Made by: Tricia Mae L.
Torres
Introduction to Chemistry
Thursday, September 9, 2021
8:13 AM
Chemistry
-field of study concerned with the characteristics,
composition, and transformations of matter
Matter
-anything that occupies space and has mass
-Physical states:
1. Solid
-definite shape and definite volume
2. Liquid
-indefinite shape and definite volume
3. Gas
-indefinite shape and indefinite volume
-Property - distinguishing of a substance that is
used in its identification and description.
 Physical property
-characteristics that can be observed
without changing basic identity of substance
(physical state, boiling/melting point)
 Chemical property
-describes the way substance undergoes or
resists change to form a new substance
(ability to ignite)
-Changes
 Physical Change
-substance changes physical appearance but
not chemical composition (changes in
physical state)
-no new substance is formed
 Chemical Change
-substance undergoes a change in chemical
composition. It involves conversion of the
material under consideration into one or
more new substances.
 
-Matter classifies in chemical composition
 Pure Substance
-single kind of matter that cannot be
separated into other kinds of matter by any
physical means
 Mixture
-physical combination of 2 or more pure
substances in which each substance retains
its own chemical identity.
-can be separated using physical means
-Classifications:
1. Heterogenous mixture- mixture that
contains visible different phases (parts),
each of which has different property
2. Homogenous mixture- contains only
visibly distinct phase (part), which has
uniform properties throughout
Elements and Compounds
Element
- pure substances that cannot be broken
down into simpler pure substances by
chemical means
 Compound
-pure substances that can be broken down
by chemical means
-when broken down product is element.
Physical Combination of substances=mixture
Chemical Combination of
substances=compound
Elements
-117 known elements (building blocks for all
matter)
-most discoveries during 1700, 1800s being the
most active period
-elements have unique names: geographical
names, some from planets, some reflect specific
properties of element or of compounds containing
it
-Chemical Symbol-1 or 2 letter designations for
an element derived from element's name.
 
Atoms and Molecules
Atom
-smallest particle of an element that can exist and
still have the properties of the element
-element is composed of similar atoms
-compound has 2 or more types of atoms
-free atoms-rarely found in nature
-almost always found together in aggregates or
clusters
 
Molecule
-group of 2 or more atoms that functions as a unit
because atoms are tightly bound together
-diatomic molecule-2 atoms
-triatomic molecule-3 atoms
-homoatomic molecule-atoms present are the
same kind (H2, O2, N2, Cl2)
-heteroatomic molecule-two or more kinds of
atoms. (H20)
Molecules Compounds
 -atoms connected by -made up of atoms -notation made up of the chemical symbols of
chemical bond from diff. elements elements present in a compound and numerical
subscript that indicate the number of atoms of
  each element present in a molecule of a
H2-molecule compound
H20-molecule and compound -(aspirin) C9H8O4- 3 diff. elements, C, H, O - 21
  atoms. 9 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms, 4
Oxygen atoms
 
Chemical formula
 

Laboratory Apparatus and Equipment

Thursday, September 9, 2021
10:37 AM

Laboratory Apparatus -most common utensils and appliances that you

need while performing hands-on activities on
laboratory
-depend upon the type of laboratory you are in
and the experiment you are going to perform
 
Beaker
-simple container for stirring, mixing, and heating
liquids
-generally cylindrical with flat bottom and lip for
pouring
 
Test Tube
-culture tube or sample tube
-common piece of glassware consisting of finger-
like length of glass or clear plastic tubing, open at
the top and usually with rounded U-shaped
bottom.
 
