BLOOD

✓
PLASMA
FORMED ELEMENTS
9155% ) / ( 4513
v
v v t to
So
~

Water Gates did

RBC
Platelet
WBC_
(90-92-1) → 02
Erythrocyte → Th- combo -

→ →
Leukocyte
coz cyote
-

d d
L L

Organic Inorganic Granulocytes D-

granulocyte
e.) Plasma protein a.) Nat
1.) Eosinophil ) Monocyte
Acidophil Lymphocyte
g.) Glucose b)
"
K Acidic I
→
granule , a.

> c) CI
Lymphocyte lymphocyte
-

Urea
Basophil B- T -

3.
d.)
g.) Antibodies µ
-1
→
Basic G- anole Plasma cell Helper -1 -

cell

5)
T-cell
OH Memory
Hormones -

3) Neutrophil 2) Memory B- cell cytotoxic T-cell

→ Neuf ,a , g. an ,
, ,
4) suppressor -1 -

cell
 PLASMA

# PLASMA PROTEIN →

→ f- 801 .

→ 3 proteins → i
) fibrinogen → ✗

Globulin sp

iiij Albumin →
r

# FIBRINOGEN →

→
Clotting factor I
Liver
→
Synthesised by
# GLOBULIN →

Globulin →
→ ✗
§ B

→ nthesised by liver

Transport of fat of fat-soluble

"
↳
vitamin

→ r -

Globulin →

↳ Aka
Immunoglobulin
(
Ig)
↳ Antibodies

↳ Plasma cell
synthesised by
[
Lymphoid tissue
 Type FUNCTION
→ secrets
→ Water soluble
IgA saliva Tears
; Juices ;
→
;
cohost
9)
-

umogt
D Func not known

Ig
→

IgE 7) Allergist
IgG

IgM

can cross
placenta ?
Max . in no

first to respond

# ALBUMIN →

→ carries protein

→ Maintains osmotic pressor

to
25 - 28mm
of 4g
liver
→ Formed by

NOTE →

All the plasma proteins are

3 formed by
liver except gama

globulin c- is formed by
lymphoid organ
 FORMED ELEMENT

ERYTHROCYTE / RBC

abundant blood cells

→ Most

→ No -
5 to 5.5 million / mm
}

A in
Erythrocytes is / Polycythemia
-

→ no

L 4

Normal Disease
→
altitude
Higher

Anemia
→ t is no
-

Eoythrocytopenia
↳ More common
in
female
due to menstruate

↳ Blood loss
every month
45 -
55 ml

Shape of RBC→

E- Nucleated
→ Oval
;
Biconcave ;
d
Except '
d

camel & Llama

 not have nucleus
→ RB.is do
; mitochondria
or other cell organelle .

it to
↳ % it would allow
carry
molecules
of
ttb .

More no .

↳ No
of tlb / RBC = 250-300 million

Anaerobic
raspy
↳tf
RBCs show -

↳ It has carbonic anhydrase enzyme

d
Marker
enzyme of RBC

of contains
→ NOTE →
100 ml blood 12 to
gag
-

3 of
teb .

of Erythropoiesis
→
Formato RBC -

|
Duration site
-

0-2
months Yolk Sac

3- 6 months Lives
; spleen

7- 9 months Lives + Bone

Marrow

narrowly
Birth Bone
After
-
RBM YBM
&
J → Blood Loss
Normal Old
→ age
 For
Factors Responsible Erythropoiesis →

Vit B12
.
Cyanocobalamin
→

→ RBC
maturing factor
anemia
→
Deficiency Pernicious
-

Vit B9 folic a- →

anemia
→

Deficiency -

Megaloblastic

Erythropoietin →

→
Hormone →
kidney
4) Thy -• ✗ in

feat

factors e-
indirectly influence erythropoiesis

D) factory
CIF → Castle's Intrinsic

→ Absorption of hit B12

→ secreted by
-

Oxyntic cell
/Parietal cell

Hee →

) Fe 2-1
Fest
→
&

Absorption
 fun '
of RBC →

f) of Oz
"

Transport
↳ 97%
Oxytlb
→

↳ 02 binds e- Haeme part

2.) Transport
'
of coz
251
↳ Casbaminotlb → .

