a re the best known. Bacteria may a i d i n the forma­
tion of iron d eposits in swa m ps a n d s h a l low la kes, and
may be i n part responsible for the g reat I ron Range d e pos­
its. Biochem ica l action may account for the precip itation
of m a n g a n ese a lso. D iatomaceous earth is a fine deposit
of m icroscopic p l a n t ske leto n s-forming large, p u r e de­
posits of s i l ica.

D I ATOMAC EOUS EARTH

Maryland
 Arrowheads fou n d b u ried offer
evid e n ce of human l ife. A t left, an
a ncient folsom point from N ew
Mexico. At right, m a r i n e fossils
fou n d along Lake C h a m p l a i n ,
N . Y., s h o w that t h i s l a ke was
once a n a r m o f the sea.

FOSSILS a re the re m a i ns, pri nts, or other i n d ications of

former p l a n t or a n i m a l l ife found natura l l y b u ried in rock.
World-wide stud ies over the past century i n d icate that the
o l d e r the rocks, the s i m p l e r the types of plant and a n i m a l
fossi ls fou n d i n t h e m . The fossils h a v e therefore b e e n used
to esta b l i s h the age of the rock w h i c h e n c loses them. Fos­
s i l s show that many thousa nds of kinds of p l a nts a n d ani­
m a ls, com m o n i n the past, n o longer exist, and that most
of those l iving today rese m b l e stro n g l y the fossil forms
found i n relatively recent rocks.
In a d d ition to te l l ing the deta i l s of l ife i n the past a n d
the story o f such u n i q u e a n i m a l s a s g i a n t d i n osa urs a n d
tita notheres, fossils a lso te l l of past c l i m ates. C o l o n ia l cor­
a ls i n Green l a n d rocks attest to warmer cond ition s i n the
past than today, and i m prints of fi r and spruce in uncon­
s o l idated c lays near the surface record the penetration of
g lacia l cold far to the south. Fossils are a lso used to de­
te r m i n e the m a r i n e or fresh-water origin of rocks.
The occurrence of fossils is both ra re a n d com m o n .
O n l y a tiny fraction of the tota l n um b e r o f living things
has ever been p reserved as fossils, a n d yet certa i n l ayers
of rock o r strata are made a l most entirely of shel ls, teeth ,
p l a n t rema ins, a n d e v e n of b o n e .

1 30
FOSS I L S are preserved in m a ny
ways. The s i m p lest is the intact
preservation of the h a rd pa rts of a
p lant or a n a n i m a l, as i l l ustrated
o n p. 1 30. Wood, bone, teeth, a n d
o t h e r h a r d pa rts a re p reserved in­
tact for relatively short periods.
In a nother type of fossi l ization ,
b uried p l a n t or a n i m a l materia ls
d ecom pose, leaving a residua l fi l m
C A R BO N I Z E D F E R N L EAF
o f carbon b e h i n d . T h i s m a y m a r k I l l in ois
the form of a l e a f or o f some
simple a n i m a l . On a larger sca l e PET R I F I E D WOOD
t h i s process is responsi ble for o u r Arizona
great d eposits of coa l .
Sometimes b u ried material is
g ra d u a l ly r e p l a ced by s i l ica a n d
o t h e r materia l l i ke calcite, dolo­
m ite, or pyrite from solutions w h ic h
permeate the rock in a p rocess
called petrifa ctio n . These re p l ace­
ments form a n other very common
type of foss i l .
Proba b ly the m ost specta c u l a r of
a l l replacements is that of wood by
agate or o p a l as a result of the ac­ structu re
( e n l a rge d )
tion of hot, s i l ica-bearing waters.
This forms petrified wood . The re­
placement m ay b e so m i n ute a n d
complete that even t h e deta i l s of
ce l l u l a r structure a re p reserved . The
best-known exa m ples a re p reserved
i n the Petrifi e d Forest Natio n a l Park CAST OF SHELL
i n Arizo n a . i n pyrite
western Illinois

1 31
 MOLDS A N D CASTS are very
common fossi l forms. They a re im­
pressions, and so d iffer from intact
footstep preservation and re placements. A
footprint, as that of a d i nosa ur, is
a good exa m p l e of a m o l d . The i m ­
pression left i n soft m u d o r s i l t may
harden before more sed i m e n t fi l ls
it i n a n d provides mate r i a l for a
new layer of rock. If the sediment
later consol idates a n d the rock is
i m p ression eventu a l l y broken open, t h e orig­
inal i m print will b e fou n d below,
and fi l l i n g it will be a cast of the
u n derside of the d i n osaur's foot.
When shells are b u ried in sa n d
or mud, a m o l d o f the outer surface
of the she l l is form e d . Percolating
waters may dissolve the she l l mate­
ria l co m p l etely, a n d the m o l d w i l l
t h e n be t h e foss i l record . Later, per­
colating waters may refi l l the cav­
B RAC H I OPOD ity with calcium carbonate or sil ica,
form i n g a cast which will on its
outer s u rface comp lete l y d u p l icate
the extern a l form of the she l l .
Pa leontology, t h e stu d y of pl a nt
a nd ani mal fossils a n d their h is­
tories, is an i m porta nt a n d exciti n g
northwest O h io
b r a n c h of t h e science o f geology.
The study of sma l l foss i l forms (wh i c h
are k n own as m icrofossils) has re­
cently yielded a g reat dea l of n ew
i nformati o n .
north e r n O h i o
 M E TAMO R P H IC ROCKS
Meta m o r p h i c rocks a re rocks w hi ch have been changed.
C h a nges m ay be barely visible, o r may be so g reat that
it is i m possible to determine what the orig i n a l rock o n ce
was. A l l k i n d s of rocks can be m eta morphosed-se d i m e n ­
ta ry, i g n eous, a n d other meta m o r p h i c rocks. The changes
usua l ly bring about a new c r ysta l l i ne structure, the for­
mation of new m i n era ls, a n d sometimes a coarse n i n g of
texture.
Meta morph ism resu lts from h eat, pressure, or permea­
tion by other su bsta n ces. Pressu re a n d heat i n c rease with
d e pth i n the ea rth 's crust (A, in the i l l ustration a bove) a n d
m a y a lso result from crusta l movements (B) o r igneous
a ctivity (C). Rocks m a y be permeated by g a ses or fl u ids
from igneous m a teri a l (D) or by the perco lating of m i n e r a l ­
bearing g r o u n d-water.

