INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY which were kept by wealthy men

Parts of a plant and later by universities. The

● Flower Herbals, or the chief botanical books
● Bud contained drawings or wood-cut
● Fruit illustrations of the plant described.
● Stem
● Roots ● In Modern day period, the Swedish
● Sap naturalist Carolus Linnaeus
● Leaf (leaves) (1707-1778), established some of
● Seeds the principles of plant classification
and named many species of plants
History of Botany
● It appears to have had its origins PLANTS
with Stone Age peoples who tried ▪ The science of plant biology is primarily
to modify their surroundings and the study of flowering plants or
feed themselves. angiosperms.

● At first, the interest in plants was ▪ Flowering plants are by far the most
mostly practical and centered important group of plants in the world
around how plants might provide (over 250 000)
food, fibers, fuel, and medicine. ▪ they are the basis for nearly all our food

● This inquisitiveness led to plant ▪ Organs of plants can be divided into

study becoming a science, which
broadly defined is simply “a search
for knowledge of the natural world.”
● Ancient Period, the Greeks like
Aristotle compared plant and animal
nutrition. His pupil Theophrastus
(died in 287 B.C.). wrote an Enquiry
into Plants .
● During The Medieval and
Resonance periods or the Middle
Ages, most botanical studies were
done in monasteries and in gardens
VEGETATIVE and REPRODUCTIVE
▪ A tissue can be simple or complex
depending upon whether it is composed of
one or more than one type of cell.
▪ Plant organs include the leaf, stem, root
and reproductive structures.
▪ In conifers, the organ that bears the
reproductive structures is called a cone. In
other divisions (phylums) of plants, the
reproductive organs are called strobili.
 ● The vegetative organs are essential ▪ Botany is the branch of biology which
for maintaining the life of a plant. deals with the Physiology, Reproduction,
While there can be eleven (11) Evolution, Structure, Diseases, Economic
organ systems in animals, there are uses and other features of Plants
far fewer in plants, where some
perform the vital functions, such as ▪ Botanists are scientists who study plants.
photosynthesis. The vegetative
organs are those that create the Disciplines of Botany
new generation of plants. ▪ Plant Molecular Biology
▪ Plant Biochemistry
Functions of a plant ▪ Plant Taxonomy
▪ Plants produce oxygen ▪ Plant Anatomy
▪Plants convert carbon dioxide gas into ▪ Plant Morphology
sugars through the process of ▪ Plant Physiology
photosynthesis ▪ Plant Genetics
▪ Food source ▪ Plant Cytology
▪Plants produced chemicals used for ▪ Plant Ecology
medicine ▪ Plant Pathology
▪ Plants helps conserve endangered plants ▪ Paleobotany
▪ Plants produced biofuels, fabrics, sugars,
starches etc. Diversification of Plant Study
● Plant Molecular Biology: study the
BOTANY structures and functions of
● is the scientific study of plants and important biological molecules (i.e.
plant-like organism proteins and nucleic acids)

● helps us understand why plants are so ● Plant Biochemistry: study of the

vitally important to the world. chemical interactions within plants,
including a variety of chemicals
Origin produced.
Greek
▪ botanikos (botanical), botane (plant or ● Paleobotany: study of the biology
herb), and boskein (to feed) and the evolution of plants in the
geologic past.
French ● Plant Anatomy: concerned chiefly
▪ botanique (botanical) with the internal structures of plants
o Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) of
 Italy, discovered various tissues in
stems and roots ● Plant Morphology: study of the form
○ Nehemiah Grew and structure of plants
(1628–1711) of England, ● Genetics: science of heredity and
described the structure of variation
wood more precisely than ○ founded by Gregor Mendel
any of his predecessors (1822–1884), an Austrian
monk
● Plant Physiology: concerned with ○ performed classic
plant function experiments with pea plants
○ J. B. van Helmont
(1577–1644) a Flemish ● Cell biology: science of cell structure
physician and chemist, who and function and life processes of
was the first to demonstrate plant cells
that plants do not have the
same nutritional needs as ● Economic botany and ethnobotany:
animals involve practical uses of plants and
plant products
● Plant Taxonomy: involves
describing, naming, and classifying Characteristics of plants
organisms. ● Do not appear to “live”in a sense that
o Linnaeus, thousands of plant animals live
names in use today are those ● Do not run or swim or slither or fly
originally recorded in Linnaeus’s ● Do not eat other plants or animal prey
book Species Plantarum, published ● Plants have adapted to life on land
in 1753 ● Share an important characteristics with
organisms
● Plant Systematics: science of
developing methods for grouping 3 Domains
organisms
Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