↳ coz binds e-
globin protein

→ Hb -1 CO > Carboxy Hb
I
tlaeme
 LEUCOCSTE
/ NBC

→
Responsible for immunity
Normal Range -
6000 - 8000 / mm
]

9 in no
-

Leucocytosis
d

infect
'
Indicates

N0→ Leukaemia -

Blood cancer

d in no →
Leucocgtopenia
to
Immunocompromised
↳
HIV/AIDS
combined immune
↳ SCID →
severely
Deficiency

Ipf

d t

Granulocytes Agoanulocyte

1) Eosinophil d
LYMPHOCYTE
d
MONOCYTE
2.) Basophil
Neutrophil
3.) g a
F- LYMPHOCYTE
B-LYMPHOCYTE
→ Formed in
→ Cfd as B- lymphocyte bfz
descorered from Thymus
BURSA
of FABRIC us
floirds Type
humans → Bone marrow Helper 1- cell
→
In
2.) Memory
cell
type
1-

a) Plasma cell 3.) Cytotoxic 1- cell

Memory
B- cell
4) suppressor
cell
-1
 GRANULOCYTE

EOSINOPHILS
→

2 to 3^1
→ No -
.

lobed Bilobed
2
→ Nucleus -

Acidic
Granules
-

→
Peri oxidase
+
-

Hydrolytic enzyme

fun '
-

→ They have antihistaminic property

teistamin → Inflammation
↳ Rvbor -

↳ Dola - -

↳
Tumor -

↳ Calor
-

funtiolaeseay-n.ir
↳

-gyY
Tin alle
No .

↳ Asthma

↳ fever
Hay
the blood
→ Helps in dissolving
of parasite destruct "
in
→
Eosinophils helps
to
the surface of parasite
by binding
& then releasing
hydrolytic enzyme
# BASOPHIL →

005 to Lt
Least
.

→
-

→
3 lobed
Nucleus -

func -

nature
→
secretory in .

↳ Histamine - Vasodialafoo
↳
Inflammation
↳ serotonin -

Vasoconstrictor
↳ Heba - in -

Anticoagulant
# NEUTROPHIL →

CPMµL)
→ Abra Polymorphonuclear Leukocyte
d t f
Nucleus
shape
many ↳ Multi lobed

PMNL
provides
NOTE →

7 birth
innate
immunity → tnt :

↳ cellular Barrier

cell 60 to 6501
abundant
.

Most
-

FOI
Pores
wqww→
-

_°~↳ capillary ( ) SSE

1) Phagocytic
Diapedesis →
They can squeeze blog ten

wall
cells
of capillary
.
 A- GRANULOCYTE

# MONOCYTES →

WBC
→
Largest
→
shape -

Amoeboid

→ Nucleus -

Kidney / Bean / Horse - shoe shape

f- one -

→ Phagocytosis
→
Monocytes
↳ the tissues where
they
become macrophages .

# LYMPHOCYTE →

→ 2nd most abundant cell

→ No - 20 to 251 .

Oval
→ Nucleus -

TYPE

B- LYMPHOCYTE →

1) Plasma Cell 7

→ Antibody form
→
→
Nucleus -

B- cell
Cartwheeling
→

2) Memory
of 1st encounter
of
→ Keep the memory

pathogen .
 T-Lymphocytes

1) Helper T-cells → (TH )

→ Helps plasma cell to form antibody by
stimulating plasma cell c-
pathogen .

Their
NOTE
no t
during
.

