EXPERIMENT NO.

2
“To demonstrate the validity of Bernoulli’s equation when
applied to steady flow in a converging diverging duct of circular
cross section”
1 Objective
i. To study the construction and working of Hydraulic bench and Bernoulli’s apparatus.
ii. To verify Bernoulli’s equation when applied to steady flow in a converging diverging
duct of circular cross section.
2 Apparatus
i. F1–10 Hydraulic Bench
ii. F1–15 Bernoulli’s apparatus
iii. Stopwatch
iv. Water
3 Introduction
Bernoulli’s equation is one of the fundamental equations used extensively in fluid mechanics. In
this experiment, we will discuss the applications and limitations of Bernoulli’s equation and will
verify it for a converging diverging duct of circular cross section.
4 Theory
4.1 Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid

Figure 2.1: Mechanical energies associated with a flowing fluid [1]

Consider a fluid element (represented by shading) as shown in figure 1. The element possesses
potential energy (because of its height above the ground or reference level) as well as kinetic
energy (because of its velocity). If m is the mass of the element and g is the local gravitational
acceleration, then the kinetic and potential energy of the fluid element is
P.E.= mgz
and
P.E. per unit weight = z
In the same manner,
K.E. = mv2
and
K.E. per unit weight =
A fluid flowing is capable of doing work because of its pressure. This pressure exerts a force F
on each cross section. The force exerted on ross section A will be
F = PA
where P = pressure exerted by the fluid
On the application of force, the fluid element at AB will move to A′B′ and the swept volume will
be:
V=
where ρ = density of fluid.
Now,
Distance AA′ =
Now, the work done by the fluid is
Work = Force × Distance
W = PA × =
and
Work done per unit weight =
The is known as pressure energy or flow work. It is defined as:
“The energy of a fluid when the fluid is flowing under pressure is called flow work or pressure
energy.”
4.2 Bernoulli’s equation
Bernoulli’s equation is the analogous of law of conservation of energy in fluid mechanics. It
states that
“The sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy of a fluid particle remains
constant in a streamline provided that the fluid is incompressible, the flow is steady and the
frictional effects are negligible.”
The sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy of a fluid is referred to as the
total energy of the fluid.
Mathematically, Bernoulli’s equation van be written as
+ +== constant
OR,
++z=H
Each of the term of Bernoulli’s equation has units of length and they are also referred as
= Pressure head
= Velocity head
z = Potential head
H = Total head
For two points 1 and 2, it can be written as
+ + z1 = + + z2
Thus,
Total head at 1 (per unit weight) = Total head at 2 (per unit weight)
4.2.1 Static, Dynamic and Hydrostatic pressures
If both sides of Bernoulli’s equation is multiplied with ρg, we will get
P + ρ+ ρgz = constant
All of the terms in the above equation have the dimensions of pressure and explained below:
i. P is referred to as static pressure
ii. ρ is referred to as dynamic pressure
iii. ρgz is referred to as hydrostatic pressure
The static, dynamic and hydrostatic pressure are combined together to yield total pressure of the
fluid. Thus, the Bernoulli’s equation can be also be stated as
“For an incompressible flowing fluid, the total pressure is constant along the streamline provided
that the flow is steady and viscous effects are negligible.”
The sum of P (static pressure) and ρ(dynamic pressure) is sometimes referred as stagnation
pressure. Thus,
Pstag = P + ρ

Figure 2.2: Stagnation Pressure [2]

4.3 Limitations of Bernoulli’s equation
Bernoulli’s equation is most commonly used in various applications but care must be exercised
while applying this equation. There are following limitations of Bernoulli’s equation:
4.3.1 Steady flow
Bernoulli’s equation is only applicable for steady flows. Thus, it can’ be applied for the
processes just starting or ending because of non-steadiness at that time.
4.3.2 Frictionless flow
There is no such thing as non-viscous fluid or flow. In all the real situations, friction is present
but, in some cases, frictional effects are negligible as compared to pressure and surface forces
acting on the fluid. Similarly, Bernoulli’s equation cannot be applied near the solid surfaces or
solid boundaries (because of no-slip condition). That’s why, Bernoulli’s equation is applied to
the core of pipes or ducts etc.