● Plant Geography: study of how and

6 Kingdoms
why plants are distributed where
they are Bacteria Protista Plantae
● Plant Ecology: study of the
Archaea Animalia Fungi
interaction of plants with one
another and with their environment
BACTERIA -Absorb nutrients
-Prokaryotes -Do not photosynthesize
-Unicellular - Cell walls of chitin
-Most are heterotrophic
-Some:photosynthetic or chemosynthetic Historical Names in Botany

ARCHAEA Theophrastus (370 – 285 B.C)

-Prokaryotes o Father of Botany o Greek student of
-Unicellular Aristotle
-Microscopic o Historia Plantarium, he categorized 480
-Most live in extreme environments plants on the basis of their structure and
-Differ in biochemistry and cell wall medicinal value. Today almost 500,000
structure from bacteria species of plants are known and the
number is increasing.
PROTISTA
-Eukaryotes Linnaeus
-Unicellular or multicellular o Swedish scientist
-Heterotrophic or photosynthetic o Called “Little Botanist”
-Protozoa, algae, slime molds o Publish Species Plantarium (1973) o
Inventor of the Binomial System of plant
PLANTAE classification
-Eukaryotes
-Multicellular Charles Darwin
-Photosynthetic o English scientist
-Life cycle with alternation of generations o Published Origin of the Species in 1859
-Cell walls of cellulose o Founded the Theory of Evolution

ANIMALIA Gregor Mendel

-Multicellular o Austrian monk
-Heterotrophic o Cross-pollinated peas in his garden
-Most move about by muscular contraction o “Father of genetics”
-Nervous system coordinates responses to
stimuli TAXONOMY
Taxonomy/ Systematics/ Classification
FUNGI ● Is the science of naming and
-Multicellular grouping organisms.
-Heterotrophic
 ● They are all about the ▪ abbreviated names became known as
overwhelming diversity of living binomials, and the method of naming
organisms, for there are more than became known as the Binomial System of
2,000,000 species. Nomenclature
● Phylogenetics is a more fashionable
term; it emphasizes the evolutionary HIERARCHY OF CLASSIFICATION/
history (phylogeny) of taxonomic TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
groups (taxa)

Taxonomic Category Example (taxon)

DEVELOPMENT OF THE BINOMIAL
SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE Kingdom Plantae, also
Metaphyta= all plants
▪ began improving the way organisms were Division (Phylum) Magnoliophyta= all
named and classified. angiosperms

Class Liliopsida= all

▪ In his book Species Plantarum, he not only
monocots
included a referenced list of all the Latin
phrase names previously given to the Order Asparagales= related
plants, but, when necessary, he also families (Orchidaceae,
changed some of the phrases to reflect Iridaceae, etc.)
relationships, placing one to many specific Family Orichdaceae= related
kinds of organisms called species in each genera (Plantanthera,
genus. Spiranthes, etc)

Genus Planthera= related

▪ He limited each Latin phrase to a
species (P. ciliaris, P.
maximum of 12 words, and in the margin integra, etc.)
next to the phrase, he listed a single word,
which, when combined with the generic Specific name/ epithet Ciliaris= one species
name, formed a convenient abbreviated
designation for the species. Scientific Procedures
1. Recognize a problem or an unanswered
▪ The word in the margin for spearmint was question.
spicata, and the word for peppermint was 2. Develop a hypothesis, an educated guess
piperita. that is testable, to explain the problem.
▪ Spearmint: Mentha spicata 3. Design and perform an experiment to
▪ Peppermint: Mentha piperita test the hypothesis.
4. Analyze and interpret the data to reach a 3. The cell is the basic unit of structure
conclusion. and function in all living organisms.
5. Share new knowledge with the scientific
community. Cell Theory Timeline