7 Hiv infects % Hiv

virus replicate inside

TH

T-cell →

2.) Memory 1st encounter

→ store the
memory of

3.) Cytotoxic T-cell →

killer -1 cell Natural Killer Cells i. e

→ Aka -

NK cell

→ Phagocytic → kill the pathogen

Responsible for organ rejects
N0TE→J
3 patients
to

body's cell Cytotoxic -

T -

Cece kills the donated

organ autoimmune

My Plays role
an
imp . in
disorder

4)
→
T cell
Suppressor
-

→ suppress the ones

activity of cytotoxic T-cell
 span of
NBC
Life
-

Blood 4 to 8 hrs
1.)
-

to
Tissue -
4 5
days
to - 20 hrs

3) Monocyte
-

Few to months to
days
4) Lymphocyte
-

years
 PLATELETS THROMBOCYTES

blood cell
→ Smallest

→ Normal
-
' • 5 lakh to 3. slakh
/ mm3
range

→ 9 in no
-
Thrombocytes is

→ t in no
-
Thrombocytopenia
↳
Dengue
↳ purpura

form
)
thrombocytes, are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes (special cells in
→ the bone marrow).

)
fragmentary
0 0

Platelets
Megakaryocyte
→ Platelet Thromboplastin
func -

Blood
clotting aggregate
platelets
→
→
→
t

¥:°d ¥
temporary
clot

→
Aspirin is
given to pt -

softening from
BP : it inhibits
aggregator of
°

High
platelets .
 BLOOD GROUP

→
Antigen
Surface → froze
1-
Glycoprotein A Antibody Top - odoce

a > C 2C s

v v
v
RBC ⑧ ⑧ ABO ⑨

→
RBC →
surface →
Glycoprotein
t
specific type
1
Antigen
Determine
J
blood gp
of
.

Type

person is
given
Antibody If
→ a

a
different blood gp , then

his / her
body
will form antibody
against the different antigen

responsible for blood gp -

Gene
9
I is

determinately
 ABO Grouping

→ Des covered
NOTE
by karllagndsteines
→ father
of blood
father of
blood
gping system
circulatory system
↳ William
Harvey

LANDSTEINER LAW

→
If an
antigen is tnt on
the RBC , corresponding
in
the Plasma
be at
.

must
antibody
antigen is nt on
RBC ,
the
corresponding
If
-

+ at in the plasm -

antibody must be

Rh -

GROUPING
→ Discovered
by
Landsteiner of wieners

RBC have
Rh -

factor on
their
surface
may
→

3 Rh -

factors -
Discovered from Rhesus
monkey .

- Thos eld as Rh -
factor
or
-
Rh factor
Antigens / nm
RBC c- out Rh -

factor
RBC c- Rh -

factor ↳ Rh - ve
↳ Rh + ve
 BLOOD TRANSFUSION

→
Matching of of
blood Pt .
& donas is
mandatory
before transfusion
.

→ B12 unmatched blood cod

trigger transfusion
react" .

blood A
Pt require gp
.

&
But blood
gp
-
B is
transfused i
,
ten f- f r
to

Antigen
B cod trigger antibody
product
"
in pt -
E blood gp.tt
to

clumping / Agglutinate of RBC c-

B
antigen
-

d
blood rages sets
Blockage of the

t
Death
 |
DONOR
RECIPIENT
Ot o
A+ A- ; g
-

A + ve
;
A- O
;
-

A -

ve

" " "

" "
" ' '
B- we B- ; o -

AB + ve A B+
; AB At ; A- ; B+ ; B -90+90
° -
-

Universal Recipient ,

AB B
AB ga g g o
- - -
-

- ve

o + ve Ot ; O -

O -

ve
o -

Universal Donar
-

NOTE

Antibody products
→

begins in the
body
only after
the

exposure of antigen .
?⃝
?⃝
 ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FOETAL is ( Ef
)

→ It is an ex .

f Rh -

incompatibility
→ Aka Haemolytic Disease of Newly Born CHAN )