Florence Flask
-round body with single long neck with either flat
or round bottom.
-hold solutions of chemicals
-for uniform heating and ease of swirling
 
Erlenmeyer Flask
-conical flask
-widely used type of laboratory flask
-flat bottom, conical body, cylindrical neck
-small neck reduces evaporative losses, flat
bottom makes unlikely to slip over and spill.
-produced in different glass thickness to stand
different uses
Graduated Cylinder
-used to accurately measure the volume of a liquid
-water displacement can be used find out volume
of a solid
-more accurate and precise than flasks and
beakers
 
Funnel
-pipe with wide, often conical mouth and narrow
stem.
-used to channel liquid or fine-grained substances
into containers
-prevents spillage
Evaporating Dish
-for evaporation solids and supernatant fluids,
and sometimes to their melting point
-usually ceramic
-used to evaporate excess water or other solvents
to ensure that a concentrated solution or
dissolved substance is left behind
 
Crucible and Cover
-crucible-ceramic container capable of
withstanding extreme temp.
-cover-prevents heat from escaping.
-common among chemists for chemical analysis of
various substances
 
Reagent Bottle
-containers made by glass, plastic, borosilicate, or
related substances and topped by caps/stoppers
-contains chemicals in liquid or powder form
-some have amber color-to prevent entry of light
to the vessel. (for when agent is photosensitive)
Bunsen Burner
-device combining flammable gas with controlled
amounts of air before ignition.
-produces hotter flame than would be possible
with ambient air and gas alone
 
Iron Clamp
-used to hold things
-placed in an iron stand to elevate other
equipment
 
Iron Stand
-metal rod (for easy height adjustment) attached
to a heavy metal base (keeps stand stable).
-tripod-can also be used but less stable
 
Test Tube Holder
-designed to hold test tubes
- (mouth of test tube must not be facing any
person)
-can be used to hold pipettes and stirring rods,
etc. as well.
Test Tube Brush
-made with nylon bristles to a twisted shaft
-used to knock bottoms out of test tubes
-brush that is long and narrow to clean inside of
glassware esp. test tubes.
 
Wire Gauze
-placed under the container holding liquid, that is
being heated (by Bunsen burner) so container
doesn’t have direct contact with flame.
 
Tripod
-3-legged equipment used as a platform
-used to support various flasks, beakers and other
glassware.
 
Spatula
-used to take and handle small quantities of solid
chemicals.
-used like spoon or instrument for scooping
 
Stirring Rod
-glass or metal about the thickness and slightly
longer than a drinking straw.
-used to mix chemicals and liquids
 
Mortar and Pestle
-crush, grind, and mix solid substances
-mortar-container, pestle-used for crushing and
mixing
 
Dropper
-instrument used to measure small amounts of
liquids, usually in milligrams
 
Test Tube Racks
-storage of test tubes
-convenient and necessary
 
Thermometer
-measures temperature or temperature gradient
using a variety of different principles
Microscope
-instrument used to see items too small for the
naked eye
-most common type - optical microscope (uses
light to image sample)
Triple Beam Balance
-determine mass of samples
-has sliding weight(riders) on 3 beams, each with
progressively small incremental amounts
 
Pipette
-used to transport a measure volume of liquid.
-extract or deliver small amounts of liquid
Burette
-vertical cylindrical glassware with volumetric
graduation on its full length and a precision tap
-used to dispense known amounts of liquid
reagent
Platform Balance
-form of equal-arm balance in which two
platforms are attached to the top side of the beam,
on each end.
Analytical Balance
-for small substances
-measure mass to a high degree of precision and
accuracy
-used only with the most meticulous
measurements
 
Alcohol Lamp
-usually found in biology labs where they do
inoculations and bacteria cultures
-heats wire loop on a stick that they use to spread
bacteria on the growth medium, which will
prevent contamination of cultures
Aspirator
-eductor-jet pump or filter pump
-able to produce vacuum by using venturi effect
-in it, there is a fluid that flows through narrowing
tube. Once tube starts, fluid's speed increases
Tongs
-hold many different things when they are hot
such as flasks, crucibles, and evaporating dishes.
 
Volumetric flask
-used in analytical chemistry for preparation of
solutions
-used for making up solutions to a known volume
Spring Balance
-spring fixed at one end with a hook to attach an
object at the other.
-measures weight of object by opposing force of
gravity with the force of an extended spring.