Factors of Division Robert Hooke (1665)

▪Vascularization - Discovered cell
▪ Seed Production
▪ Flowering Anton Van Leewenhoek (1674)
- Observed living cell
CELLS
● All living things are made up of cells. Robert brown (1883)
● All cells need food, water, and a way to - Discovered nucleus
eliminate wastes.
● A single cell is the smallest structure that Prokaryotes
carries out the activities necessary for life. ● Pro: before ; Karyon: nucleus
● is a simple, single-celled
▪ The different structures inside the cell do (unicellular) organism that lacks a
different jobs. One part gets food or water, nucleus, or any other
the other part will keep the cell clean and membrane-bound organelle.
the other parts are in charge of ● Prokaryotic DNA is found in the
reproduction. An organism cannot survive central part of the cell: a darkened
without the help of the cells. region called the nucleoid
● Prokaryotic cells range in diameter
▪ Animal cells and plant cells look different, from 0.1–5.0 µm.
but all cells have three main parts: cell ● E.g. Bacteria & Archaea
wall, nucleus and cytoplasm
Eukaryotes
CELL THEORY - is a collection of ideas and ● Eu: true ; Karyon: nucleus
conclusions from many different scientists ● Eukaryotic
over time that describes cells and how cells ○ true nucleus or true kernel
operate. ○ alluding to the presence of
1. All known living things are made up the membrane-bound
of one or more cells. nucleus in these cells
2. All living cells arise from pre-
existing cells by division. ● Organelle
○ Little organ
 ○ Have specialized cellular
do not require oxygen require oxygen
functions
● a cell that has a membrane-bound
ANIMAL CELL
nucleus and other membrane-bound
- are the basic unit of life in organisms of
compartments or sacs, called
the kingdom Animalia.
organelles, which have specialized
functions.
● They are eukaryotic cells, meaning that
● Eukaryotic cells tend to be 10 to
they have a true nucleus and specialized
100 times the size of prokaryotic
structures called organelles that carry out
cells
different functions.
○ Plants, Animals, Fungi,
Protista
● Animal cells do not have cell walls or
chloroplasts, the organelle that carries out
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes photosynthesis

Small (1-10 um) Large (100-1000 um)

PLANT CELLS
DNA: DNA: - basic unit of life in the organisms of
-circular -in nucleus Kingdom Plantae
-not bounded by -bounded by
membrane membrane
● Eukaryotes
Genome: Genome: ● Specialized organelles
-made of single -made of several ● they are differentiated from other cells of
chromosome chromosomes other organisms by their cell walls,
Cell division: Cell division: vacuoles, chloroplasts
-not by mitosis and -mitosis and meiosis ● Photoautotrophic, because they use light
meiosis energy from the sun to produce glucose.

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

PARTS OF THE CELL
Multicellular forms Multicellular forms
(rare) (common) CELL WALL
▪ Plant cells have a rigid wall surrounding
Mitochondria and Mitochondria and
other other the plasma membrane.
membrane-bound membrane-bound ▪ It is the outer covering of the cell. Water
organelles: absent organelles: present and food enter through the cell membrane,
and wastes leave through it.
▪ For protection, structural support and
Anaerobic Aerobic
maintenance of cell shape