# CONDITIONS →

father →
Bln Mother
§
'

father Ef
Mother

ve ✗
-

a- ve

✗
+ ve
+ ve

-
ve - ve ✗

g-
we + ve
→
Bln Mother
§ fetus →

t.fm/f-..e//I
Ef second Child EF
first child
Mother
-

+ ve + ve ✗ + ve ✗

ve ✗
+ ve ve
✗
- -

-
ve + ve -

ve ×
✗

g-9 ,
we + ve + ve
✗

This can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother immediately after the
delivery of the first child. ↳ Kiu Rhive blood
 COAGULATN Of BLOOD

→ Cascade of reac

→
13
factors involved -

olfactory → Fibrinogen
Prothrombin
yfactor2
→

factor 3 →
Tissue Thromboplastin
-

cant
/ factor
4 →

Proaceelesin ( habile)
factor 5 →

factor 6 →
Hypothetical ( stable factor )
Proconvertin
factor 7- →

- factors →
Anti haemophilia factor A

Christmas factor
-
factor 9 →
Anti
haemophilia factor B
Stuart Brower factor
to →
factor
Plasma Thromboplastin Antecedent
factors 11 →

Factor Surface factory

y
factor 12
→Hageman Fibrin factor
factor 13
→
stabilizing
# NOTE →

INTERNAL CLOT

Clot c- is
formed inside the BV

v v

Thrombus Emboli
clot

goons got
M• to
↳ Bv

Clot attached to the clot

flowing
→ c- is → E is

blood
wall
of BV
along the
# Mechanism →

Injury
~

Troomboplastin is released
by
) platelet Platelet
factor
thromboplastin
i -
IT Platelet

its Tissue -

Tissue thromboplastin

Platelet Thromboplastin + Tissue Thromboplastin

Ca"
S Thrombokinase Prothrombin ase

Thrombokinase
prothrombin > Thrombin
7

Tiny fibrinogen thrombi '

s fibrin

Polymerisat'
~

fibrin threads
+ RBC

¥¥%t
w
 ↳ MPH

c←€ssuE
:
±Nutrients
✓
ENDOTHELIUM

%aa.gg# waste
Tissue Fluid
Interstitial

↳
CAPILLARY fluid

→
Lymph CAPILLARY
✓
↳ MP # ENDOTHELIUM

# Tissue fluid → At the level

of capillaries
,

endothelium to
the blood is
filtered by form
tissue the
fluid C- is int around
organ .

# Composition of Tf →

/
It has the same mineral distribution as that in plasma.

/ Mofecolestf
LAY
dosent PROTEIN
It
LARGER
→

Sf
RBC .

→ NBC , are tnt in TF

.

# LYMPH →

÷ !
The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called the lymph.

→
Lymphatic system consist
of
-

)
i
Lymphatic capillary
Lymphatic vessels

i Lymphatic ducts

iY Lymph nodes

. . .im .
# PATHWAY OF LYMPH →

Lymphatic capillaries

← Lymphatic
vessels consist of VALVED
Lymph Nodes

Lymtfhatic Duct

d d
Rt
Lymphatic Duct Lt Lymphatic Duct
Cara Thoracic Duct)

-
v

Rt subclavian veins Lt subclavian vein

p a

Superior Vena Cava

Heart
# LYMPH NODE →

→ Nodular
/ swollen Str .
+ at
along the

lymphatic system .

# STR .
→

→ Two
pasts →

Outer -

Capsule
ii) Inner
-

Cortex
↳
It consist
of Germinal
Center

t
-
→ CAPSULE
:

iii.
/

.
→ CORTEX

'
-

CENTR
-

r → GERMINAL
vessel#
0
,
1- - -

- 1B$ Tlymphocg )
Lymphatic
-

-
- - -
- -
↳ Lymph
a

Pathogen
# IMP .
Ex →

NOTE
1) spleen There is lymphoid tissue also located
within the lining of the major tracts
Thymus (respiratory, digestive and urogenital
tracts) called mucosal- associated