Atoms and Periodic Table

Thursday, September 16, 2021
7:38 AM

Atoms  
- all matter is made up of small particles called Subatomic Particles
atoms -smaller particles atoms are made up of,
-117 types of atoms-each corresponding to a considered as building blocks of atoms
different element
-3 Types of Subatomic Particles -determined by the number and arrangement of
1. Electron- the electrons about the nucleus
-negative electric charge, smallest in terms -when 2 atoms interact, the electrons of the atoms
of mass interact
2. Proton+  
-positive electric charge Element
3. Neutron -pure substance in which all atoms have the same
-particle that has no/neutral charge atomic number
-protons & neutrons-found in nucleus -all atoms with same atomic number have the
-electrons-found in electron cloud same chemical properties
   
Nucleus
-center of an atom, small, dense, positive charged
Isotopes
 Atom must have same electrons and
center of an atom
protons
-where almost all of the mass of an atom is
 neutrons do not have to be equal to
concentrated.
protons/electrons
 
 most atoms contain more neutrons than
Electron Cloud
protons/electrons
-negatively charges
 
-outer region of an atom
Isotopes
 
-atoms of an element that have the same number
Nucleon
of protons and electrons but differ in number of
-any subatomic particle found in the nucleus
neutrons
(proton and neutron)
-always have the same atomic number, therefore
the same element
* An atom is electrically neutral because of
-they differ in mass number
equal numbers of protons and electrons present
-still have the same chemical properties
 
 
Atomic Number and Mass Number Atomic Mass
Atomic Number (Z) -calculated average mass for the isotopes of an
-number of protons in nucleus element expressed on a scale where 126C serves as
-subscript reference point
  -atomic mass units (amu)
Z= number of protons=number of electrons  
 
Mass Number (A)
-number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
-superscript
Periodic Law and Periodic Table
Periodic Law
-when elements are arranged in order of
A=protons + neutrons
increasing atomic number, elements with similar
 
chemical properties occur in periodic intervals
 
Therefore,
Periodic Table
A - Z = number of neutrons
-is a tabular arrangement of the elements in order
of increasing atomic number
-elements with similar chemical properties - in
vertical columns
 
Groups and Periods
Period
-horizontal row of elements
-numbered in Arabic numbers starting at the top
-10 periods
 
Group
-vertical column
Electrons and Chemical Properties -Roman Numerals and letters A and B, or Arabic
Chemical Properties numbers 1-18
-4 groups with have common non-numerical name -higher energy cells, greater volume of
1. Alkali Metals space, more electrons to accommodate
-group IA except H  
-soft shiny metals that greatly react with 2. Electron Subshells
water -region of space within an electron shell that
2. Alkaline earth metals contains electrons with the same energy
-group IIA -number of subshells=shell number
-soft shiny metals, moderately reacts with -differ in size designated as s, p, d, f
water (denotes increasing energy and size)
3. Halogens -s=2 electrons, p=6, d=10, f=14
-VIIA -number-shell within which subshell is
-reactive elements that are gases at room located
temperature -letter-type of subshell
4. Noble gases
-VIIIA
-unreactive gases, undergo few chemical
reactions
 
Metals and Nonmetals
Metals
-luster, thermal & electrical conductivity,
malleability
-solids at room temp. (high density, high melting
points except for Hg
 
Non-metals
-absence of luster, thermal & electrical
conductivity, malleability
-many are gases, except Br (liquid at room temp.)
-solid nonmetals: C, I, S, P (lower density and
melting points)
-only 22 elements are nonmetals
  3. Electron Orbitals
steplike heavy line-separates metals & -region of space within an electron subshell
nonmetals, except H(nonmetal) where an electron is most likely to be found
Electron Arrangements within Atoms -can only accommodate max of 2 electrons
Electrons -s-1 orbital, p-3, d-5, f-7
-restricted to specific regions in the extranuclear -have distinct shape related to subshell
portion of atom (determined by amount of  s-spherical
energy)  p-figure 8
-energies are limited to certain values, each  d-petals of flower
specific behavior is associated with each allowed  
energy value.
-Subspaces
1. Electron Shells
-region of space about a nucleus that
contains electrons that gave approximately
the same energy and that spend most of
their time approximately the same distance
from the nucleus. Electron Configuration
-numbered 1, 2, 3… so on -statement of how many electrons an atom has in
-higher shell number (n), more electrons each of its electron subshells
can be present -electron subshells-filled in order of energy,
-bc electron energy increases as energies often "overlap"
distance of electron shell from nucleus -ex. 4s has lower energy than 3d
increases  
- lowest-energy shell (n=1)-maximum 2
electrons (2nd-8, 3rd-18, 4th-32)
  
