Personal Transcription

Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)

Chapter 1 – Functional Organization of the Human Body and Control of the Internal
Environment
Human Physiology
 explains the specific characteristics and mechanisms of the body
 links the basic sciences with medicine and integrates multiple functions of the cells,
tissues, and organs into the functions of the living human being
Pathophysiology
 abnormal body function and as basis of clinical medicine
Cell
 basic unit of living organism
 human body has 35-40 trillion cells (RBCs one of the most abundant at 25T)
 normal microbiota out-number human cells (giving us a total 100T)
Extracellular Fluid
 50-70% fluid (mainly H2O with ions and other substances)
 Internal environment of the body (coined by Fr. scientist Claude Bernard) milieu interior

ICF ECF
2/3 of body fluids 1/3 of body fluids
K+, Mg++, PO4--- Na+, Cl-, HCO3-
Nutrients
Cellular waste products, metabolites
Homeostatis
 State of normalcy
 It is the maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment.
 Each functional structure contributes its share to the maintenance of homeostatic
conditions in the ECF.
 Essentially all body structures are organized to help maintain the automaticity and
continuity of life.
 Compensation in disease state/s i.e. if there is impaired kidney function, ACE causes
vasoconstriction that leads to elevated blood pressure which initially helps in
excretion process (higher pressure for fluids to climb into the loops in the nephrons)
but prolonged/uncorrected compensation leads to multiple organ damage.
Homeostatic Processes
1) Regulation of metabolic end products
 Exhalation
 Urination
 Defecation
 First pass effect in the liver

2) Regulation of body functions

a. NS (Sensory  CNS  Motor)
b. Endocrine

Gland/Tissue Hormones Major Function Structure

Hypothalamus Thyrotropin- secretion of thyroid- Peptide
releasing stimulating hormone and
hormone prolactin
Corticotrophin- Release of ACTH Peptide
releasing
hormone
Growth hormone- Release of GH Peptide
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Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)

releasing
hormone
Somatostatin Inhibits the release of GH Peptide
Dopamine Release of LH and FSH Amine
(Prolactin-
inhibiting
hormone
Gonadotrophin- Inhibits release of Peptide
releasing prolactin
hormone
Ant. Pituitary GH Protein synth. and overall Peptide
growth
TSH synthesis and secretion of Peptide
thyroid hormones
(thyroxine and
triiodothyronine)
ACTH synthesis and secretion of Peptide
adrenocortical hormones
(cortisol, androgens, and
aldosterone)
Prolactin development of the Peptide
female breasts and
secretion of milk
FSH growth of follicles in the Peptide
ovaries and sperm
maturation in Sertoli cells
of testes
LH testosterone synthesis in Peptide
Leydig cells of testes;
stimulates ovulation,
formation of corpus
luteum, and estrogen and
progesterone synthesis in
ovaries
Pos. Pituitary Vasopressin increases water Peptide
reabsorption by the
kidneys and causes
vasoconstriction and
increased blood pressure
Oxytocin Stimulates milk ejection Peptide
from breasts and uterine
contractions

Thyroid Thyroxine (T4), Increases the rates of Amine (ex Tyr)

Triiodothyronine chemical reactions in
(T3) most cells, thus increasing
body metabolic rate
Calcitonin deposition of calcium in Peptide
the bones and decreases
extracellular fluid calcium
ion concentration
Adrenal Cortex (ubak) Cortisol has multiple metabolic Steroid
functions for controlling
metabolism of proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats;
also has anti-inflammatory
effects
Aldosterone Increases renal sodium Steroid
reabsorption, potassium
secretion, and hydrogen
ion secretion
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Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)

Adrenal Medulla (laog) Norepinephrine, SNS stimulation Amine

epinephrine
Pancreas Insulin (oink, Promotes glucose entry in Peptide
moo) many cells, and in this
way controls carbohydrate
metabolism (antagonizes
the action of glucagon;
used in the dx of
dwarfism)
Glucagon (meow) Increases synthesis and Peptide
release of glucose from
the liver into the body
fluids
Parathyroid PtH Controls serum calcium Peptide
ion concentration by
increasing calcium
absorption by the gut and
kidneys and releasing
calcium from bones
(PO4---)
Sex Organs Ovarie Estrogen Promotes growth and Steroid
s development of female
reproductive system,
female breasts, and
female
Progesterone Stimulates secretion of Steroid
“uterine milk” by the
uterine endometrial
glands and promotes
development of secretory
apparatus of breasts
Testes Testosterone Promotes development of Steroid
male reproductive system
and male secondary
sexual characteristics

3) Protection
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Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)

 Immune System
o WBCs, lymph, lymph nodes, thymus
o distinguish its own cells from harmful foreign cells and substances
o destroy the invader by phagocytosis or by producing sensitized
lymphocytes or specialized proteins (e.g. antibodies) that
destroy/neutralize the invader

 Integumentary System
o Skin, appendages
o cover, cushion, and protect the deeper tissues and organs of the
body
o provide a boundary between the body’s internal environment and
the outside world
o important for temperature regulation and excretion of wastes
o provides a sensory interface between the body and the external
environment