3) Tonsils lymphoid tissue (MALT). It constitutes

about 50 per cent of the lymphoid
tissue in human body.
Appendix

D)↳MALTY Mucosal Associated Lymphoid

Tissue
 CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS

# OPEN →
Blood + nt in sinus

# CLOSED →
Blood + at in BV

→ More advanced as blood flow can be

regulated

Ego 1) Cho data -

3
)Annelid9
# VERTEBRATE 'S HEART →

Heart
types of chambers
→ → z

d d

ATRIA VENTRICLE

→ Blood ↳ the heart → Blood leaves the

heart
→ Additional Chambers in heart
of lower invertebrates

Sinus ✓ Eoxosus →

( RA
→ Blood ↳ sinus venous -
Rt Atria
)
nt in fishes amphibians reptiles
→ +
,

Conus Arteriosus Truncos Arteriosus →

Blood
to

sinus venous

to
RA
&

ventricle

to
Conus Arteriosus

to

Aorta

Amphibians
Egg
-
# TYPES OF HEART ON THE BASIS OF CHAMBER>

TWO -

CHAMBERED HEART →

→ 1 Atria
§ I ventricle

→ found in fishes

Aka Venous heart Circulator

→ →
Single
Blood Ñ
Deoxygenated
to
cardiac
Heart ↳
d

wÑ
Gi 's

Body
2) THREE CHAMBERED HEART →

→ 2 Atria sf L ventricle

found Reptiles
in Amphibians of
→

→ Incomplete double circulator is tnf

Deoxygenated Oxygenated
to d
RA LA

ventricle

[
Mixing of Blood
)
~

Systemic vessels 7

Pulmonary vessels

3) FOUR CHAMBERED HEART →

→ 2 atria 1- 2 ventricles

Birds
Egg
Mammals Crocodile
→
9 ;
-

circulator
→ Double →
Systemic

Pulmonary
→
# Types Of HEART ON THE Basis Of BLOOD

IT RECEIVES →

1) VENOUS HEART → fishes

2.) ATRI VENOUS HEART Amfhians Reptiles , Birds

§
→

Mammals

# Types OF HEART ON THE Basis OF ORIGIN OF

The PULSE →

1) MYOGENIC →

→ Impulses originated in heart

itself .

Go - data
Eg -

3 Mollusca ( Octopus )

2) NEUROGENIC →

→
Impulses arise
from nerves
.

Egos Most invertebrates

3
 HUMAN HEART

→
Heart is a
modified blood vessel .

Mesodermal derived
→
ly organ
.

→ size → Clenched fist

→ Locator → Tnt in mediastinum bfn the lungs .

→
Centrally located but
slightly tilted
towards the left . (CARDIAC NOTCH)

→ Heart can
be studied under
following
headings
-

heart
1) Naus of
heart
2) chambers
of
heart
3) Vessels of the

ventricles
a.) Str .

of heart
5) Conducting system of
# WALLS OF HEART →

Outer Inner

PARIETAL Pericardial
→ Endocardium
Pericardial
Cavity MYOCAR
c- 1

d
-

Pericardial fluid
-

Divas

& Endothelium
d
pericardium Cardiac
visceral L
GSE
m_
Epicardium

PERICARDIUM I

# CHAMBERS OF HEART →

→ 4 Chamber

> Inte - atrial

RA LA septum
thin in str)
TRICUSPID VALVE I
> Atrioventricular
→ septum
( fibrous Str)

/
'
BICUSPID VALVE Rv Lv

MITRAL VALUED

d)
> Interventricular
septum
( Thick in
)
str
# VESSELS OF THE HEART →

vena cava
Superior

Joo
g- →
Pulmonary
Vein
Inferior RA LA

vena Ca # a

#
RV LN

* (¥A
Pulmonary Artery

# VENA CAVA →

→
Deoxygenated blood .

to
→
Body RA

÷
É TsNFERioRVC_

→ valve -

nt → value tnt

→) Eustachian
vawe)
IF PULMONARY ARMER } →

blood
→
Deoxygenated
→ RV to Lungs

Ualvetf
ntY
→ valve + Semilunar

It PULMONARY VEIN →

blood
→
Oxygenated
to LA
→ Lungs
→ valve -

nt

# AORTA →

blood
→
Oxygenated
→ LV to
body
→ valve +
nt→µ Semilunar
va↳
 # STR .
Of VENTRICLE →

Tricuspid Bicuspid / Mitral

> Interventricular
septum

f)
• → ←

Cho - dae
Tenali nae
My PAPILLARY ☒

closed
-

v open 8 A
Prevents backflow of
g) bloody
the

# Of HEART
CONDUCTING SYSTEM →

the
→ It is
modified Carolina of c- has

property of auto
excitability .