Lead (Z=82)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14
5d10 6p2
 
Groups
-have similar in electron configuration (outer-
shell) - causes the elements to have similar
chemical properties
-elements with similar outer-shell electron config-
similar chemical properties

Writing Electron Configurations

-subshells-listed in order of increasing energy
-superscript-number of electrons in subshell
 
 
 
C (Z=6)
 
1s2 2s2 2p2
 
 
 
Sr (Z=38)
 
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2
 

Laboratory Safety
Thursday, September 16, 2021
10:33 AM

Safe working protects: o Risk-how great the chance

 You someone may be harmed by the
 Other lab workers hazard
 Cleaners  Use all the relevant available data
 Visitors o MSDS-Material Safety Data Sheets
 Your work  Determine controls needed to minimize
  those risks
o PPE-Personal Protective
How to do a Risk Assessment?
 Determine hazards and evaluate risks Equipment
o Hazard-anything that can cause  Document assessment
harm  Use control measures
o CONTROL MEASURES:
1. Use less risky substances
 2. Use a safer form of that substance
(ex. using solution instead of
powder)
3. Totally enclose the process (ex. a
glove-box)
4. Partially enclose the process (ex.
with a fume cupboard)
5. Ensure good general ventilation
6. Safe systems of work
7. Reduce exposure times, increase
distance, reduce volumes.
8. PPE as last resort for primary
protection
 
Protecting Yourself
 Wear clothing and wear protective wear
identified in your risk assessment
 Laboratory coats must be kept fastened
 Don’t wear sandals or open shoes
 Long hair must be tied back
 There are many diff, types of protective
gloves
 Use correct ones for the job
 Remember that you need to select
chemical protection gloves according to
materials and/or substances with which
you will be working
 Remove gloves before using instruments,
telephone, and leaving the lab  assessment
Laboratory Hygiene
 Never eat, drink, or smoke in a laboratory
 Never apply cosmetics
 Never touch your face, mouth, or eyes
 Never suck pens or chew pencils
 Always wash your hands before you leave
and esp. before eating
 
What are the general hazards in a
Laboratory?
 Fire
 Breakage of glassware
 Sharps
 Spillages
 Pressure equipment and gas cylinders
 Extremes of heat and cold
 Chemical hazards
 Biological hazards
o Universal Precautions-treat all
samples and substances as
infected with infectious agents
 Radiation-radioactive substances may
cause malignancy
 
Avoiding Fires
 Flammable substances
o Use minimum quantity
o Store in special storage cabinets
o Use temperature-controlled
heating sources (e.g. water bath
instead of hot-plate/Bunsen
burner)
Fire Safety
 Make sure that you know what to if you
have a fire or hear a fire alarm
 P-Pull the pin
A-Aim at the base of the fire
S-Squeeze Lever
S-Sweep side to side.
 
Glassware
 Use correct techniques for the insertion of
tubing onto glassware
 Never use glassware under pressure or
vacuum unless it is designed for the job
and suitably shielded
o Borosilicate glass
 Dispose of chipped or broken glassware -
it is a risk to you and others
 Always dispose of broken glass in a glass
bin or sharps bin and not in a general
waste bin
 
Spillages
 Clear up spillage promptly
 Already know how as part of risk
 Dispose of any hazardous material as toxic
waste
 
Messy workers are usually poor workers
 
Cryogenics
 Liquid gasses are extremely cold and can
cause burns
 Liquid gases evaporate and many can
cause asphyxiation
 Follow special procedures if needs to take
cryogens
 Must have special training to use them
Electrical equipment
 Always do a visual check before use,
looking for obvious wear of defects
 Never use defective equipment
 
General Tidiness
 Keep workplace tidy
 Clear up waste as you finish
 Make sure everything is safe before
leaving things unattended
 Tidy lab-avoids accidents
 
