MODULE 5 – STOICHIOMETRY

Stoichiometry
- a section of chemistry that involves using relationships between reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction to determine
desired quantitative data.
- In Greek, stoikhein means element and metron means measure, so stoichiometry literally translated means the measure of
elements.
- In order to use stoichiometry to run calculations about chemical reactions, it is important to first understand the relationships that exist
between products and reactants and why they exist, which require understanding how to balance reactions.
Balancing
- In chemistry, chemical reactions are frequently written as an equation, using chemical symbols.
- The reactants are displayed on the left side of the equation and the products are shown on the right, with the separation of either a single
or double arrow that signifies the direction of the reaction.
- The significance of single and double arrow is important when discussing solubility constants.
- To balance an equation, it is necessary that there are the same number of atoms on the left side of the equation as the right. One can
do this by raising the coefficients.
Reactants to Products
- A chemical equation is like a recipe for a reaction so it displays all the ingredients or terms of a chemical reaction. It includes the
elements, molecules, or ions in the reactants and in the products as well as their states, and the proportion for how much of each particle
reacts or is formed relative to one another, through the stoichiometric coefficient. The following equation demonstrates the typical
format of a chemical equation:
2Na(s)+2HCl(aq)→2NaCl(aq)+H2(g)
- In the above equation, the elements present in the reaction are represented by their chemical symbols. Based on the Law of
Conservation of Mass, which states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction, every chemical reaction
has the same elements in its reactants and products, though the elements they are paired up with often change in a reaction. In this
reaction, sodium (Na), hydrogen (H), and chloride (Cl) are the elements present in both reactants, so based on the law of conservation
of mass, they are also present on the product side of the equations. Displaying each element is important when using the chemical
equation to convert between elements.
Stoichiometric Coefficients
- In a balanced reaction, both sides of the equation have the same number of elements. The stoichiometric coefficient is the number
written in front of atoms, ion and molecules in a chemical reaction to balance the number of each element on both the reactant and
product sides of the equation. Though the stoichiometric coefficients can be fractions, whole numbers are frequently used and often
preferred. This stoichiometric coefficients are useful since they establish the mole ratio between reactants and products. In the balanced
equation:
2Na(s)+2HCl(aq)→2NaCl(aq)+H2(g)
- we can determine that 2 moles of HCl will react with 2 moles of Na(s) to form 2 moles of NaCl(aq) and 1 mole of H2(g) . If we
know how many moles of Na reacted, we can use the ratio of 2 moles of NaCl to 2 moles of Na to determine how many moles of
NaCl were produced or we can use the ratio of 1 mole of H2 to 2 moles of Na to convert to NaCl. This is known as the coefficient
factor. The balanced equation makes it possible to convert information about the change in one reactant or product to quantitative data
about another reactant or product.
Important Concepts in Stoichiometry
You must master the following chemistry concepts to solve stoichiometry problems:
1. Balancing equations
2. Converting between grams and moles
3. Calculating molar mass
4. Calculating mole ratios
Remember, stoichiometry is the study of mass relations. To master it, you need to be comfortable with unit conversions
and balancing equations. From there, the focus is on mole relationships between reactants and products in a
chemical reaction.
Molar Ratio
The molar ratio will assume a place of central importance in solving stoichiometry problems. The sources for these
ratios are the coefficients of a balanced equation. We will look at what a molar ratio is and then a brief word on how to
recognize which ratio to use in a problem.
Example:
2H2 + O2 ---> 2H2O
1. What is the molar ratio between H2 and O2?
Solution: The ratio is two-to-one. The 2 is the coefficient in front of the H2 and the 1 is the coefficient
understood to be in front of the O2. Here is the ratio in fractional form:
𝟐
𝟏
Make sure you also can recognize a ratio when it's written using a colon: 2:1
2. What is the molar ratio between O2 and H2O?
Solution: The ratio is one-to-two. The 1 is in front of the O2 and the 2 is in front of the H2O. As a fraction, it
is
𝟏
𝟐
The colon form is, of course: 1:2

Mole-Mole
Stoichiometry
- Calculating
the moles of one
substance and
convert to moles of
another substance by
using the balanced
chemical equation.