▪ Cell wall is made up of murein - a
glycoprotein/peptidoglycan.
▪ 2 Kinds of Cell wall, that can be
distinguished by Gram Stain:
▪ Gram Positive - thick cell wall
▪ Gram Negative - thin cell wall
NUCLEUS
▪ Highly specialized organelle of the cell
▪ Is the control center of the cell.
▪ Cell organelle that houses DNA and
directs synthesis of ribosomes and proteins
▪ DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) contains all
the information for cells to live, perform
their functions and reproduce.
NUCLEOLUS
▪ is the dark region of the nucleus
▪ is responsible for making ribosomes and
processing m-RNA.
MITOCHONDRIA
▪ Mitochondria are oblong shaped
organelles found in the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells.
▪ Powerhouse of the cell
▪ ATP production/cellular respiration
RIBOSOMES
▪ They are small packets or granules of
RNA that convert amino acids into proteins.
It serves as a site of protein synthesis and is
therefore termed as the workhorses of
protein biosynthesis.
▪ Stationary type: embedded in rough
endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Mobile type: injects proteins directly into
cytoplasm
GOLGI APPARATUS
▪ Series of flattened membrane vesicle,
formed from the endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Its function is to transport proteins from
the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum to the
cell membrane for export.
▪ Parts of the SER containing proteins fuse
with one side of the Golgi body
membranes, while at the other side small
vesicles bud off and move towards the cell
membrane, where they fuse, releasing their
contents by exocytosis.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
▪ Is a network of sacs that manufactures,
processes, and transports chemical
compounds for use inside and outside of
the cell
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
▪ Series of membrane channels involved in
the synthesis and transport of materials,
mainly lipids and glycoproteins needed by
the cell.
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
▪ Studded with numerous 80S ribosomes
which gives its rough appearance.
▪ Ribosome synthesize proteins which are
processed in the SER
LYSOSOME
▪ Contains digestive chemicals that help
break down food molecules
▪ Suicide bag of the cell
▪ Has free enzymes and free radicals
(released will cause APOPTOSIS)
PEROXISOME
▪ Diverse group of organelles that are found
in the cytoplasm, roughly spherical and
bound by a single membrane
▪ Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and
amino acids, and detoxifies poisons
CENTRIOLES
▪ Found only in animal cells and come into
action when the cells divide, helping with
the organization of chromosomes.
VACUOLE
▪ Vacuole contains large amounts of water
and stores other important materials such
as sugars, ions and pigments.
▪ Plays an important structural role for the
plant
CYTOPLASM
▪ Provides structure to cell
▪ Site of many metabolic reactions
▪ Medium in which organelles are found
CYTOSKELETON
▪ Made up of filaments and tubules, it helps
shape and support the cell. It also helps
things move around in the cell. For artistic
purposes, the cytoskeleton is shown in just
one place when in reality it is found
throughout the entire cell.
Components of Cytoskeleton
▪ Microfilaments
➢solid protein (actin) which is assembled
at one end and disassembled at the other
end
▪ Intermediate filaments
➢rope-like fibrous proteins
➢provide structural reinforcement
➢anchor organelles
➢keep nucleus in place
▪ Microtubules
➢ hollow tubes of tubulin (a globular
protein)
➢ maintains cell shape
➢ anchor organelles movement of
organelles
➢ track for motor proteins ▪Starch synthesized through photosynthesis
is stored in the St stroma in the form of
CHLOROPHYLL granules.
▪ Responsible for trapping the light energy
from the sun.
▪ Gives the plant a green color

PLASTIDS
▪ Group of closely related
membrane-bound organelles that carry out
many functions.
▪ Responsible for photosynthesis, for
storage of products such as starch, and for
the synthesis of many types of molecules
that are needed as cellular building blocks.
▪ Have the ability to change their function
between these and other forms
▪ Contain their own DNA and some Components of Stroma
ribosomes

STROMA LAMELLAE
CHLOROPLAST ▪ Connects stacks of thylakoid sacs
▪ Found only in plant cells ▪ The lamellae act like the skeleton of the
▪This is the organelle in which chloroplast, keeping all of the sacs a safe
photosynthesis takes place. In this distance from each other and maximizing
organelle the light energy of the sun is the efficiency of the organelle
converted into chemical energy.
▪The chemical energy that is produced by THYLAKOIDS
chloroplasts is finally used to make ▪Thylakoids are the internal,
carbohydrates like starch that get stored in membrane-bound compartments formed
the plant. by such thylakoid membranes.

STROMA ▪ The internal portion of the thylakoid is

▪ The aqueous matrix present inside this
double-membrane envelope
▪ Is especially rich in proteins, and contains
several enzymes necessary for vital cellular
processes
called the thylakoid lumen, and contains
plastocyanins and other molecules required
for the transport of electrons.
GRANUM
▪ Some of the thylakoids are arranged in the
form of discs stacked one above the other.
These stacks are termed grana/granum, and
are connected to each other through inter
grana thylakoids and stroma thylakoids.