1 33
 SIMPLE METAMO R P H I C ROCKS is a conve n i e nt term
a p p l ied to rocks formed by the d irect a l teration of sedi­
mentary rocks where the cha nges are m a i n ly recrysta l ­
l ization . Few, if a n y , n e w m i n e r a l s a re formed. S o m e of
these rocks show para l lel structures; others do not.
S late resu lts from metamorph ism of sha le, and often
traces of the orig i n a l bedd i n g can be seen. S late is fre­
q uently of a b l ue-gray color but may be g reen, red, or
brow n . It breaks easily al ong a flat cleavage plane a n d
c a n b e s p l it into s heets used f o r roofi n g or flagstones.
Sometimes s l ate s h ows fo l d i n g and wri n k l i n g .
Marbles a r e recrysta l l ized l i m estones, norm a l l y wh ite,
but often tinted by iron oxide, carbon, o r serpentine to
attractive shades of yel l ow, brown, g reen, or b lack. Lime­
stones a n d dolom itic limestones may b e s l i g htly a ltered
by perco lating waters and a re often ca l l ed m a r b l es, but
true m a rb l es a re the result of meta morphism involving heat
and pressure. Seco ndary minerals may form and crysta ls
may s h ow d istortio n . Marbles d o not often develop the
para l l e l b a n d i n g and m ineral a rra ngement seen i n slates
and sch ists.
Quartzites a re usua l l y meta m orphosed sandstones
which have recrysta l l ized so that, i n brea k i n g , t h ey break
t h ro u g h the q u a rtz g rains instea d of throug h the cement,
a s i n sandston es. The gra i n structure in q u a rtzite is not
nearly as clear as in sandston es. Qua rtzite, l ike marble,
is a m a ssive metamorphic rock, very h a rd a n d toug h .
Hornfels a r e c l ays o r shales which have been meta­
morphosed th roug h the action of heat from nearby ig­
neous rocks. The h a rd, rec rysta l l ized rock may reta i n its
sedimentary structure, but garn et and other secondary
m inerals may form. The color is usua lly dark; the rock is
spotted o r banded, a n d may be conf used with basa lt,
espec i a l ly along contacts.

1 34
 G RAY SLATE New York
Pen nsylva n i a

WHITE MARBLE
Georgia

H O R N F ELS
H a rtman n sd orf, Saxony Q UARTZ I T E
D e l l Rap i d s, S . D a k .

1 35
 PHYLLITES A N D SC H I STS represen t the more h ig h ly
m eta morphosed rocks. P hyl l ite provides the transition,
being m o re metamorphosed than s late but less than
schists. F i n e g ra i n s of m ica g ive it a s i l ky l u ster. T h e schists
are coa rser than phyl l ite, with a consid erable a m o u n t of
mica or othe r secondary minerals. They b rea k i n a wavy,
u n even surfa ce; this property is c a l l e d schistosity. Sch ists
are n a m ed for their most cha racteristic m i n e ra l :
M i c a Sch ist i s usua l ly a h i g h ly meta m o r p h osed shale
com posed m a i n ly of m a ny sma l l fl a kes of m ica, o r iented
rou g h l y para l le l , and q ua rtz. Texture varies from fine to
coa rse, and either sta urol ite o r g a rnet m ay b e p resent.
Hornblende Sch ist is m a i n ly h o r n b lende and q ua rtz.
It is dark i n color, and w h i l e the minerals have a para l lel
orientation, h o r n b lende schist does not break c l ea n ly.
C h l o rite Sch ist conta in s c h l orite a s a meta m orphic
mineral instead of mica; t h is gives it a greenish color.
It has typica l sch ist orientatio n .
Quartz Schist forms o n further meta morphism o f i m ­
p u re q uartzite. Muscovite m ica usua l ly develops as a
seco n d a ry m in e r a l , a n d p a ra l l e l structures a lso form.
light-colored.
M I N E R A LS OF M E TA M OR P H I C ROCKS
The fo l l ow i n g m i n erals are com monly fou n d i n meta m o r p h i c rocks.

Actinolite in schists, gneiss Kyanite i n sch ists (p. 48)

and quartzite (p. 1 00)
Ch lorite in phy l l ites and
schists (p. 1 06)
Diopside in marbles (p. 1 0 1 )
Feldspars m a i n l y from igneous
contacts (p. 98)
Garnets nearly a l l kinds-
i n s c h i sts, marble�
a n d phy l l ites (p. 1 04)
in some s�h ists and
Graphite
marble (p. 62)
Hornblende i n metamorphosed
basic rocks (p. 1 00)
M icas m u scovi te, biotite,
and ph logopite i n
schists, gneiss,
a n d marbles ( p . 96)
Olivine i n marbles ( p . 1 06)
Q u a rtz in schists, gneiss,
a n d q u a rtzite (p. 76)
Serpentine (p. 74) i n marbles,
and talc soapstones, and schists
( p p . 74 and 1 07)
Staurolite in schists (p. 1 08 )
Page n u mbers i n dicate i l l ustrations .

1 36
 GARN ET-M I C A SC H I ST
New Yor k

H O R N B L E N D E SC H I ST
Lingoutte, Vosges

C H LO R I T E SC H I ST
C hester, Vermont

Q UARTZ SC H I ST
Pen n sylvania

1 37
 M U SCOVITE G N E I SS G RA N I T E G N E I SS
N asse n g r u b , Bohemia Bristenstock, Switzerland

G N E I SS (pronounced n ice) may be simply metamor­

p hosed gran ite, or a far m o re com p l ex rock with possibly
four o r five d ifferent o rigins, either igneous or sed i m e n ­
tary. I t may a lso include meta morphic rocks w h i c h a re i n ­
vaded by ig n eous materia ls s o t h a t the r o c k becomes a
complex m ixture (mig matite). Schists are often invaded
i n this way, producing rocks which conta i n more feldspar
and q ua rtz than o rd i n a ry schists. The new m i n erals a re
often in sma l l l e n s l ike intrusions. Gneiss is h a rd to defi n e
or describe because it is so va ried. I n ge nera l, i t is a
coarse-textured rock with the minerals in para l l e l streaks
o r b a nds, but lacking sch istosity. It is re latively rich in
feldspar and usua l ly contains mica or one of the other
da rk, rock-forming m i nerals.
Gneiss is c lassified by its most conspicuous m i n era l or
a ccording to its orig i n or structures. C h a ra cteristics a re
usua l ly better seen in the field than in h a n d specimens.

1 38
 HORNBLE NDE G N E ISS I NJ ECT I O N G N E I S S
Stengerts, Bavaria Sewen, Vosges Mts., F ro nce

Muscovite G n eiss is o n e of the most c o m m o n kin ds,

with a pa l e sa lt-a n d -pepper a p pearance, though biotite
m ica is com m o n i n gneiss a lso. W h i l e the n a m e g ives n o
c l u e as t o t h e origin, m u scovite a n d biotite g neisses may
form from h ig h ly meta m orph osed, shaly sed i m e nts.
Granite Gneiss is n a m e d to i n d i cate that it is a
meta m o r p h osed g r a n ite, though this origin is d iffi c u l t to
esta b l ish beca use of the process of g ra n itization ( p . 1 40).
Gran ite g n eiss is rich i n feldspars. The m ica o r h o r n b l e n d e
i n it is a r r a n g e d i n pa ra l le l b a n d s .
Hornblende G n eiss is a dark rock, m u c h d a rker than
biotite g n eiss, i n which para l l e l-oriented hornblende re­
places m ica. It is proba bly the end result i n the m eta­
morphosis of basic igneous rocks.
I n jection Gneiss is g neiss which has been permeated
by igneous materia l s d uring metamorphism. like sch ists
which are thus a ltered, it is a lso known as m i g matite.