Laboratory Equipment
 Never use any unless trained or
authorized
  Injuring yourself may cause you very
costly damage
 
Protecting your health
 If you have allergy or medical condition,
ensure that your professor knows (e.g.
asthma, epilepsy)
 
Waste Materials
-Part of risk assessment-to dispose properly
 Solvents and oils must be segregated into
correct waste bottle or drum
Chemical Bonds and Compounds
Thursday, September 23, 2021
9:10 AM
Compounds
-divided into two broad categories:
1. Ionic Compounds
-high melting points, good conductors of
electricity when in liquid state or in solution
-basic structural unit are ions instead of
molecules
o Ions-extended array of positively and
negatively charged particles
 
2. Molecular Compounds
-tend to be gases, liquids, or solids
-lower melting points
-do not conduct electricity at liquid state
Chemical Bonds
-attractive force that holds two atoms together in
a more complex unit
 Your department will help you determine
what to do with chemical or biological
materials
-Do not put materials down drain or normal waste
unless authorized
 
When in doubt-ask
 Do not carry out new procedure unless
trained
 Do not guess
 
 
-Two Types:
1. Ionic Bonds
-formed through the transfer of one or more
electrons from one atom or group of atoms
to another
-present in ionic compounds, between metal
+ non-metal
2. Covalent Bonds
-formed through the sharing of one or more
pairs of electrons between two atoms
-bond where 2 electrons are shared
between atoms
-present to molecular compounds or
between non-metal + non-metal
-CB result from interactions between electrons in
the combining atoms, thus nature of it (chemical
bonding) is closely related to electron configs
-most bonds have some degree of ionic and
covalent character
Different Groupings of Elements

Valence Electrons
2 fundamental concepts to understanding
ionic and covalent bonding models:
1. Not all electrons in an atom participate in
bonding (valence electrons-participate in
bonding)
2. Certain arrangements of electrons are
more stable than others, as is explained by
the octet rule
 
Valence Electron
-an electron in the outer-most electron shell of a
representative or noble-gas element
Number of valence electrons of an atom of
representative element- can be determined
from the atom's electron configuration
Representative elements, Noble-gas elements-
valence electrons always found in s or p subshells
 
Getting the number of valence electrons:
1. Identify the highest value of the electron
shell number
2. Look for the electrons present in the
highest electron shell number (if there is
more than 1 highest value, add the
electrons)
 
Lewis Symbols
-aka electron-dot structures
-chemical symbol of element surrounded by dots
equal to the number of valence electrons present
in atoms of an element

 
-place 4 dots separately on the 4 sides of chemical
symbol, begin pairing if further dots are added
-3 things to note:
1. Representative elements in same group of
the periodic table have the same number
of valence electrons
 2. The number of the valence electrons for
the representative elements is the same as
the Roman numeral periodic-table group
number
3. The maximum number of valence electron
for any element is 8
 
Noble gases (except He)-have maximum number
of 8 electrons.
Helium (He)-2 valence electrons, exception
within noble gas family
 Although electron shells with greater than
2 are capable of holding more than 8
electrons, they do so only when they are
no longer the outermost shell and thus are
not the valence shell
Octet Rule
-the valence electrons of the noble gases are
considered the most stable of all valence electron
configurations - does not easily undergo
spontaneous change
-He’s electron configuration is 1s2. All other noble
gases possess ns2np6 valence electron
configurations (where n is the maximum value
found in an atom)
-the conclusion that an ns2np6 (1s2 for He)-based
on chemical inertness of noble gases.
-The Octet Rule- states that in forming
compounds, atoms of elements lose, gain, or share
electrons in such a way as to produce a noble gas
electron configuration for each of the atoms
involved (how noble gases behave is same for other
atoms to satisfy their needs for electrons)
-8 valence electrons- maximum, all noble gases
have except He
-Noble gas configurations (except He)-have
outermost s and p subshells completely filled
-Noble gas-little to no tendency to form bonds
 