CHROMOPLASTS
▪ Make and store pigments that give petals
and fruit their orange and yellow colors.

LEUCOPLASTS
▪ Do not contain pigments and are located
in roots and non photosynthetic tissues of CILIA AND FLAGELLA
plants. Single-celled eukaryotes
▪ They may become specialized for bulk - locomotion of individual organisms
storage of starch, lipid, or protein.
▪ However, in many cells, leucoplasts do Multicellular organisms
not have a major storage function. Instead, -move fluid or materials past an immobile
they make molecules such as fatty acids cell as well as moving a cell or group of
and many amino acids. cells

PLASTIDS PROPERTIES OF CELLS

● Plastids are double 1. Cells are complex and highly organized
membrane-bound organelles found ▪ They contain numerous internal structures
inside plants and some algae. ▪ Some are membrane bound (organelles)
● They are responsible for activities while others do not
related to making and storing food.
● They often contain different types of 2. Cells contain a genetic blueprint and
pigments that can change the color machinery to use it
of the cell. ▪ Genes are instructions for cells to create
specific proteins
▪ All cells use the same types of
information
● The genetic code is universal
● The machinery used for synthesis is
interchangeable
 ● However, for this to function • convert organic compounds to CO2 and
properly, information transfer must O2
be error free • make ATP
▪ Errors are called mutations
5. Cells can perform a variety of chemical
3.Cells arise from the division of other cells reactions
▪ Daughter cells inherit the genes from the ▪ Transform simple organic molecules into
mother cells complex molecules (anabolism)
Mitosis - the genetic complement of each ▪ Breakdown complex molecules to release
daughter cell is identical to the other and to energy (catabolism)
the mother cell. This is asexual ▪ Metabolism = all reactions performed by
reproduction cells
Meiosis - the genetic complement of each
daughter cell is reduced by half and each 6. Cells can engage in mechanical activities
daughter cell is genetically unique. This is ▪ Cells can move
used in sexual reproduction ▪ Organelles can move
▪ Cells can respond to stimuli
▪ Daughter cells inherit cytoplasm and ● chemotaxis-movement
organelles from the mother cells towards chemicals
○ Asexual - organelles from mother cell ● phototaxis-movement
○ Sexual - organelles predominately from towards light
one parent ● hormone responses
● touch responses
▪ In eukaryotes, the chloroplasts and
mitochondria come from the egg cell 7. Cells can regulate activities
▪ Cells control DNA synthesis and cell
▪ This can be used to trace the evolutionary division
origin of the organism ▪ Gene regulation - cells make specific
proteins only when needed
4.Cells acquire and utilize energy ▪ Turn on and off metabolic pathways
▪ Plant cells undergo photosynthesis
• convert light energy and CO2 to chemical 8. Cells all contain the following structures:
energy (ATP and glucose) ▪ Plasma membrane - separates the cell
from the external environment
▪ Most cells respire
• release energy found in organic ▪ Cytoplasm - fluid-filled cell interior
compounds
▪ Nuclear material - genetic information ● The replicated chromosomes (DNA) are
stored as DNA then distributed to daughter nuclei by a
complex series of events during cell
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION division.

Introduction CELL DIVISION

● The stages of the cell cycle get their ▪ A chromosome consist of a single long
names from early studies of cell division. strand of DNA and small proteins called
histones around which the DNA is
wrapped.
▪ Most cells have 2 of each type of
chromosome.
▪ Humans have 46 chromosomes. One pair
of sex chromosomes determines the sex of
a person.
▪ Female chromosome : XX
▪ Male chromosome: XY