1 39
 GRANITIZAT I O N is a process in
w h ic h some form of i g n eo u s mate­
ria l or a n other invades sedimenta ry
or metamorphic rock, producing
m ixtures w hi ch eventua l l y a lter the
rock so that i n texture a n d compo­
sition it becomes l ike g ra n ite. This
p rocess may be associated with
g reat bathol iths o r it may originate
with materia ls com ing from an un­
known depth i n the crust of the
earth. The invasion may not even
involve gases or l i q u i d s as we or­
d i narily know them . Gradations of
rock from g ra n ite to g n e iss over
wide areas is evi dence for at least
one form of gran itiza tio n .
O n e exam ple o f the process
wou l d be the invasion of g neiss (A)
by solutions conta i n i n g q u a rtz a n d
feldspar t h a t sepa rate the g neiss
a l o n g pa ra l l e l ba nds. In a later
stage (B) some pa rts of the g neiss
are tra nsformed w h i l e others reta in
their orig i n a l stru cture. As gran it­
ization contin ues, the form a n d
structure o f t h e g n e iss m i nerals
change (C), though traces of the
para l le l arra n g e m ent sti l l rem a i n .
Fina l ly the orig i n a l r o c k is com­
p lete ly a bsorbed, and the resulting
rock shows n o traces at a l l of the
g n eiss. I n structu re a n d com posi­
tion, it is gran ite.
c

1 40
 WORLD PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL M I N E RALS

N . America

S . America

Africa

Asia

Au stra l i a

Ocea n i a

Production r a n k
(including
s o m e estimates)

R O C K S AND M INE RA LS IN DAI L Y USE

Rocks a n d m i n era l s are the basis of o u r civil izatio n . For

the l ife we l ive today we m ust have meta l l ic a n d non­
meta l lic o res, t h e fuels, a n d the construction materia ls
such a s· cements, c lays, sand, g rave l, a n d b u i l d i n g stones.
Then there is the soil, perhaps the m ost va l u a b l e rock of
a l l . Sand, c l ays, road rock, and so i l have a low va l u e per
ton compared to meta l l ic ores, but because of the a m o u n ts
used their overa l l va l u e is enormous. Since ores have been
d iscussed e a r l i e r, this section deals m a i n ly with fuels, soi ls,
and construction materia ls.
Much of t h e tro u b l e between nations can be traced to
the fact that t h e rocks, m i n era ls, and fuels are not eq u a l l y
d istrib uted o v e r the e a rth. S o m e nations h a v e ; others have
not. Blood has been shed over gold, si lver, iron, coa l, o i l ,
a n d u ra n i u m . T h i s is sti l l a critica l matter f o r u s a l l .

1 41
 BITUMINOUS
Pen nsylva nia

COAL is the fuel which made the i n d u stria l revo l ution

possible. About a b i l l ion a n d a half ton s a re sti l l m i ned
a n n ua l ly (500 m i l lion tons i n the U n ited States) . Coal is
an organic sed imenta ry rock consisti n g of the a ltered re­
m a i n s of p l a nts. It is formed by a slow series of c h a n ges
m a rked by a loss of water and volatile su bsta nces and a
corresponding in crease in the a mount of "fixed carbon . "
Coa l is classified by t h e rel ative a m o u n t o f these three
g roups of materials. Peat, which contains a bout 80 per
cent m o isture, is not consid ered a form of coa l .
Lign ite, the lowest ra n k or kind of coa l, has a heat­
i n g va lue of 7,400 Br itish Therma l U n its (B.T. U . ) . It is
b rown i n color and breaks down into powdered o r fl aky
fragments when stored. I t burns with a smoky fl a me.
Bitu m i nous or soft coa l s are black coals which often
have a cubic fracture and a d u l l l uster. They yield from
9,700 to 1 5,400 B.T. U . and tota l 90 per cent of the coa l
m i ned. The higher grades of bituminous coa l store we l l
a n d burn with a n a l most smokeless fl am e.
 C H EM I CAL COMPOSITION OF COALS
- 1 00%

- 50

1 '-----' ...__
_ __. 1 ____. ....__....;..;o.< c-.....- _
0
l i g n i te sub- bituminous semi- semi- anth racite
bituminous bituminous a n t h r a c i te

v o l a t i l e matter - m o i sture

Anthracite or h a rd coal is hard a n d d urable. It

stores w e l l a n d burns with a very short smoke less fl a m e .
Anthracite has a conchoida l fracture a n d a b lack s h i n y
luster-som etimes iridescent. It forms w h e n fo l d i n g o r
metamorph ism d r ives a larger a m o u n t o f volatile matter
out of soft coal than wou l d otherwise be l ost.
Most coa l s i n eastern a n d centra l U n ited States were
formed d u r i n g the Pennsylva n ia n period when a warm c l i­
mate favored the rapid g rowth of fe r n l ike p l a nts. The
coa l s of western U n ited States were formed many m i l l i o n s
of years later. The coa l-bearing rocks are so metimes
thousa nds of feet thick, with laye rs of coa l u p to 1 00
feet thick lying between layers of sa n dstones a n d s h a l es.
The world's reserves of coal are
very roug h l y estimated at a tota l
of about seven tri l l ion ton s, of which
over h a l f is i n North America. Not
all of these reserves are usa b l e at
the present price of coa l.

1 43
 ANT I C L I N E S or u pward folds FAULTS m a r k movement along
provide trap s for o i l a n d gas. breaks i n the earth's crust. Oil
Occasion a l ly the su rface patte rn may seep to the su rface or accu­
i n d icates underlying structures. m u late a l o n g or a g ainst them.

PETROLEUM is the proper name for what m ost people

ca l l o i l . It is a comp lex mixtu re of compounds of carbon
and hydrogen, for which new uses are consta ntly being
found. The commercia l production of petro leum began
only a century ago. Now the U n ited States prod uces over
two b i l l io n barrels a year a nd im ports oil i n addition to
this. Nearly a l l interna l com bustion eng ines depend o n
petro leum fuels a n d l u brica nts. .
Petro leum is of marine origin and probably represents
the remains of microscopic pla nts which settled i n the
sand and mud of s h a l low bays. Deposits of oil bearing
sands a n d sha les are plentifu l, but fo lding, faulting, o r
o t h e r action i n the sed imenta ry strata (as i l l ustrated
a bove) was necessa ry to form the structures for the accu-
m u lation of the petro l eum. Such
.
accumu lations are not u n derground
paraffin a sphalt lakes of o i l , but a re areas where
base b ase
the spaces between sa n d g rains or
the pores i n carbonate rocks are
satu rated with petro l e u m .
SALT DOMES, pushing up U N CO N FORM I T I ES Oil m a y b e
through G u lf C oost sediments confined w h e r e tilted l a y e r s h ave
and deforming them, make suit­ been worn down a n d later h ori­
able structu res to trap o i l . zontal layers d eposited o n them.

The most va l ued o i l s have a paraffin base-that is, the

heavier "chain" type chemica l s are those of para ffi n .
Another form of petro leum has a n asphalt b a s e a n d i s
richer i n "ri n g " type chem icals. M a n y we l ls y i e l d a m ix­
ture of both t h ese types, and chem ica l l y the oils conta i n
m a n y com p lex hydrocarbon compounds. O n o n e hand,
petro leum compounds grade off i nto natura l g a s (p. 1 47).
On the other, they g rade into the solid bitu m e n s a n d
natura l aspha lt.
Because of its g reat va lue, petro leum has sti m u lated
more geologic exploration and research than any other
minera l or rock. Petro leum su rveys extend i nto w i l der­
n ess areas and even out to sea. Treme n dous reserves which
ca n be recovered economica l l y have been d iscovered ; i n
the U n ited States a l o n e these
amount to some 30 b i l l io n ba rrels.
As a by-prod uct of petro l e u m re­
search our knowledge of sedimen­
tary rocks a n d of their structures
has been g reatly i ncreased.