Ionic Bond Model
-the central idea is the electron transfer between
2 or more atoms
 Ions
-produced as result of ionic bonding
- (group of) atoms that is electrically
charged as result of gaining or losing
electrons
 Gains-becomes negatively charged
(anion)
 Loses-becomes positively charged
(cation)
 Loss of 1, 2 or 3 electrons give ions with
+1, +2, and +3 charges
 Gain of 1, 2, or 3=-1, -2, -3 charges
 
-atom is neutral-when protons and electrons are
equal
 
The Sign and Magnitude of Ionic Charge
-Example is element Sodium (Na)
 1s22s22p63s1
 can either lose 1 electron (-->electron
config of Ne) or gain 7 electrons (--
>electron config of Ar)
 electron loss or gain the involves fewest
electrons will always be the more
favorable process in energy standpoint
and will be the process that occurs. Thus
Na+ ion will be the process that occurs.
-Chlorine (Cl)
 1s22s23s23p5
 Highest subshell=3, electrons=7, needs 1
 Gains 1 electron, becomes Cl- ion

Generalizations
1. Metal atoms containing 1, 2, or 3 VE
(Group IA, IIA, IIA)-tend to lose electrons
to be stable
o IA-1+ ions
o IIA-2+ ions
o IIA-3+ ions
2. Non-metal atoms containing 5, 6, or 7
electrons (Group VA, VIA, VIIA)-gain
electrons
o VIIA-1- ions
o VIA- 2- ions
o VA- 3- ions
3. Elements form Group IVA- gain or lose 4
electrons to attain stability, but in most
cases bonding that result is more
adequately describe by the covalent bond
model
Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds
-Ion formation-requires 2 elements:
 Metal (donate e-)
 Nonmetal (accept e-)
-positive and negative ions formed from such
electron transfer attracts one another forming
ionic compound.
-Lewis Structure
 Combination of Lewis symbols that
represents either the transfer or sharing
of electrons in chemical bonds
 
-Na2O - Oxygen (6 VE) needs 2 Na(1 VE) to attain
stability
 
-Opposite to Na2O
-Calcium (2VE), Chlorine (7VE)- 2 Cl must bind
with Ca.
 
Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds
-Ionic Compounds-always neutral, ratio in which
+ and - ions combine is the ratio that achieves
charge neutrality for resulting compound/
neutrality of compound is achieved when there is
proper ration of + and - ions
 
Structure of Ionic Compounds
-In solid state- ionic compound consists of + and -
ions in such a way that each ion is surrounded by
the nearest neighbors of the opposite charge
-Ionic compounds- do not have discreet
molecules, only an alternation array of + and -
ions
-Chemical formula- represent simplest
combining ration for the ions present
-Formula Unit- smallest whole number repeating
ration of ions present in an ionic compound that
result in charge neutrality
Recognizing and Naming Binary Ionic
Compounds
Binary Ionic Compound
-ionic compound in which one element present is
a metal and the other element is nonmetal.
-NaCl - metal Na, nonmetal Cl
-CO2- metal C, nonmetal O
-P4O10 (Phosphorus pentoxide)-metal P, nonmetal
O
Nomenclature/ Naming rule
 Full name of metallic element first
 Followed by stem name of the nonmetallic
element + suffix -ide 
 Ex. NaF- Sodium Fluoride
 
-metals that exhibit less predictable behavior bc
they are able to form more than one type of
ion. (Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions)
 Naming compounds that contain metals
with variable ionic charges: charge on
 metal ion must be incorporated into the Electron transfer Electron sharing
name (accomplished using roman
numerals) Do not have discreet Basic structural unit
 Ex. Fe2+ - FeCl2 - Iron (II) chloride molecules is molecule/
Fe3+ - FeCl3 - Iron (III) chloride molecular compound
CuO - Copper (II) oxide
  Solid at room temp. May be solid , liquid
-If unsure on charge of metal use the charge of or gas, at room temp.
the nonmetal to calculate it
If soluble in water, If soluble in water,
 AuCl- Gold (I) chloride
forms aqueous solution non-conduction
- Cl has 1- charge bc it is in Group VIIA,
that conducts electricity aqueous solution
therefore Gold has 1- charge to maintain
polarity  
  Covalent Bond
-Fixed charge metals -is a chemical bond resulting from two nuclei
 Group IA (+1 ionic charge) and IIA(+2 attracting the same shared electrons
ionic charge)
 Al3+, Ga3+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Ag+
 