Mole-Mass
Stoichiometry
- Calculating
the given number of
moles of a substance
to the mass of another
substance involved in
the chemical
equation, or vice
versa.
 Mass-Mass Stoichiometry
- Given the mass of some substance
and end with the mass of another
substance in the chemical reaction. For
this type of calculation, the molar masses
of two different substances must be
used—be sure to keep track of which is
which. Again, however, it is important to
emphasize that before the balanced
chemical reaction is used, the mass
quantity must first be converted to moles.
Then the coefficients of the balanced
chemical reaction can be used to convert
to moles of another substance, which can
then be converted to a mass.

MODULE 6 – ACID-BASE AND REDUCTION AND OXIDATION REACTIONS

Lesson 1 Acid-Base Reaction
Acids taste sour
- in fact, the German word for acid is sauer. Because acids can damage cells, our stomach needs a special lining
to protect it from the hydrochloric acid used to digest our food. We are familiar with some acids – citrus fruits,
tomatoes and vinegar are acidic.
Bases
- A corrosive substance is one that will damage or destroy other substances with which it comes into contact by
means of a chemical reaction.
- Bases feel slippery to touch. This is because they can change the structure of proteins. A strong base can cause
severe chemical burns because it starts to damage the proteins in your skin. Basic substances are used in many
cleaning products.
The simple chemistry
- An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen (H+) ions when it is added to water. A hydrogen ion is just the
proton and no electron. If we look at the formulas of different acids, we can see that they all contain at least one
H (hydrogen) – for example:
HCl – hydrochloric acid
H2SO4 – sulfuric acid
HNO3 – nitric acid.
- When we put a molecule of acid into water, it breaks apart. The science term for this is that it dissociates. For
example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and chloride anions (Cl-).

The chemical difference between acids and bases is that acids produce hydrogen ions and bases accept hydrogen ions.
Base
- A substance that neutralizes acids.
- When bases are added to water, they split to form hydroxide ions, written as OH-. We call a base that has been
added to water an alkaline solution.
- If we look at some formulas for bases, we can see that they all contain hydroxide (OH-) ions – for example:
NaOH – sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
NH4OH – solution of ammonia in water
Ca (OH)2 – calcium hydroxide (builders’ lime)
- If an acid and a base are added together, they react to form water (H2O) and a salt. An example you might be
familiar with is brushing your teeth. The acid created from the bacteria on your teeth reacts with the base in
your toothpaste. This reaction is called neutralization.
Theories of Acids and Bases
Three different theories have been put forth to define acids and bases. These theories include the Arrhenius theory, the
BronstedLowry theory, and the Lewis theory of acids and bases. A brief description of each of these theories is provided
in this subsection. Acids and bases can be defined via three different theories.

The Arrhenius
theory of acids
and bases states
that “an acid
generates H+
ions in a
solution
whereas a base
produces an
OH– ion in its
solution”.

The Bronsted-
Lowry theory
defines “an
acid as a proton
donor and a
base as a proton
acceptor”.

Lesson 2 Reduction and Oxidation Reaction Redox reaction

- A short name for oxidation-reduction reactions. As the name implies, it involves two interdependent half
reactions, oxidation and reduction.
 - This type of reactions occurs naturally as part of the necessary processes in all biological systems. If they’re
intervened by harmful chemicals, undesired consequences may follow. Therefore, it is necessary to understand
the fundamental chemistry of redox reactions for the purpose of designing safer chemicals.
- There are two key players, oxidants and reductants.
- Redox reaction, connected by two indispensable processes, gaining and losing electrons.
- Oxidation refers to when the reductant loses electrons to the oxidant and itself gets oxidized.
- Reduction refers to when the oxidant gains electrons from the reductant and itself gets reduced.
- Clearly, oxidation and reduction need to take place at the same time.

HINT: One can use a simple mnemonic “OILRIG” to memorize the redox reactions. Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons).
Reduction Is Gain (of electrons).