1 45
 OIL SHALE contains solid hydro­
carbons m ixed with p l a n t remains.
Extensive deposits of g ray, brown,
o r b lack oil s h a l e a re fou n d in the
Green River formation of Co lorado
and i n Uta h , Wyo ming, and West­
ern Canada. Oil sha le h as been
mined and used for some time i n
Scot l a n d . I n the U n ited States i t
cannot com pete w i t h . o u r r i c h o i l
O i l shale with
fossil fish " p o o l s . " S h o u l d o u r r i c h e r d eposits
Wyom i n g become dep l eted, we have we l l
over 1 00 b i l l ion barrels o f oil
locked u p i n o i l sha les. During
World War I I a n experimenta l
p lant successfu l l y m a d e o i l from oil
sha le. A ton of average oil shale,
u pon h eati ng, yields a bout 25 gal­
lons of petro leum, nearly 1 0,000
cubic feet of n atural gas a n d am­
monium compounds.
It is certa in that folding and oth er crusta l m ovements
produced m ost ohhe traps in w h ic h o i l acc u m u l ated . The
oil and gas a pparently m i g rated from a source rock
thro u g h the porous sa nds until it was trapped against an
im p ervious surface a n d slowly accu m u lated . Without these
crustar tra ps petro leum may rem a i n d istributed in sha l es
a n d 'sa nds, too d iffuse to be p rod uced eco nom ica l ly at
present prices. Oil s h a l es and
a lso o i l sa nds contain h uge reserves
of solid hydrocarbons, fro m which
oil can be made. How they will be
util ized is, at the present moment,
sti l l a n o pen q u estio n .

1 46
 NAT U RAL GAS is fo u n d with
petro leum, though some oil fields
have very l itt l e gas a n d some gas
fields yield n o commercia l oil.
Chem ica l ly, natura l gas is a m ix­
ture of the l i g hter chemicals fou n d
in petroleum-ma i n ly metha n e with
buta n e, propa ne, and other gases.
Carbon d ioxide, n itrogen, hydrogen
sulfide and even h e l i u m may be
water water
present a lso.
Production of natura l gas in the
U n ited States averages about n i n e
tri l l ion c u b ic feet a n n ua l ly. Reserves
are enormous. Over 75 per cent of
natura l gas g oes i nto i n d ustria l
uses. Some is l i q u efied as bottled
gas, and n atura l gaso l i n e is an im­
WELL Fl E L D p ro d u c i n g
porta nt by-prod uct. From 1 Y2 to 2 gas f r o m t h e u p p e r zone,
g a l lons of g a so l i n e may be ob­ o i l and gas from the mid­
tained from 1 000 cubic feet of dle zone, and oil below.
natura l gas. N atura l gas gaso l i n e is produced at the rate
of over 5 b i l l io n g a l lons a year, accounting for nearly
h a l f of a l l U . S . gaso l i n e . Com pression p l a nts at t h e we l l ­
heads extract t h e gaso l i n e from t h e "wet" gas. Over a
q uarter of a m i l l i o n m i les of pipel ines, some m o re than a
thousa n d m i les long, carry natural gas a n d petro l e u m from
we l l s to i n d ustr i a l centers a n d c ities.
I n former times natura l gas pres­
sure o n a pool of oil was freq uent­
ly a l lowed to cause a "gusher. "
When this h a p pened, a jet of o i l
w a s s h o t severa l h u n d red feet into
the air and wasted.

1 47
 RESI DUAL SOILS are those
farmed i n p l a ce by the g r a d u a l
d e c a y of parent materi a l . W h e n
cut through t h e y s h o w a g rad u a l
transition from fresh r o c k u p to
d ecayed rock to su bsoil a n d top­
soil. Resi d u a l soils u s u a l l y form
slowly. The deepening soil layer
protects the rock beneath from
further chemical action. Types of
res i d u a l soils depend on the rock
from which they form, cli mate,
and other factors.

SO I L is the best k n own, most complex rock a n d , fortu­

nate ly, one w h ich has been stud ied a l o n g time. The
physica l a n d chem ica l weathering of surface rock ( parent
materia l) with the a dd ition of org a n ic material , forms
soi l . Pla nts a n d a n im a l s (especia l l y microscopic forms)
contribute greatly to soil fo rmation, a s d o c l imate, vege­
tation, time, s l ope, and drainage. The result of centuries
of a ctivity is a soil m a ntle from a few i n c hes to a h u n d red
feet thick, though the average depth of so i l is o n l y a foot
o r so. Since most l ife depends o n soi ls, they s h o u l d be p re­
served and ski l lf u l l y managed.

TRANSPORTE D SOI L S o re de­

veloped on p a re n t material that
has bee n moved by w i n d , water,
or ice. H u g e deposits of wind­
blown s i l t serve a s the parent
material fo r the loess soils i n the
western prai ries. In t h e M issis­
sippi v a l l ey and a l o n g western
streams are deposits of water­
borne a l l uvial materials on which
some very rich so i l s have fo rmed.
I n north ern states g l a c i a l d e bris
is often the p a rent material.
TR OPI CAL R E D S O I L S o re well·
developed, well-drained soils re­
sulting from the deep leaching
action of much rai n a n d the
chemical action of worm air.
These may be resi d u a l soils of
great thickness. The leach i n g and
oxidation make poor soil which
may be e x h a u sted after o few
years of cu ltivati o n . The fo i l of
the Mayan civil i zations h a s been
attributed to soil e x h a u stio n .

So i l s may be c l a ssified in a half dozen ways, acco rding

to various properties. They may be classified on the basis
of texture (size of particle), as c layey, si l ty, o r sandy.
Other c l assifications have been based o n col or, parent
materia l , type of crop ra ised , a n d m a ny other bases. Most
modern c lassifi cations beg in with t h ree great d ivisions o r
zones ra n g i n g from im mature t o mature soils. Th ree ex­
a m p les of we l l -deve l o ped soils are ( 1 ) the tropica l red
soils (true and mod ifi e d laterites), (2) the northern forest
soils ( podsols) a n d their modifications, a n d (3) the grass­
land soi ls (chernozem and pra irie soi l s ) .

NORTHERN F OREST SOILS il­

l ustrate different cond itions from
those a bove. These g ray soils
form u n d e r beds of spruce, pi ne,
and fi r needles which a re acid in
composition and decoy slowly.
The organic and i n o r g a n i c ma­
terials mix poorly. Many of these
soils of cooler reg ions have not
been a l tered e n o u g h to make
them good produc e rs witho u t spe­
cial h a n d l i n g .
 I llinois

C LAY was used by prim itive men to make pottery not

long after they fi rst began to use sto nes a s too ls a n d
wea pons. After centuries o f service, clay is sti l l essentia l
in many i n d ustries. About 35 m i l l io n tons are mined a n ­
n u a l l y a n d a re used i n bricks, pottery, c h inawa re, ceramic
p i pe, d r i l l i n g m uds, a n d for many other purposes. C lays
a re a m ixture of sil ica, a l u m ina, and water. C lay particles
are s m a l l - l ess than 0.000 1 inch. They stick together but
are s l i p pery when moist. C lays may come from g ra n itic
rocks, as a weathering product of the feldspa rs. They a lso
form from weathered shales w h ic h came m a i n ly from
clay m inera ls orig i n a l ly. Clay deposits form on lake bot­
toms and i n other q u iet water, sometimes with a n n u a l
layers (va rves). O n e o f t h e c l a y m i n e ra l s is k a o l i n ( p . 49) .

electrica l
insu lator
 crushed crushed
limestone shale

PORTLA N D CEMENT is the best-know n i n g redient of

a rtifi c i a l stone. It has largely replaced the older natura l
cement or hyd ra u l i c l i mestone. When l im eston e conta i n i n g
s i l ica a n d c l a y was burned, t h e l i m e t h a t formed would
set u n der water, hence the name hydra u l i c l i m e.
Now, l i m estone a n d s h a l e are crushed, dried, m ixed i n
t h e correct pro portio ns, a n d ground t o a fi n e powd er. T h e
powde red m ixture is burned i n a s l o p i n g rotary k i l n a t
about 2700 ° F t o form a g lassy c l i n ker. The c l i n ker i s
crushed, a sma l l a m o u n t o f gypsum is a dded, a n d the
m ixture is reg rou n d to form cement. Over 200 m i l l ion
barrels of Portland cement a re produced each year.
Cement is m ixed with sand, crushed rock, a n d water to
make concrete.