Monoatomic Ion
-ion formed from a single atom through loss or
gain of electrons
-Cl-, Na+, Ca2+
 
Polyatomic Ion
-ion formed from a group of atoms (held together
by covalent bonds) through loss or gain of
electrons
-SO42-
 
 The two electrons, one from each H atom,
now move throughout this new orbital
and are said to be shared by the two nuclei
 Once two orbitals overlap, the most
favorable location for the shared electrons
is the area directly between the two
nuclei. Here the two electrons can
simultaneously interact with both nuclei, a
situation that produces increased stability
 The two shared electrons do double duty,
helping each hydrogen atom achieve a
helium noble gas configuration
 The orbitals that contain the valence
electrons overlap to create an orbital
common to both atoms
 

 
  Lewis Structures for Molecular
Ionic Covalent Compounds
-octet rule and Lewis symbols are also useful
Dissimilar elements Identical atoms (most -example. Fluorine (F)- belong to group 7
(metal + nonmetal) of the time 2 (therefore, 7 valence electrons
nonmetals)
  

 F only needs 1 electron, share electrons

with other elements:
HF, F2, BrF

-common practice in writing Lewis structures of

Covalent bonds- represents shared electron pairs
with dashes

Bonding electrons Non-Bonding

electrons
pairs of valence electrons Pairs of valence
that are shared between electrons not
atoms in covalent bonds involved in electron
sharing
 
Multiple Covalent Bond
-sometimes two atoms must share 2 or 3 pairs of
electrons in order to provide a complete octet of
electrons for each atom involved
-C2H2 (acetylene)- carbon-carbon triple covalent
bond and 2 carbon-hydrogen single bonds

-2 atoms in triple covalent bond are commonly

  the same element but not necessarily always
-H2O, NH3, CH4-  HCN (hydrogen cyanide)
 Hydrogen content is correlated directly to
the fact that
o O- 6 valence electrons, therefore  
needs to gain 2 e- Valence Electrons and Number of
o N- 5 VE, therefore needs 3 e-
o C- 4 VE, needs 4 e-
Covalent Bonds
-not all elements can form multiple bonds
through electron sharing so octet rule can
 There must be 2 vacancies in atom's
be obeyed
valence electron shell to be able to
 
participate in a double bond
 3 vacancies for triple bond
   
  (each dash=2 electrons shared)
Single Covalent Bond -O (6 valence e-, 2 octet vacancies)
-two atoms share 1 pair of electrons
-H-H
 
Double Covalent Bond
-two atoms share 2 pairs of e- -N (5 valence e-, 3 octet vacancies)
Triple Covalent Bond
-two atoms share 3 pairs of e-
-N2

 Each N atom must share 3 of its electrons -C (4 valence e-, 4 octet vacancies)
with another nitrogen atom

  
Electronegativity
-measure of the relative attraction that an atom
has for the shared electrons in a bond
-higher electronegativity, greater attraction
-values increase from left to right (periods)
-values increase from bottom to top (groups)
 Electronegativities metals < nonmetals
   Nomenclature of Binary Molecular
Linus Pauling
-developed numerical scale for electronegativity
 
1. Nonpolar covalent bonds-involve atoms
with same or very similar
electronegativities
Electronegativity difference = 0.4 or less
2. Polar covalent bonds- electronegativity
diff. <0.4 but >1.5
3. >2.0- ionic bonds
4. 1.5-2.0- ionic if bonds involves metal +
nonmetal
- polar covalent if 2 nonmetals
 
 
Compounds
-rules are similar to binary ionic compounds
-Binary Molecular Compound
 only 2 nonmetallic elements are present
 Always contain numerical prefixes- gives
number of each type of atom present in
addition to names of elements present
-Full name of nonmetal with lower
electronegativity + stem of the name of more
electronegative nonmetal --ide
-Numerical prefixes-precedes both