3 Types of Cell Division

● Cell was originally divided into two parts:
interphase, when the cell appeared to be at
rest, and mitosis, when the cell was
dividing.
CELL CYCLE
● The regular pattern of growth, DNA
Duplication, and cell division that occurs in
eukaryotic cells
● All these processes must take place in a
coordinated way to ensure correct division
and formation of progeny cells containing
intact genomes.
Binary Fusion
• This makes sure each daughter cell gets
ONE cell complete chromosome, instead of
two
• This only takes place in Prokaryotic cells.
Mitosis
• This makes sure each daughter cell gets a
COMPLETE set of chromosomes.
• Takes place in Eukaryotic cells.
Meiosis
• This process cuts the chromosomes in
half and produces 4 cells instead of 2.
• This takes in humans, and is how
reproduction is made
Phases of cell cycle
● A typical Eukaryotic cell cycle is
illustrated by human cells in culture. These G1 phase
cells divide once in approximately every 24 ▪ Cells increase in size and organelles
hours. However, this duration of cell cycle increase in number.
can vary from organism to organism and
also from cell type to cell type. ▪ Corresponds to the interval between
mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
● The cell cycle is divided into 2 basic
phases: ▪ The cell is metabolically active and
○ Interphase continuously grows but does not replicate
○ M Phase (Mitosis phase) its DNA.

G2 stage
▪ Everything must be in order
▪ Adequate cell size, undamaged DNA –
before the goes through Mitosis Division

▪ During G2 phases, proteins are

synthesized in preparation for mitosis while
cell growth continues.

Quiescent stage (G0 )

▪ It is an inactive stage where cells that do
not divide enter after exiting the G1 phase

▪ There are some cells in the adult animals

INTERPHASE
▪ Called the resting phase – is the time
during which the cell is preparing for
division by undergoing both cell growth
and DNA replication in an orderly manner.
that do not appear to exhibit division (e.g
heart cells) and many other cells divide
occasionally, as needed to replace cells that
have been lost because of injury or cell
death.

▪ Divided into 3 phases: MITOSIS

▪ G1 phase (Gap 1) ● Mitosis divides a cell’s nucleus into two
▪ S phase (Synthesis) genetically identical nuclei, each with its
▪ G2 phase (Gap 2) own single, full set of DNA
● This process occurs in all of your body reorganization of virtually all
cells—except those that form eggs or components of the cell.
sperm—and prepares them for cytokinesis
Equational division – number of
chromosomes in the parent and progeny
cells is the same.

4 Stages in Mitosis
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase

PROPHASE

• The first stage of mitosis follows the S

and G2 phases.
• Prophase is marked by initiation of
condensation of chromosomal material. The
chromosome material becomes untangled
during the process of chromatin
condensation.
• The centriole which had undergone
replication during S phase of interphase,
now begins to move towards opposite
poles of the cell.
- The most dramatic period of the cell
cycle, involving a major
▪ Chromosomal material condenses to form
compact mitotic chromosomes.
▪ Initiation of the assembly of mitotic
spindle, the microtubules, the
proteinaceous components of the cell
cytoplasm help in the process.
• Cells at the end of prophase, when
viewed under the microscope, do not show
golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticulum,
nucleolus and the nuclear envelope.
METAPHASE
● Complete disintegration of the
nuclear envelope marks the start of
the second phase of mitosis
● Condensation of chromosomes is
completed, and they can be clearly
observed under the microscope.
● Chromosomes are made up of 2
sister chromatids, held together by
the centromere.
▪ Kinetochores
- Small disc-shaped structures at the
surface of the centromeres
- It serves as the sites of attachment of
spindle fibers (formed by the spindle fibers)
to the chromosomes that are moved into
position at the center of the cell
• Metaphase plate – the plane alignment of
chromosomes
• Key features of metaphase are:
● Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores
of chromosomes.
● Chromosomes are moved to the
spindle equator and get aligned
along the metaphase plate through
spindle fibers to both poles.
ANAPHASE
● During anaphase, sister chromatids
separate from each other. The spindle
fibers begin to shorten, which pulls the
sister chromatids away from each other and
toward opposite sides of the cell.
● Anaphase stage is characterized by:
○ Centromeres split and chromatids
separate. CYTOKINESIS
○ Chromatids move to opposite poles.