151
 BENTONITE
Wyom i n g

F U LLER'S EART H is clay or a s i lty clay materia l con­

ta i n i n g over h a lf s i l ica, valued for its decolorizing prop­
erties. F u l ler's earth absorbs dark orga n ic matter fro m
fats, o i l s, a n d g reases. First used t o "fu l l " o r deg rease
woo len c loth, f u l l er's earth is used to b leach m in era l a n d
vegeta b l e o i l s . It has the greasy fee l of clay a n d usua l ly
breaks up in water. Color varies from w h ite to yel low,
b row n , and bl u e.

B E N TO N I T E, fi rst deve loped, l ike f u l ler's earth, fo r

b le a ch i n g , has t ur ned out to have even more i m porta n t
uses. It is u s e d i n soaps and was hing c o m p o u n d s and i s
a d d e d to cl ays to increase t h e i r p l asticity. Some benton ite,
used a s an aid i n w e l l dri l l i n g, expands a n d sea l s off
water-bearing sands. Other va rieties swe l l l itt le when
wet. Benton ite is a lso used for paper fi l ler a n d i n ad­
hesives. It is a m ixture of at least two a l u m i n u m a n d mag ­
nesium silicate m i n era ls, and is usua l l y regarded as
weathered volcanic ash.

1 52
SAND, G RAVEL, A N D C R U S H E D ROCK have a bout
the lowest va l u e per ton of a n y rock or m i n era l , yet a l l
three a r e i n d i s pensable i n modern construction. Sa n d i n
pla ces i s s o p l e ntif u l that i t shapes t h e l a n d scape, giving
beaches a n d deserts a q u iet bea uty of their own. Sand is a
size ·term; a lt h o u g h sa n d is usua l l y com posed largely of
q u a rtz, p u re q ua rtz sand (used in the m a n ufacture of
g lass) is rare. O n tro pica l shores, coral ( l ime) sa nds are
com m o n . Gypsum sands make u p the snowy d u n es i n the
Wh ite Sa nds Nationa l Monument. Other sa nds a re rich
i n magnet ite, m o n az ite, g a r n et, i l m e n ite, a n d ruti le. Some
are m i ned as ores. But it is common q u a rtz sa n d that h e l ps
make o u r conc rete roads, brid ges, a n d b u i l d i ngs.
Gravel, of g lacial o r stream origin, co n ta i n s larger
pebb les from a q u a rter of a n inch u p, cobb l es, and even
bo u l d e rs, i n a sa n d matrix. Washed, scree ned, and sorted,
g rave l is used for fill a n d in con crete. limesto ne, basa lt,
a n d gran ite a re crushed for road b u i l d i n g , ra i l road ba l last,
a n d concrete work.

1 53
 B U I L D I NG STO N ES a re th ose cut to size for b u i l d ings
o r m o n u ments. Ornam enta l sto nes a re those used for
fi n ishing o r decoration. Sto ne a lso has been used for
sidewa l ks, curbing, and paving b locks. For b u i l d i n g use,
ease of q uarrying , tra nspo rtation, d u rabi l ity. color,

GRANITE is famous for its

beauty, strength , and d u rability
-hence its wide use i n m o nu­
ments a n d b u i l d i n g s. G r a n i te
to kes o h i g h polish a n d is resist­
ant to weath e r i n g . Its h a rd n ess
a n d lock of b e d d i n g make q u a r·
ryi n g difficult. G r a n ites for b u i l d ­
i n g u s e s are classified b y g r a i n
size-with p r eference for fi n e­
grained rock.
RED G R A N I T E
W a u s a u , Wis.

TRAPROCK i s the q u a rrym a n ' s

t e r m f o r d i a base, b a s a l t , o r g a b ­
bro. T h e s e h a rd , d u ra b l e rocks
are l i m i ted in b u i l d i n g use be­
cause their iron m i nerals g i ve a
rusty sta i n as they weather. Trap­
rock is exce l l e n t a s crushed rock
and is widely used . Other i g n e­
o u s rocks-rhyolites a n d fel sites
-are l oca l ly u se d as b u i l d i n g
ston es.
C O A R S E GABBRO
Aberdeen, Scotla n d
SANDSTONE i s relatively easy
to q u a rry beca u se it is bedded.
Many sandstones are attractive
a n d d u rable, and once were very
fashionable in Eastern cities. Po­
rous sa n d stone may not weather
well a n d special treatment may
be needed in cold regions. Other­
wise, sa n d stones make attractive
b u i l d i n g sto nes. C o l o r and tex­
t u re ore variable .
. . C R A B O R C H A R O " STO N E
1 54 T ennessee
weathering cha racteristics, a n d freedom from iron m i n ­
erals a re im porta nt. O f t h e b u i l d i n g stones which are sti l l
widely used, the following genera l types are the best
known . Many d ifferent kinds of marbles, l i mesto nes, a n d
granites a r e used for varied effects.

L I MESTONE from near Bedford

i n central I n d i a n a is a well-known
building stone, widely used for
public b u i l d i n gs. Bedfo rd l i me­
stone is white, even-textu red a n d
oolitic, someti mes packed with
small fossils. I t is easily q u a rried
and u n iform i n color. Many other
kinds of l i m estones a re used fo r
b u i l d i n g in m a n y pa rts of the
U n ited Stales.

Swanton, Vt.

MAR BLE fo r b u i ld i n g use also

includes fi ne-g r a i n ed ornamental
li mesto nes which are not true
ma rbles. Marble is a classic stone,
worked by scu l p tors as well as
b u i l ders. I ta l i a n wh ite and Bel­
gian black m a r b l e a re fa mous.
Marbles may a lso be p i n k, yel­
l ow, and brown. They are softer
a n d less resistan t to weatheri ng
than g r a n ites.

K i l l a rney, I re l a n d
SLATE is an u n usual b u i l d i n g
stone u s e d p r i m a rily i n roofi n g
a n d floori n g , b l ackboa rds, a n d
e l ectrical switchboa rds. I t breaks
along cleavage p l a nes i n large
flat sheets. C o l o r varies from
black to g reen and red . Slate is
d u rable a n d attractive a s roofi n g
a n d i n floors a n d patios. Most
U.S. slate comes from Vermont,
Mai ne, a n d P e n n sylvania.

Bangor, P a .
1 55
 M ORE INFORMAT I ON

SOME SELECTED BOOKS to h e l p you further with rocks

and minerals are l isted be low. In addition, c h eck o n state
p u b l ication s a n d those of the U.S. Geolog ica l Survey.
A lso n ote the m a n y loca l g u ides to m i n e ra l hobbies a n d
m i nera l loca l ities. S e e magazines f o r titles.