Practice Problem 1 - Determine the oxidation number of each element in the following compounds:
a. BaO2 b. (NH4)2MoO4 c. Na3Co(NO2)6 d. CS2

Balancing Oxidation–reduction or redox reactions

- reactions that involve the transfer of electrons between chemical species.
- The equations be balanced for both mass and charge, which can make them challenging to balance by inspection
alone.
- In this article, we’ll learn about the half-reaction method of balancing, a helpful procedure for balancing the
equations of redox reactions occurring in aqueous solution.

The half-reaction method of balancing redox equations

- To balance a redox equation using the half-reaction method, the equation is first divided into two half-
reactions, one representing oxidation and one representing reduction.
 - The equations for the half-reactions are then balanced for mass and charge and, if necessary, adjusted so that
the number of electrons transferred in each equation is the same.
- Finally, the half-reaction equations are added together, giving the balanced overall equation for the reaction.

Is this equation balanced? It appears to be balanced with respect to mass since there is one Co atom and one
Ni atom on each side of the equation. However, it is not balanced for charge: the net charge on the left side
of the equation is 3+, plus, while the net charge on the right side is 4+, plus. To help us balance the equation
for charge, we’ll use the half-reaction method.

To start, let’s split the equation into separate oxidation and reduction half-reactions:

Acidic Conditions
- usually implies a solution with an excess of H+ concentration, hence making the solution acidic.
- The balancing starts by separating the reaction into half-reactions. However, instead of immediately balancing
the electrons, balance all the elements in the half-reactions that are not hydrogen and oxygen.
- Then, add H2O molecules to balance any oxygen atoms.
 - Next, balance the hydrogen atoms by adding protons (H+).
- Now, balance the charge by adding electrons and scale the electrons (multiply by the lowest common multiple)
so that they will cancel out when added together.
- Finally, add the two half-reactions and cancel out common terms.

Basic Conditions
- Bases dissolve into OH− ions in solution; hence, balancing redox reactions in basic conditions requires OH−.
Follow the same steps as for acidic conditions.
- The only difference is adding hydroxide ions to each side of the net reaction to balance any H+.
- OH− and H+ ions on the same side of a reaction should be added together to form water. Again, any common
terms can be canceled out.
 MODULE 7 – GAS LAW
GAS LAW
- Created in the early 17th century.
- Have been around to assist scientists in finding volumes, amount, pressures, and temperature when coming to
matters of gas.
- Consist of three primary laws: Charles' Law, Boyle's Law and Avogadro's Law (all of which will later combine
into the General Gas Equation and Ideal Gas Law).
- A group of laws that govern the behavior of gases by providing relatio nships between the following:
✓ The volume occupied by a gas.
✓ The pressure exerted by a gas on the walls of its container.
✓ The absolute temperature of the gas.
✓ The amount of gaseous substance (or) the number of moles of gas.
- The three fundamental gas laws discover the relationship of pressure, temperature, volume, and amount of gas.
➢ Boyle's Law tells us that the volume of gas increases as the pressure decreases.
➢ Charles' Law tells us that the volume of gas increases as the temperature increases.
➢ Avogadro's Law tell us that the volume of gas increases as the amount of gas increases.
➢ Ideal gas law is the combination of the three simple gas laws.
 A. Boyle’s Law
- Boyle’s law, also called Mariotte’s law, a relation concerning the
compression and expansion of a gas at constant temperature.
- This empirical relation, formulated by the physicist Robert Boyle in
1662, states that the pressure (p) of a given quantity of gas varies
inversely with its volume (v) at constant temperature; i.e., in equation
form, pv = k, a constant.
- The relationship was also discovered by the French physicist Edme
Mariotte (1676) Boyle’s law gives the relationship between the
pressure of a gas and the volume of the gas at a constant
temperature.
- Basically, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure of a gas at a constant temperature.