Nat
+ - -

→ It has -

- -
✗
- +
+ -

✗ protein -
+
+
• appt
K+ -
+ -

)
It-and
i SAN ✗
• •
+

I
ii
) AVN Relaxed Cong
Iii
) Bundle
of His
to
poeasised pyepoiarised potential)
own

dig
Purkinje fibres Resting membrane )
potential CRMP
Purkinje Booing
My
NOTE → cells a- e tnt in
?⃝
 a.
Intermodal fibres
'
•
sinteratrial
siNOA-rin-BNOD.tl BE RA Septa
→

↳ Pace Maker
-

ÉL\
→|Rt upper corner
BE 1 > Atrioventricular

ofµ/ "
§ > Bundle
Septa
of His

ATRIOVENTRICULAR
'-
Rv
> it
LV
Bundle
Bianca

"ÉÉm-
NODE

ÉÉa
→ Aka Pace Setter
-
S Interventricular
"
-

' " " "

Septa
g)
-

etiooe come -

of
-

ventricle

Avseptatoy
-
nea

Durkin > c- FIBRES

#
"

Sequence of conduct →

SAN →

↳ Pacemaker
70-75 impulses / min

g.
Intermodal fibres
d
AVN → 40 -

impulses / min
60

↳ 9) Slowest speed
of cond^J9
Leogpace
setters
Bundle
of His → HO impulses min
/
I

Rtsf Lt Bundle Branch

d

Purkinje / fibre 20-35

impulses
mind
→

speed of
1) Conaing
Ma"

cardiac ☒
# PROPERTIES OF CARDIAC m- →

1.) Excitability of contractility

2) Obeys all or none law

3.) Longer refractory period .

°o°
they never

develop fatigue .

4.) They do not show summation

Shows
conductivity of rythmicity

# FRANK -

STARLING LAW →

stretched
→ Greater the heart ñ is
be the
during
greater
will
quantity
filling phase ,

into the aorta

of blood pumped

→
# MARES'S LAW

Heart rate ✗ 1

Systemic BP
 PV CARDIAC CYCLE
yyc ✗→ BC LA

It
ra
••
Joint diastole
→
"

→
I¥A°
PA
v
°
SLV → Closed
Bcv →
open
Tcv § ,

into ventricle
atria ↳
Blood from

SAN generate acts potential

he

afnajsimoltaneous.ly/AtriIesy-
of
stimulator both

stole

by30°Y)
ventricles
blood flow in

types Actor potential

~

spreads in Bundle
of
His via AV Node

Ventricular contract
"
i. e
, systole along
e- atrial diastole

9 ventricular pressure

Bicuspid & Tricuspid valves are

closed

L0BB|J
1st heart sounds
of
g)
Poodn

further 9 in ventricular pressure

 ✓

gaurding
PA
§ AOA
Opening of shr

Blood ventricles ↳ in AOA 9pA

from
u

pressure d
ventricular
of
Be
gearing
-

ventricular diastole

of
SLV
closing
Products
of 2nd heart sound
-

DUBBYg
1)
U

further & in
ventricular f- es sure

I
Tcv $ Bcv → open

d
Blood tnt in atria woe move

into the ventricular

t
Joint diastole
# HEART Sound →

FIRST
1) HEART SOUND →

→ Aka LUBB

closing of
Produced to Av valve
→ due
during
ventricular systole

sf of
"
pitched longer at
→ Low do -

2) SECOND HEART SOUND →

→ Aka DOBB

→ Produced due to
closing of SLV at
beginning
of ventricular diastole .
# CARDIAC Activity →

→ Durator
of cardiac
cycle is/ 0.8 seed
→ One cardiac
cycle represents 1 heart

beat .