TELOPHASE

Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm into two

cells and completes a full stage of the cell
cycle.
● The chromosomes that have reached
their respective poles decondense and lose
● In animal cells, the membrane forms a
their individuality
furrow, or trench, that is pulled inward by
tiny filaments, like a drawstring. Gradually,
● The individual chromosomes can no
the membrane pinches closed, forming a
longer be seen, and chromatin material
separate cell around each nucleus.
tends to collect in a mass in the two poles
● This is the stage which shows the
Significance of Mitosis
following key events:
● Mitosis or the equational division is
● Chromosomes cluster at opposite
usually restricted to the diploid cells only.
● Nuclear envelope assembles around
● Mitosis results in the production of diploid
the chromosome clusters.
daughter cells with identical genetic
● Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER
complement
reform.
● Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

● A very significant contribution of mitosis

is cell repair. The cells of the upper layer of
the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut,
and blood cells are being constantly
replaced. Mitotic divisions in the ■ Meiosis involves pairing of homologous
meristematic tissues – the apical and the chromosomes and recombination between
lateral cambium, result in a continuous them.
growth of plants throughout their life.
■ Four haploid cells are formed at the end
MEIOSIS of meiosis II.
● The production of offspring by sexual
reproduction includes the fusion of two Meiotic events can be grouped under the
gametes, each with a complete haploid set following phase:
of chromosomes.
● Gametes are formed from PROPHASE I
specialized diploid cells.
● This specialized kind of cell division
that reduces the chromosome
number by half results in the
production of haploid daughter
cells.

● Meiosis ensures the production of haploid

phase in the life cycle of sexually
reproducing organisms whereas
fertilization restores the diploid phase. This ○ Prophase of the first meiotic division is
leads to the formation of haploid gametes. typically longer and more complex when
compared to the prophase of mitosis.
Key Features of Meiosis
○ It has been further subdivided into the
following five phases based on
chromosomal behavior (i.e., Leptotene,
Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and
Diakinesis)
■ Leptotene- chromosomes are slender,
like threads.
■ Zygotene- the two leptotene
■ Meiosis I is initiated after the parental chromosomes undergo pairing by the
chromosomes have replicated to produce formation of synaptonemal complexes to
identical sister chromatids at the S phase. form a bivalent structure.
■ Pachytene - In meiosis, the stage
following synapsis (zygotene) in which the
homologous chromosome threads
(synaptonemal complex) shorten, thicken,
and continue to intertwine, and each of the
conjoined (bivalent) chromosomes separate
into two sister chromatids, which are held
together by a centromere, to form a tetrad.
○ The bivalent chromosomes align on the
equatorial plate. The microtubules from the
opposite poles of the spindle attach to the
pair of homologous chromosomes.
ANAPHASE I

■ Diplotene - following pachytene the two

chromosomes in each bivalent begin to
repel each other and a split occurs between
the chromosomes, which are then held
together by regions where exchanges have
taken place (chiasmata) during crossing
over.

■ Diakinesis - the chromatids break at the

chiasmata (x-shaped structures) and
exchange their parts. During this phase the
chromosomes are fully condensed and the
meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the
homologous chromosomes for separation.
○ The homologous chromosomes separate,
while sister chromatids remain associated
at their centromeres
TELOPHASE I

METAPHASE I

○ The nuclear membrane and nucleolus

reappear, cytokinesis follows and this is
called as diad of cells.
○ The stage between the two meiotic
divisions is called interkinesis and is
generally short lived. Interkinesis is
followed by prophase II, a much simpler
prophase than prophase I.

PROPHASE II
○ Meiosis II is initiated immediately after
cytokinesis, usually before the
chromosomes have fully elongated.

○ In contrast to meiosis I, meiosis II

resembles a normal mitosis.

METAPHASE II
○ At this stage the chromosomes align at
the equator and the microtubules from
opposite poles of the spindle get attached
to the kinetochores of sister chromatids

ANAPHASE II
○ It begins with the simultaneous splitting
of the centromere of each chromosome
(which was holding the sister chromatids
together), allowing them to move toward
opposite poles of the cell.

TELOPHASE II
○ Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which
the two groups of chromosomes once again
get enclosed by a nuclear envelope;
cytokinesis follows resulting in the
formation of tetrad of cells