4) Reproduction – maintain homeostasis by generating new beings to take the

place of those that are dying.
Control Systems of the Body
I. Levels of Control
 Genetic control: most intricate control that operates in all cells to help
intracellular and extracellular functions
 Within-organ control: regulate functions of the individual parts of the
organ
 Whole-body control: control the interrelationships between the organs

II. Examples
a. Regulation of O2 and CO2 concentration in the ECF

i. High O2 concentration – Hb will not release O2 into the tissue due to

strong O2-Hb affinity
ii. Low O2 concentration – Hb will release O2 into the tissue to re-establish
O2 concentration
iii. CO2 accumulation in the tissues will result in the cessation of all energy-
giving reactions.
High CO2 concentration  stimulation of respiratory center 
hyperventilation  removal of excess CO2
b. Regulation of Arterial BP
Baroreceptor System
Baroreceptors
 nerve receptors located in the walls of the bifurcation region of the
carotid arteries in the neck, and in the arch of the aorta in the
thorax
 stimulated by the stretch of arterial wall
High BP – stretching of the baroreceptors
Stimulation of the medulla  inhibition of vasomotor center  decreased
sympathetic nervous system activity  vasodilation and reduced pumping of
heart
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Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)

Low BP – relaxation of the baroreceptors  activation of the vasomotor center 

vasoconstriction and heart pumping

c. Regulation of ion and nutrient concentration

Normal Values

Remarks
Water Depletion – *diabetes insipidus, *fever, *diarrhea
Water Excess – impairment in water excretion (i.e. RF or SIADH) SIADH can be caused by
chest infections and some tumors
Hypernatremia – muscle weakness and confusion
Hyponatremia – SIADH
Hypokalemia – weakness, hypotonia, paralytic ileus, depression and confusion
Hyperkalemia – can be asymptomatic but fatal, cardiac depression *tx: 10mL 10% w/v CaCl2 or
Ca Gluconate IV 5 min

Characteristics of Control Systems

a. Negative – negation of the initialing stimulus due to increased levels of
the circulating hormone
 Modified-negative feedback - negation of the initiating stimulus
due to increased levels of the circulating
component
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Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)

b. Positive – Vicious cycle

 stimulation of the initiating stimulus due to increased levels of circulating hormone
 Essentially, resulting to an exponential increase in hormone levels
Blood clotting: ruptured blood vessel → clot formation → activation of clotting
factors → more blood clotting
Childbirth: strong uterine contractions → stretching of cervix → stimulation of
uterine muscle to increase contractions
Nerve signal generation: stimulation of the membrane of a nerve fiber →
leakage of Na+ thru Na channels → entry of Na+ changes membrane potential
→ more Na+ channels open → action potential generation
c. Feed-forward
 Sensory nerve signals from the moving parts apprise the brain whether the
movement is performed correctly
 Up-regulation – decreased no. of NTs by increasing the no. of receptors
 Down-regulation – increased no of NTs by decreasing the no of receptors

d. Adaptive control
 After a feed-forward control, sensory nerve signals inform the brain whether
the response is correct or not.
 If not, the brain corrects the feed-forward signals it sends to the organ the
next time a response is required.
Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

 Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA Chain and Structure

 1st Phosphate is linked to the C5 of Ribose
1; 2nd Phosphate is liked to C3 of Ribose 1
(Phosphodiester bond)
 Giving a configuration of 5’  3’
 Antiparallel with 5’3’ chain pairs with
3’5’
 Nucleotide chains are read from left to right
with (5’ end at the left)
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Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)
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Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)

RNA – sugar: ribose; thymine

 uracil
Codon
 Formation: two
strands of DNA separate
temporarily to be used as
template for RNA molecule
synthesis
 Complimentary
code triplets
 ex. DNA: TACG  AUGC (Complimentary strand)
 Controls the sequence of amino acids in a protein to
be synthesized
20 – 25 K genes codes for proteins in each cell
NLT 100 K proteins are produced by various cell types (Structural, Enzymatic etc)
RNA Polymerase
 Activates RNA nucleotides
 promotes chemical reactions that add each RNA nucleotide at the end of a developing
RNA Chain
 this done by adding two phosphate ions (PO43-)
 Phosphate ions are derived from ATP

Types of RNA used in Protein Synthesis

i. Precursor messenger
 large, immature, ssRNA that is processed in the nucleus to form mature
messenger RNA
 introns – removed via splicing
 exons – retained to form mRNA
ii. Small nuclear (snRNA)
 Directs the splicing of pre-mRNA

iii. Messenger
 Carries genetic code to the cytoplasm for
controlling the type of protein transformed

iv. Transfer
 transports activated amino acids to the
ribosomes to be used in assembling the
protein molecule

v. Ribosomal
 RNA + 75 different proteins
 Physical and chemical structures where
protein molecules are assembled
vi. Micro RNAs
 ssRNAs of 21 to 23 nucleotides that can
regulate gene transcription and translation.

mRNA
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Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)

 long single RNA strands that are suspended in the cytoplasm.

 composed of several hundred to several thousand RNA nucleotides in unpaired strands
 contain codons that are exactly complementary to the code triplets of the DNA genes
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Physiology – Lecture 1 (Aug 11 2021)