Ford, William, DANA's TEXTBOOK OF MINERALOGY, John Wi ley, New York,

1 954. The sta ndard college text with description s of a l l species a n
a mateur may fo n d . Tech n ical but thoroug h - a n adva nced book.
Longwe l l and f l int, INTRODUCTION TO PHYSI CAL GEOLOGY, John Wiley,
New York, 1 955. A beg i n n i n g geology text with append ices regard.
ing the study of rocks and m i n e ra l s.
Mcfa l l , Russe l l P., GEM HUNTER's GUIDE, Science & Mecha n ics Pub. Co.,
C h icago, 1 95 1 . A complete g u i d e to American gems o n d gem lo·
calities, fo r col l ectors.
Pough, frederick H., A f i ELD GUI D E TO R o C KS AND MINERALS, Houg hton
Mifflin, Boston, 1 95 1 . You r next step is this excellent g uide with
mi nerals clossifoed o n o chemical basis. Color p lates.
S mith, Orsino C., IDENT I F I CAT ION AND QUALITAT I V E C H E M I CAL ANALYSIS
OF MINERALS, Van N ostrand, New York, 1 953. A t a b u l a r guide of
p hysica l o n d chemical tests. Advanced o n d technical, but comp l ete.
Color p lates.
MAGAZINES FOR AMATEURS

Earth Science Box 1 357, C hicago 90, I l l . bimonthly

GeoTi mes
Horological J o u r n a l
Lapidary J o u r n a l
Rocks a n d Minerals
1 444 N Street, N .W. 8 times yearly
Washington, D . C . 20005
5250 Broadway Terrace, monthly
Oakland 1 B, C a l if.
Box 398, Del Mar, Calif. bimonthly
Box 29, Peeksk i ll, N .Y. b imonthly

1 56
MUSEUMS A N D EXH I B ITS will show you more kinds of
rocks a n d m i n erals than you will find on fi e l d trips. Use
one to supplement the other. Some of the m useums with
larger exhibits a re listed below.
Arizona
Holbrook: Petrified Forest N a­
tional Monument Museum; Tuc·
son : U niversity of Arizona
California
Berkeley: University of California;
Los Angeles: Los Angeles County
Museum; San Diego: Natural His·
tory Museum; San Francisco: Cal·
ifornia State Division of Mines
Museum; Santa Barbara: Santa
Barbara Muse u m of Natural His·
tory
Colorado
Boulder: University of Colorado
Museum; Denver: Denver Museum
of Natural H istory
Connecticut
New Hove n : Peabody Museum of
Natural History
Georgia
Atla nta : Georgia State Museum
I llinois
Chicago: C hicago Natural History
Museum; U r ba n a : U niversity of
I l l i nois Museu m of Natura l H is·
tory
Indiana
I ndianapolis: I ndiana Stole Mu­
seum
Kansas
Lawrence: U n iversity of Kansas
Museum
Louisiana
Baton Rouge: State U n iversity De­
partment of Geology Museum
Massachusetts
Cambridge: H a rvard U niversity
Mineralogital Museum; Spring­
field : Museum of Natural History
Michigan
An n Arbor: U niversity of Michi­
gan Mineralogy Museum; B loom­
field H i l l s : Cran b rook I n stitute of
Science; Houghto n : Michig a n Col·
lege of Mining and Tech nology
Missouri
Columbia: U n iversity of Missouri
Museum; Jefferson City: Missouri
Resources Museum
Montana
Butte : Monta n a School of Mines
New Jersey
Paterso n : Paterson Museum; Tren­
ton : New Je rsey State Museum
New Mexico
Socorro: New Mexico I nstitute of
Mining and Technology
New York
Albany: New York State Museum;
Buffalo: Buffalo Museum of Sci­
ence; New York: American Mu se­
u m of Natural H istory
Ohio
Cleve l a n d : Cleveland Museum of
Natural History
P en n sylv a nia
Philadelphia : Philadelphia Acad­
emy of Natural Sciences; Pitts­
burgh : Carnegie Museum
South Dakota
Rapid C ity: South Da kota School
af Mines and Technology
Washington, D. C.
U nited States National Museum
Ontario
Ottawa: Notional Museu m of
Ca nada; Toronto: Roya l Onta rio
Museum of Geology and Miner­
alogy
Quebec
Montrea l : Redpath Museum
1 57
 I N DEX
Asterisks { * ) i n d icate i l l u strat i o n s .

Aa, * 1 1 9 B i otite m i ca, *97, 1 39 Coba l t i te, *44

Act i n o l i te
[ a k -T I N - o - l i g h t] ,
2 3 , * 1 00
Agate, * 1 2 , 80-*8 1 ,
*87, 1 3 1
A l abaster, 64, 67
A l b i te, *88, 98- *99
A le x a n d r i te, 84, *93
0 A l ma n d ite, 23, 1 04
A l u m i n a , 50 *84
A l u m i n u m , 1 9, *50,
*141
� Amazonite (AM - u h - z u h -
=
o-
B i smuth test, *27 C o leman ite, *70
B l ackjack, *46 C o l u m b i te, *57
B l a s t furnace, *42 C o n ch o i d a l fracture
B loodstone, * 8 7 [ k o n - KOY-d u l l] ,
B l owpipe tests, *26- *27 * 2 0 , *80, * 1 42
Borax, 1 9, *28, *70 C o n cretion s , * 1 25
Born ite, *32 C o n g l omerates, * 1 28
Bou le, *92 C o n tact deposits, * 1 20
Breccia [ B R E TC H - y u h ] , Copper, * 3 1 -33, * 1 41
1 1 8 , * 1 28 tests, *27, *28, *29
Bri l l i a n t cut, *90 C o q u i n a , * 1 26
B u i ld i n g stones, * 1 54 - C o ra l , *65
* 1 55 C o r u n d u m , 1 8 , 1 9, *4B