→ That means
,
heart beats
/ min =
72 .

# STROKE VOLUME 7

→
Amount of blood each ventricle
pumps out

during a cardiac
cycle .

stroke volume = 70Mt

# CARDIAC OUTPUT →

CO = SVX Heartbeat

CO= 70×72

= 5040mL
/ min
54min
~

NOTES The body has the ability to alter the stroke volume as well as the heart rate and thereby
the cardiac output.

}→
the cardiac output of an athlete will be much higher than that of an ordinary man.

During stsrenous
↳ Higher
physical
stroke

activity
volume

,
]
cardiac

output can to
upto 5 times i. e,
from 54min
to 25h1min
 REGULATION OF CARDIAC CAVITY

→ Human heart is MYOGENIC

Tarot to produce

Bhat auto
→ oneans its activities are
regulated by
SAN
sf other
components of conducting system

→ But neural centre tnt in medulla can also

cardiac
regulate the activities .
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Autonomic Nervous System

to to

SYMPATHETIC NS PARASYMPATHETIC NS

Sympathetic parasympathetic
→
→ nerve nerve

secretes
ending secretes
ending
NORADRENALINE ACETYLCHO BINE

→ Adrenal medulla releases

Adrenaline
§ No - adrenaline

v
→
t the rate of heart

→ t the rate
of heart beat

beat
-
to speed of conduct"
→ t the strength of
ventricular contraction
of action
potential

(stroke v01 .

9) →
d. cardiac
output

→ on the cardiac output

# NOTE →

of 1<+4
"
t
§
level the heart rate
→
High Na

d the
strength of contraction .

→ Can ions 9 the heart rate

→
fever on heart rate

→ fear , anxiety sf anger

on the heart rate .
 ELECTROCARDIOGRAM

→ The electrical activities of the heart can

be
by certain machines
recorded
using .

This be
can recorded
graphical paper
→ on a

→ The
graph
→
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM CECG )

The
→ machine →
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH

→ The technique →
ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY

Des covered E- IN
by THOVEN
→ →

→ 3 electrical leads → 2 → Wrist

s →
Left ankle
 NORMAL
ECG
# P -
wave → Atrial d-
polarisation / Atrial
systole

#
goes
-

Complex → Ventricular depolarisatn / Ventricular

systole

→
by counting the number of QRS complexes that occur in a given
time period, one can determine the heart beat rate of an
individual.
9
# T -

WAVE → Ventricular repolarisat

's

/ Ventricular

diastole

ABONORMALITIES IN Ecg

1.) Enlargement of P wave →

Enlargement of atria

Hypertrophy of atria

Enlarged QR wave
-

Heart attack
/ myocardial
infarction (Mt)

3.) ST
segment Elevate MI
- -

Depressed Insufficient Oz
-

4) T- wave
flat -

Atherosclerotic heart disease

Cardiac arrest
pip pip pip peee
-

- -
-
. . . - -
.
 ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKER

Introduced Chasrdack
→
by in 1960
-

→ Its a Titanium / titanium alloy machine C-

can
regulate the electrical activities
of heart

It below the
→ is implanted subcutaneously
clavi cat .

→ Stokes -

Adam syndrome is one

of the common

clinical candor in c-
artifical pacemaker is

used .

In stakes Adam
→
syndrome pacemaker is
-

connected to the ventricle to correct

right
the ventricular escape .
 -

7. ±
ed
ga
's

I pear
Polarised

Depoearised
Ñ

cardiac

%±±±
-

I →
pogasised
+

II
Depolasised
Repolasised cardiac
Ñ

Polarised
)
Refractory(
period p•po[iDde polarised "

↳ No conduct