Figure 2.3: Validity of Bernoulli's equation [3]

4.3.3 Incompressible flow

One of the assumptions in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation is that the fluid is
incompressible that is its density is constant throughout the flow or its density variation is so
small that it can be neglected. Thus, Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to liquid (because they
are incompressible fluids) and gases whose Mach number is less than 0.3 (since their density
variation is so small that it can be neglected).
 Figure 2.4: Situations in which Bernoulli's equation is not applicable [4]

5 Procedure
i. First of all, synchronize the hydraulic bench with the Bernoulli’s equation.
ii. Turn on the switch and open the bench valve gradually.
iii. Before performing the experiment, measure the areas at various point of the duct having
non-uniform cross section.
iv. Using the hydraulic bench, measure the volumetric flow rate of water by noting the time
for specific amount of water (say 5 liters).
v. From the values of area and volumetric flow rate at various points along the duct, the
velocity v of the fluid at various points can be determined. The dynamic head will be .
vi. Before measuring the static head, remove the bubbles from the tubes used to measure the
head by opening the valve and allowing the water to flow through it.
vii. When the bubbles are removed, turn off the valve and stops the flow at any value of head.
viii. From the apparatus, measure the values of static head h at point 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 directly
from the scale installed on the Bernoulli’s apparatus.
ix. The theoretical values of total head will be
Total head (exp) = h +
x. From the last tube in the Bernoulli’s apparatus, measure the experimental values of total
head.
xi. First the percentage difference between theoretically and experimentally theoretical head.
xii. Perform the same experiment by inverting the venturi duct.
 6 Working
7 Readings and observations
Group 1

Volume = 0.001m3
Time= 21.55s
Volumetric flow rate= 4.64037E-05 m3/s
Sr Distance Area of Static Velocity V Dynamic Total Head Total head Percent
into Duct A Head (m/s) Head (m) h° (m) experimental difference
Duct (m2) (m) calculated
(m)
h1 0.09452783 0.27545542
0 0.0004909 0.275 1 0.000455429 9 0.244 -12.8915691
h2 0.30589131 0.26676908
0.0603 0.0001517 0.262 4 0.004769087 7 0.244 -9.33159321
h3 0.24917005
0.0687 0.0001094 0.24 0.42416556 0.009170052 2 0.244 -2.11887382
h4 0.51617032 0.22657960
0.0732 0.0000899 0.213 6 0.013579603 3 0.244 7.139507083
h5 0.59113009 0.19981013
0.0811 0.0000785 0.182 3 0.017810132 2 0.244 18.1106017
h6 0.09452783 0.21545542
0.1415 0.0004909 0.215 1 0.000455429 9 0.244 11.6985948
Group 2

Volume = 0.001m3
Time= 56.46s
Volumetric flow rate= 1.77117E-05 m3/s
Sr Distanc Area of Static Velocity V Dynamic Total Head Total head Percent
e into Duct A Head (m/s) Head (m) h° (m) experimental difference
Duct (m2) (m) calculated
(m)
h1 0 0.0004909 0.26 0.036079964 6.63488E-05 0.260066349 0.26 -0.02551877
0.00069478
h2 0.0603 0.0001517 0.25 0.116754478 1 0.250694781 0.26 3.57893029
0.00133593
h3 0.0687 0.0001094 0.235 0.161898119 3 0.236335933 0.26 9.101564317
0.00197833
h4 0.0732 0.0000899 0.215 0.197015064 5 0.216978335 0.26 16.54679418
0.00259465
h5 0.0811 0.0000785 0.195 0.225626169 7 0.197594657 0.26 24.00205504
h6 0.1415 0.0004909 0.21 0.036079964 6.63488E-05 0.210066349 0.26 19.20525045

Group 3

Volume = 0.001m3
Time= 58.7s
Volumetric flow rate= 1.70358E-05 m3/s
Sr Distance Area of Static Velocity V Dynamic Total Head Total head Percent
into Duct A Head (m/s) Head (m) h° (m) experimental difference
Duct (m2) (m) calculated
(m)
h1 0.03470314 0.24506138
0 0.0004909 0.245 8 6.13817E-05 2 0.26 5.745622433
h2 0.11229911 0.23564276
0.0603 0.0001517 0.235 1 0.000642767 7 0.26 9.368166504
h3 0.15572006 0.22623591
0.0687 0.0001094 0.225 5 0.001235919 9 0.26 12.98618484
h4 0.18949694 0.21683022
0.0732 0.0000899 0.215 2 0.001830229 9 0.26 16.60375811
h5 0.21701624
0.0811 0.0000785 0.205 4 0.00240041 0.20740041 0.26 20.23061142
h6 0.03470314 0.21006138
0.1415 0.0004909 0.21 8 6.13817E-05 2 0.26 19.20716089

8 Discussion
In this experiment, we have verified Bernoulli’s equation using a duct of varying cross-sectional
area. The difference between the actual head and the theoretical head may be due to the frictional
effects (and Bernoulli’s equation is not applicable in the regions where the frictional effects are
significant), the error in adjusting the rod for measuring the total head and presence of some air
bubbles in the tube etc.