Boyle’s law equation is written as:

V 1/P or P 1/V or PV = k1
Where V is the volume of the gas, P is the pressure of the gas and K1 is the constant. Boyle’s Law can be used to
determine the current pressure or volume of gas and can be represented also as;

P1V1 = P2V2
Boyle’s Law-Related Problem
An 18.10mL sample of gas is at 3.500 atm. What will be the volume if the pressure becomes 2.500 atm, with a fixed
amount of gas and temperature?
Solution: By solving with the help of Boyle’s law equation
 P1V1 = P2V2 V2 = (18.10 * 3.500atm)/2.500atm
V2 = P1V1 / P2 V2 = 25.34 mL
B. Charles’ Law
- On 5 June 1783, Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier used a fire
to inflate a spherical balloon about 30 feet in diameter that traveled
about a mile and one-half before it came back to earth.
- News of this remarkable achievement spread throughout
France, and Jacques-Alexandre-Cesar Charles immediately tried
to duplicate this performance. As a result of his work with balloons,
Charles noticed that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to
its temperature.
Charles’ law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is
directly proportional to the temperature (in Kelvin) in a closed
system. Basically, this law describes the relationship between the
temperature and volume of the gas.

Mathematically, Charles’s law can be expressed as;

V T
Where, V = volume of gas, T = temperature of the gas in Kelvin. Another form of this equation can be written as;
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

Charles’ law problem

- A sample of Carbon dioxide in a pump has a volume of 21.5 mL and it is at 50.0 oC. When the amount of
gas and pressure remain constant, find the new volume of Carbon dioxide in the pump if the temperature is
increased to 75.0 oC.
Solution:
V2 = V1T2/T1
V2 = 7,485.225/ 323.15
V2 = 23.16 mL
C. Gay-Lussac’s Law
- Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) began his career in
1801 by very carefully showing the validity of Charles' law for a
number of different gases.
- Gay-Lussac's most important contributions to the study of
gases, however, were experiments he performed on the ratio of
the volumes of gases involved in a chemical reaction.
- Gay-Lussac studied the volume of gases consumed or
produced in a chemical reaction because he was interested in the
reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water. He argued
that measurements of the weights of hydrogen and oxygen
consumed in this reaction could be influenced by the moisture
present in the reaction flask, but this moisture would not affect the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen gases
consumed in the reaction.
- Gay-Lussac law gives the relationship between temperature and pressure at constant volume. The law
states that at a constant volume, the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the temperature for a given
gas.
- If you heat up a gas, the molecules will be given more energy, they move faster. If you cool down the molecules,
they slow down and the pressure decreases.
- The change in temperature and pressure can be calculated using Gay-Lussac law and it is mathematically
represented as;
P T or P / T = k1 or P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
- Where P is the pressure of the gas and T is the temperature of the gas in Kelvin.

Gay-Lussac’s Law related problem

Determine the pressure change when a constant volume of gas at 2.00 atm is heated from 30.0 °C to 40.0 °C.
Solution:
P1 = 2.00 atm
 P2 =?
T1 = (30 + 273) = 303K
T2 = (40 + 273) =313 K

According to the Gay-Lussac’s law

P T
P/T = constant
P1/T1 = P2/T2
P2 = (P1 T2) / T1
= (2 x 313) / 303
=2.06 atm
D. Avogadro’s Law
- states that if the gas is an ideal gas, the same number of molecules exists in the system.
- The law also states that if the volume of gases is equal it means that the number of the molecule will be the
same as the ideal gas only when it has equal volume.
- This above statement can be mathematically expressed as;
V / n = constant, or
V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
Where V is the volume of an ideal gas and n in the above equation represent the number of gas molecules.

Problems related to Avogadro’s Law

- At constant temperature and pressure, 6.00 L of a gas is known to contain 0.975 mol. If the amount of gas is
increased to 1.90 mol, what new volume will result?
Solution:
V1 = 6.00 L
V2 = ?
n1 = 0.975
n2 = 1.90 mol
According to Avogadro’s law
V n
V/n = constant
V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
V2 = V1n2/n1
V2 = (6 x 1.90)/ 0.975 = 11.69 L