n i g h t ] , *88 m i n e r a l s , *84
lE Amethyst, 78 - * 79, *86 Ca l cite, * 63 - * 64 C o ve l l i te, *32
; Am p h i b o l e [AMfy - crysta l s , *6, * 1 6, *20 "Crab Orc h a r d ' '
"' ::l b o w l ] . * 75, 88, properties, 1 8 , 1 9 s t o n e , * 1 54
0 * 1 00 Carboloy, 44 C ro c i d o l i te, 1 9, *75
� A n d esite, * 1 1 6 Carbon, *62, *83 Crocoite, * 5 1
::; A n d ra d i te, * 1 05 C a r n e l i a n , 80- * 8 1 , *87 C ryo l i te, * 48
,... = A n g l e site, *35 C rysta l s , 1 4, 1 6- 1 7
� A n h y d r i te, * 67, 1 29
Carnotite, * 55 , 56
Cassiterite, 1 9, *45 C u b i c system crysta l s ,
* 1 6,
= A n o r t h i te, 98- *99 Casts, * 1 3 1 -* 1 32
i A n t ic l i n e, * 1 44 Cement, Port l a n d , 1 5 1 C u prite, *33
"' C y a n i te, *48
! A n t i m o n y , 27, 28, 60 Cerussite, *35
Apatite, 1 8 , 1 9, *73 C habazite, 1 02 - * 1 03
� A q u a m a r ine, *84 C h a l cedony [ k a i - S E D -
Demantoid, *85·
D e n d r i tes, *52- *53
� Arago n i te, *65, 89 u h - n i h ] . 80- B l , * B 7
D i a b a se, * 1 1 3
" Argentite, *38 C h a l cocite, *32
D i a m o n d , * 1 5, 1 8 , *83
� Arkose, * 1 23 C h a l copyrite, 23, *32
s y n t h etic, 92- *93
� Arsenic, 60 C h a l k , 64, 1 26
D i atoms [ D I E - u h - to m s ] .
,. � Arsenopyrite, *20, *60 C h e rt, *80
* 8 2 , * 1 29
>E Asbestos, *75, *78 Ch lorite, * 1 06
D i k es, * 1 1 4
C h lorite schi st,
A u g i te [AW - j i te] . * 1 7, Diopside, * 1 01
1 36 - * 1 37
* 1 01 D i o r i te, * 1 1 0, * 1 1 3
C h ro m ite, * 5 1
A u t u n ite, *55 D o l e r i te, * 1 1 3
C h r o m i u m , 28, 5 1
Azurite, *33 Dolom ite, 64, *65, 1 27
C h r y sobery l , * 8 4
D r u s y q u a rtz, *77
C h r y soco l l a , 3 1 , * 3 3
Babbitt meta l , 45 C h ry s o l i te , * 1 06 E lectr i c a l properties, 23
B a rite, 1 9, * 72 C h r y sopra se, 80- * 8 1 , E m e r a l d , *90, *92- *93
B a s a l t [ b u h - SAWL T]. *87 Emery, *48
* 1 1 0, * 1 1 7 C h rysoti le, *75 Enstatite, 2 3 , * 1 0 1
Batho l i th s , * 1 1 5 C i n nabar, 1 9, *39 E p idote, * 1 7, * 1 08
B a u x i te, 48- *49-50 C i tri ne, 78-*79, *86 E x t r u s i v e rocks, 1 1 0,
Bead tests, *28 C l a y , *20, 1 24, * 1 50 * 1 1 6- * 1 1 9
Bento n i te, * 1 52 C leavage, 20
Bery l , *57, *84 C o a l , 89, * 1 4 1 - 1 43 F a i r y crosses, * 1 08
Bery l l i u m , 57 Coba lt, 28, * 44 F a u lts, * 1 44