Bond Polarity
-measure of the degree of inequality in the sharing
of electrons between 2 atoms in a chemical bond
-numerical value of electronegativity difference=
approximate measure bond polarity
-greater difference, greater inequality
 
1. Nonpolar Covalent Bond
-there is equal sharing of electrons between
2 atoms, each atom exerts same attraction
   
2. Polar Covalent Bond N2O- dinitrogen monoxide
-unequal sharing N2O3- dinitrogen trioxide
-higher electronegativity, more attraction N2O4- dinitrogen tetroxide
-unequal sharing creates fractional positive  
and negative charges on atoms -when Hydrogen is first listed - no numerical
-𝞭 - delta (Greek) prefixes
 𝞭- -negative charge, placed above the  HCl-hydrogen chloride
more lectronegative atom -Few have common names
 𝞭+ - postive charge, above less
electronegative  
 HCl

-direction of polarity- can also be designated

using arrow with cross at one end
 cross-near positive
 arrowhead-near negative

Guidelines
Measurement
Thursday, September 23, 2021
10:48 AM

Measurement o 59,000,000 (2 SF)

-determination of the dimensions, capacity, 6010 (3 SF)
quantity, or extent of something
-mass, volume, length, time, pressure, etc. -Mathematical Operations:
-Two Systems of Measurement: 1. Multiplication and division
1. English System -number of significant figures is the same as
-used for commerce the number of SF in the measurement that
-inch, foot, pound, quart, gallon contains the fewest SF
2. Metric System  
-modern term is SI (international system)
unit
-gram, meter, liter
 
Metric System Units
-base units:
 Meter (m)-length  
o 1m=1.09 yards
2. Addition and Subtraction
 Gram (g)-mass -answer is given with as many significant
o 28g=1ounce, 454g= 1pound
figures as the measurement with least
 Liter (L)-volume number of decimal places
o 1L=1.06 quarts  
-prefixes

 
Uncertainty in Measurements
-measurement will always have a degree of
uncertainty/ errors
 
Significant Figures
-digits in measurement and one uncertain digit
-Guidelines:
1. All non-zero are significant
2. Zeros may or may not be significant
-zeros at beginning of number-insignificant
o Ex. 0.0141 (3 significant figures)
-Zeros between non-zero-significant
o Ex. 3.603 (4 significant figures)
0.001004 (4 significant figures)
-Zeros at end are significant if decimal point
is present
o 56.00 (4 SF)
0.05050 (4 SF)
Scientific Notation
-numerical system in which numbers are
expressed in the form of Ax10n
-A=single non-zero digit to the left of decimal
place
-n = a whole number
 
-How to convert decimal to scientific notation:
1. The decimal point is moved to the position
behind first nonzero
2. The exponent is equal to the number of
places the decimal point has been moved
o Positive-to the left, 10 or greater
o Negative-less than 1, to the right
 
-Multiplication and Division
1. Coefficients are combined in the usual way
2. Exponential terms
a. Multiply-add exponents
b. Divide-subtract exponents
 

-Zeros at the end of number are not Conversion Factors

significant if numbers lack explicitly shown -ratio that specifies how one unit is related to
decimal point another unit
-derived from equalities
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Dimensional Analysis
-general problem-solving method which units
associated with numbers are used as a guide in
setting up calculations
 

-Steps to follow:
1. Identify the known or given quantity and
the units of the new quantity. Write an
equation of given on the left and desired
quantity to the right
2. Multiply given quantity by one or more
conversion factors in such a manner that
the unwanted units are canceled, leaving
desired units
3. Perform mathematical operation
 
Density
-ratio of mass to the volume
-Density = mass/volume
-expressed in grams per cubic meter (g/cm3)-
solids
-grams per milliliters (g/mL)-liquids
 
Temperature Scales
-Heat-form of energy, flows from higher temp. to
lower temp.
-Temperature- indicator of the tendency of heat
energy to be transferred.
-Celsius & Kelvin (Metric system), Fahrenheit
(English system)
-Celsius-most commonly used for scientific work
K=ºC+273
ºC=K-273