E. Combined Gas Law

- also known as a general gas equation is obtained by combining three gas laws which include Charle’s law,
Boyle’s Law and Gay-Lussac law.
- The law shows the relationship between temperature, volume and pressure for a fixed quantity of gas.
The general equation of combined gas law is given as;
PV / T = k
If we want to compare the same gas in different cases, the law can be represented as;
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
F. Ideal Gas Law
- Much like the combined gas law, the ideal gas law is also an amalgamation of four different gas laws. –
- Here, Avogadro’s law is added and the combined gas law is converted into the ideal gas law.
- This law relates four different variables which are pressure, volume, no of moles or molecules and
temperature.
- Basically, the ideal gas law gives the relationship between these above four different variables.
Mathematically Ideal gas law is expressed as;
PV=nRT
Where,
V = volume of gas.
T = temperature of the gas.
P = pressure of the gas.
R = universal gas constant. n
denotes the number of moles.
We can also use an equivalent equation given below.
PV = kNT
Where, k = Boltzman constant and N = number of gas molecules

Ideal Gas
- Ideal gases are also known as a perfect gas.
- It establishes a relationship among the four different gas variables
1. Pressure (P)
2. Volume(V)
3. Temperature(T)
4. Amount of gas (n)
Ideal Gas Properties and Characteristics
1. The motion of ideal gas in a straight line constant and random.
2. The gas occupies a very small space because the particle in the gas is minimal.
3. There is no force present between the particle of the gas. Particles only collide elastically with the walls of the
container and with each other.
4. The average kinetic energy of the gas-particle is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
5. The gases are made up of many the same particles (atoms or molecules) which are perfectly hard spheres and
very small.
6. The actual volume of the gas molecule is considered negligible as compared to the space between them and
because of this reason they are considered as the point masses.

Gas Law Problems

A sealed jar whose volume is exactly 1L which contains 1 mole of air at temperature 20-degree Celcius, assuming
that the air behaves as an ideal gas. So what is the pressure inside the jar in Pa?
Solution:
By solving with the help of ideal gas equation
PV=nRT
(1) By rearranging the equations we can get,
P=nRT/V

(2) Write down all the values which are known in S.I unit
n= 1
R= 8.314J/K/mol
T= 20degree celcius = (20+273.15) K=293.15K
V=1L=0.001m3
(3) Put all the values in the equation
P= nRT/V
P = (1x8.314x293.15)/0.001
P= 2,437,249
P=2.437x106 Pa
The pressure is almost 24atm.
 MODULE 8 – SOLUTION CONCENTRATION
Lesson 1 Concentration
In your everyday life, you encounter solutions all the time. For example, you may add salt to water when
cooking pasta. The salt dissolves in the water, resulting in a solution. Most of your "household" chemicals are
solutions. If you look closely at a bottle of vinegar, you will find that it is a solution of acetic acid. Similarly,
bleach is a solution of sodium hypochlorite.
- All of these examples have both a solute and a solvent.
- The solute is the material that is dissolved while the solvent is whatever it is dissolved in.
- So, in the salt water example, the salt is the solute and the water is the solvent.
- In vinegar, acetic acid is the solute and water is the solvent
- In bleach, sodium hypochlorite is the solute and water is the solvent.
The concentration of the solution tells you how much solute has been dissolved in the solvent. For example,
if you add one teaspoon to two cups of water, the concentration could be reported as 1 t salt per 2 c water. The
vinegar label will report that the solution is 5% by weight acetic acid. This means that that there are 5 grams
of acetic acid per 100 g of solution.

A. Percent Concentration
- One way to describe the concentration of a solution is by the percent of the solution that is
composed of the solute.
- This percentage can be determined in one of three ways
1) the mass of the solute divided by the mass of solution
2) the volume of the solute divided by the volume of the solution
3) the mass of the solute divided by the volume of the solution.
- Because these methods generally result in slightly different vales, it is important to always indicate
how a given percentage was calculated.

Mass Percent Concentration

When the solute in a solution is a solid, a convenient way to express the concentration is a mass percent (mass/mass),
which is the grams of solute per 100g of solution.