1 58
Fe ldspars, *98- *99
F e l s i te , * 1 1 0
F l a m e tests, *29
F l i nt, *8, *80
F l o s ferri, 65
F l u orescence, 22, 46, 55
F l uorite, 1 8, * 7 1
F o l so m point, * 1 30
Foo l ' s g o l d : see P y rite
Foss i l s , * 1 30 - * 1 3 1 , * 1 46
Fracture, *20
Fran k l i n i te, *46
F u l ler ' s earth, * 1 52
F u s i b i l ity sca le, 23
Gabbro, * 1 1 0, * 1 1 3 ,
* 1 54
G a l e n a , * 1 6, *20, 30,
*34, 47, 60
Garnet, *85, * 1 04 - * 1 05
i n m i ca s c h i st, 1 3 6 -
* 1 37
Gas, n a t u r a l , * 1 4 1 ,
* 1 47
Geiger counter, *24,
*54-55
Gem cutt i n g , 90- 9 1
Gems, 83-91
synthetic, *92- *93
Geyserite, *82
G l a u berite, * 68
G n e i s s , * 1 38 - * 1 39
G o l d , 1 9, *36-*37
Granite, * 1 1 0, * 1 54
G r a n i t i z a t i o n , * 1 40
Graph i te, *62
Grossu l a r i te, * 1 04
G u m m i te, 55
Gypsum, *66 - * 67,
1 29, 1 4 1 , 1 53
properties, 1 8, 1 9
H a l i te [ H A L - ite) , * 1 6,
1 9, *68-69, 1 29
H a m mer, p l a stere r ' s ,
*4, * 1 0
Hardness, 1 8
Hematite, *35, *40, *89
H e m i morphite, *47
H e r k i mer d i a m o n d s , 76
H e x a g o n a l system
c r y sta l s , * 1 6
H i dden ite, 8 5 Meteorites, * 40, 1 0 1
H o r n b l e n d e , * 1 00, Micas, *20, 96- *97, 1 36
1 36 - 1 37, 1 39 Micro c l i n e, *88, 98- *99
Hornfe l s , 1 3 4-* 1 35 M i g matite, 1 38 , 1 39
H o r n stone, *80 M i l l e r i te , *43
H y a l ite, *82 M o h s ' sca l e , 1 8
M o l d s , * 1 32
I c e l a nd spar, *63 M o l y b d e n i te, * 56
I g neous rocks, * 1 1 0 M o l y b d e n u m , 28, 56
I l men ite, * 58 M o n a z ite, *57
I ndex of refract i o n , 1 5 M o n o c l i n i c system
I n jection g n e i ss, * 1 39 crysta l s , * 1 7
I n terference patterns, Moonsto n e , *88, 99
*15 Morion [MO-ri h - u n ] ,
I n trusive rocks, 1 1 0 - 1 1 5 78 - * 79
I ro n , *28, 40-*42, * 1 4 1 Moss agates, *52
Mud cracks, * 1 2 5
J a d e , *88 Muscovite, 96- *97
J ad e i te, * 1 3 , 88 in qua rtz s c h i st, 1 36
J a sper, 80- * 8 1 , *87 properties, * 1 5, 1 9
J et, *89 Muscovite g n e i s s ,
* 1 38 - 1 39
Kao l i n , *49
Ker n i te, *70
N a tro l ite, 1 02 - * 1 03
K y a n i te, *48
N a tura l g a s , 1 4 1 , 1 47
N i cc o l ite, *43
Labradorite, *98 N ic k e l , 28, *43
lacco l i ths, * 1 1 5
Lapi l l i , 1 1 9
Lapis-lazuli [LAP-iss- Obs i d i a n , *20, *89,
LAZ-you - l ie], *88 * 1 1 0, * 1 1 6
Lava, *6, 1 1 6 • * 1 1 9 O i l : see Petro l e u m
Lead, *27, 34-35, * 1 -4 1 O i l s h a l e , 1 46
L e p i d o l i te [ le e - P I D-o- O l igoc lase, 99
l i g h t ) , 97 O l i v i ne , * 1 06
L i mestone, *6, * 1 26- Onyx [ O N - i x ] , 64,
* 1 27, * 1 55 8 0 - * 8 1 ' *87
L i mon ite, *40 Oo l i t i c l i mestones, * 1 26
Lode, * 1 20 Opa l , * 2 2 , *82, *86
Lodestone, 23 Orpiment, *60
L u ster, 2 1 Orth o c l a se, 98 - *99
properties, 1 8 , 1 9 , 23
Orth o r h o m b i c s y stem
Magnesite, * 59
crysta l s , * 1 7
Magnetism, 2 3 , 43
Mag netite, *40, 48, 58
M a l a c h i te, * 3 3 , *88 P a h o e h oe [ p u h - H Oa y -
M a n g a nese, 28, 5 2 h oa y ) , * 1 1 9
M a n g a n i te, 52 - * 53 P a i n tpots, 1 22 - * 1 23
Ma r b l e , 1 34- * 1 35, Peacock ore, *32
* 1 55 Pea r l s , 88-89
Marca s i te, * 4 1 Pecto l i te, 1 02 - * 1 03
Mercury, *39 Pegmatite, * 1 1 2
Meta morphic rocks, P e n t l a n d ite, 4 1 , 43
* 1 33 - * 1 39 Peridot, * 1 06
1 59
 Peridotite, 1 1 0, * 1 1 3
"' Petrified wood, 80,
*131
Petro 1 e u m , 1 4 1 ,
* 1 44- 1 46
Phenocrysts , 1 1 2
P h logopite, *97
P h o s p h o rescence, 22
P h y l l ite, 1 36 - * 1 37
P i t c h b l e n d e , ' 54
P l a g i o c l a se f e l d spars,
'98- * 99
..
P l a ster of P a r i s , 66
Porphyries, 1 1 2 - 1 1 3
Pota s s i u m , test, *29
Pre h n i te, 1 02 - ' 1 03
P r i mary ores, 1 20
P s i l o me l o ne, 52 - * 53
P u m i ce, * 1 1 0, * 1 1 6
:r; P y r i t e , 36, � 4 1 , 60
u
Pyro l u s i te, * 52 - * 53
!!
Pyrope, * 1 04
... ..
z
Pyroxene, * 1 5, * 1 0 1
...
0 P y r r h otite, * 2 3 , * 4 1
�
� Q u a rtz , * 76· *79
2 a s s oc i a t i o n s , 33, 3 6
!!
crysta l l i ne, * 1 6,
.. *76- * 79
:l cry ptocry sta I I i n e,
� *80- * 8 1
..
z g e m s , *86- *87
... ii n o n crysta l l i ne, * 8 2
;: p h y s i ca l properties,
::l 1 8 , 1 9 , 23
:1
w i t h d e n d r i tes, * 52
Q u a rtzites, 1 34- * 1 3 5
R a i n d rop i m pr i nts,
* 1 25
Rea lgar, * 60
Refracti o n , index pf, 1 5
R e p l acement, * 3 5 , * 1 3 1
Rhodochrosite, 1 9,
52 - * 53 , *89
R h o d o n i te, 52 - • 53, *89
R h y o l i te , * 1 1 6
§
R i pp l e m a r k s , 1 22- * 1 23
Rock cry sta l , * 86
R u b y , '84, *92
R u t i l e, * 1 6, 1 9, * 58, *78
S a l t : see H a l ite
So I t domes, * 1 45
1 60
S a l tpeter, *68
S a m a r s k i te, * 57
Sand, * 1 53
Sand stone, * 1 22 - * 1 23 ,
* 1 54
quartz content, 76
S a p p h i re, *84, *92 - '93
Sord, 80-8 1 , '87
Sardonyx, 80- ' 8 1
Sa t i n - s par, 64
Schee l i te, *22, * 56
Schi sts, 1 36, ' 1 37
S c h i stosity, 1 36
Scoria, * 1 1 0, 1 1 7
Scratch test, * 1 8
Sed i mentary rocks,
' 1 2 1 - ' 1 29
Septa r i a n co ncretion,
' 1 25
Serpe n t i n e , 1 9, * 1 07
associations , 5 1 , 75
S h o les, ' 1 24, ' 1 46
S h e l l l i mestones, * 1 26
S i d e r i t e , 1 9, * 4 1
S i l ica, *76, 82
S i l icates, 95
S i l ls, * 1 1 4
S i lver, *38
S k u tterudite, * 44
S l a te, 1 34- " 1 35, ' 1 55
S m i t h s o n i te, * 47
Soapstone, 74
Sod i u m , t e s t , 1"29
So i l , * 1 48 - ' 1 49
Specific g r a v i t y , * 1 9
Spessa rtite, * 1 05
Spha lerite, ' 46
Spi n e l , 59, '85, '93
Spod u mene, * 1 3 , * 8 5
Sta u r o l ite, * 1 7, 1 9,
' 1 08
Steo t i te, * 74
Ste r l i n g s i l v e r , 38
Stibn ite, 23, '60
Sti l b i te, 1 9, 1 02 - * 1 03
Strea k , 21
Strontium, test, * 2 9
Sub l i mate, 26
S u l f u r , * 1 7, * 6 1 , 1 4 1
properties, 1 9, 23
tube test, *30
Syen i te, * 1 1 0, * 1 1 2
Synthetic gems,
*92 - *93
Tole, 1 8, 1 9, * 74
T a n t a l ite, *57
T e l l u r i u m , 37
Tetr a g o n a l sy stem
crysta l s , * 1 6
T h o r i u m , 57
T i g e r ' s eye, *78
Tin, * 45
T i ta n i u m, 28, 58
Topaz, 1 9, 23, '85
s y n t h e t i c, * 93
T o u r m a l i ne, * 2 3 , *93,
*95
Traprock, * 1 54
Travertine, *64
Trem o l i te, 1 9 , ' 1 00
T r i c l i n i c system
crysta l s , * 1 7
T r i p o l ite, * 8 2
Tube tests, *30
Tufa, 64, ' 1 27
T u n g sten, 22, 56
T u r q u o i se, '�- 8 9
T w i n n ed crysta l s , * 63,
* 66, * 7 1 , * 1 08
U l trav i o l e t l i g h t , 2 2 , 77
U n co n f o r m i t i e s , * 1 45
U r a n i n i te, 1 9 , * 54
U r a n i u m, 2 2 , "28 , 54-55
U r a n o p h a ne, *55
U va ro v i te, * 1 05
V a n a d i n ite, * 56
V a n a d i u m , 2 8 , 55-56
Varves, 1 24, 1 50
Verd a n t i q ue, * 1 07
Ve r m i c u l i te, * 96
V o l c a n i c bombs, * 1 1 9
V o l c a n i c g l a s·s , *89
V o l canoes, * 1 1 8
W i l l e m i te , ' 2 2 , *46,
*47
Wo lfra m i te, * 56
W o o d , p e t r i fi e d , * 1 3 1
Zeo l i te s , 1 02 - * 1 03
Z i n c , 26-27, 46-47
Z i n c b l e n de, * 46
Z i n ci te, 1 9 , * 46, 47
Z i rcon, * 1 6, 1 9, *85,
*93
KK L L MM N J
 ROCKS AND M I N ERALS

A GOLDEN NATURE GUIDE

H E R B E R T S . Z I M , P h . D . , S c . D . , i n i t i ated t h e
G o l d e n G u i d e S e r i e s a n d was b o t h a u t h o r a n d e d ­
i t o r f o r m a n y y e a r s . A u t h o r of s o m e n i n ety b o o k s
a n d e d i t o r of a b o u t as m a n y , h e i s n o w A d j u n c t
P r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i ty of M i a m i a n d E d u c a ­
t i o n a l C o n s u l t a n t to t h e A m e r i c a n F r i e n d s S e r v i c e
C o m m ittee a n d oth e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . H e w o r k s o n
e d u c at i o n , p o p u l at i o n a n d e n v i ro n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s .

P A U L R . S H A F F E R , P h . D . , f o r m e r l y P rofesso r of
G e o l o g y at the U n i v e rs ity of I l l i n o i s , has w r itten
many g e o l o g i c al p a p e rs f o r s c i e nt i f i c j o u rn a l s . H i"s
acade m i c a n d i n d u s t r i a l work takes h i m i nto m o st
reg i o n s o f t h e U n ited States, studyi n g and c o l l e ct i n g .

RAY M O N D P E R L M A N i s a P rofes s o r of A rt at t h e
U n i v e rs i ty of I l l i n o i s . H e h o l d s d e g rees i n f i n e a rts
from t h at u n iversity, and is a M aste r of P rofes­
s i o n a l A rts from the A rt Center S c h o o l in Los
A n g e l e s . He has d e s i g n e d and i l l u st rate d many
books on science.