Try this….
 I. Volume Percent Concentration
- The percentage of solute in a solution can more easily be
determined by volume when the solute and solvent are both liquids.
- The volume of the solute divided by the volume of the solution
expressed as a percent, yields the percent by volume
(volume/volume) of the solution. If a solution is made by taking
40mL of ethanol and adding enough water to make 240mL of
solution, the percent by volume is:
Try this….
A brand of rubbing alcohol says, it contains 70% (vol/vol) isopropyl alcohol. How many mL of isopropyl alcohol are
there in 600 ml of the solution in the bottle? (given, solution)

II. Mass/Volume Percent Concentration

- also used in some cases and is calculated in a similar way to
the previous two percentages.
- calculated by dividing the mass of the solute by the volume of
the solution and expressing the result as a percent.
For example, if a solution is prepared from 10NaCl in enough
water to make a 150mL solution, the mass-volume concentration
is

Try this…
The label of betadine skin cleanser says 7.5 % solution. Taking it to be % (wt/vol), how many grams of
betadine (Providone-Iodine) are present in 50mL bottle?

B. Mole Fraction, X
- The concentration of the solution is best described by mole
fraction or mole percent.
- Mole fraction is usually designated as X that relates to the
number of moles of a particular solute to the total number
of moles in the solution.

Sample Problem
Compute the mole fraction of acetone X (acetone) and of chloroform (X chloroform) in a solution prepared by mixing
50.0 g each of acetone (Molar Mass = 58.0) and chloroform (Molar Mass = 119.5)
Solution:
a. The first step is for you to compute the number of moles (n) of each substance as well as the total number of moles.
(solute: acetone; solvent: chloroform)
(Try this) Calculate the mole fraction of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in 8% (wt/wt) aqueous H2SO4 solution (molar
masses: H2SO4 = 98 g/mol, H2O = 18 g/mol.
C. Molarity
- Chemists primarily need the concentration of solutions to
be expressed in a way that accounts for the number of
particles present that could react according to a particular
chemical equation.
- Since percentage measurements are based on either mass
or volume, they are generally not useful for chemical
reactions.
- A concentration unit based on moles is preferable.
- The molarity (M) of a solution is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution.
- To calculate the molarity of a solution, you divide the moles of solute by the volume of the solution
expressed in liters.

Sample Problem
Calculate the molar concentration of the solution that contains 15 grams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in
225 ml of solution. (Molar mass of KOH = 56 g/mol)
Solution:

a. Convert 15 grams of KOH to moles using conversion factor,

1 mol KOH = 56 g (the molar mass of KOH).

b. Convert 225 ml of solution to Liter of solution using the

conversion factor: 1L = 1000 ml.
Use the formula in computing molarity and substitute the values
obtained above.

(Try this) Calculate the molar concentration of a solution that contains 23 g of potassium hydroxide. KOH in 250
ml of solution. Molar mass of KOH is 56 g/mol.

D. Molality
- The molality (m) of a solution is the moles of solute divided
by the kilograms of solvent.
- A solution that contains 1.0mol of NaCl dissolved into 1.0kg
of water is a "one-molal" solution of sodium chloride.
- The symbol for molality is a lower-case m written in italics.
Sample Problem
Determine the molal concentration, m of a solution that contains 18 grams of NaOH in 100 ml of water. The molar
mass of NaOH is 40g/mole.
Solution:
1) Convert 18 grams of NaOH into moles using the molar mass of
NaOH

2) Convert 100 ml of water into grams using the density of water,

1.0g/ml. Then convert the grams to kilograms using the
conversion factor, 1Kg = 1000 g.
 3) Use the formula in computing molality and substitute the values obtained
above.

(Try this) How many grams of solute is present in 0.4 moles Magnesium hydroxide, Mg (OH) 2 in 550 g water,
H2O? The molar mass of Mg (OH)2 is 58 g/mol.

E. Parts per Million and Parts per Billion

- Two other concentration units are parts per million and parts per billion.
- These units are used for very small concentrations of solute such as the amount of lead in drinking water.
- Understanding these two units is much easier if you consider a percentage as parts per hundred.
- Remember that 85% is the equivalent of 85 out of a hundred.
- A solution that is 15ppm is 15 parts solutes per 1 million parts solution. A 22ppb solution is 22 parts solutes
per billion parts solution.
- While there are several ways of expressing two units of ppm and ppb , we will treat them as mg or μg of
solutes per L solution, respectively.

- The last expression is approximately true for water as a solvent because the density of water is 1.0 g/ml.
- Also, for a very dilute solution, the amount of the solution could be equated to the amount of the solvent, water.
- While these concentrations are very small, but we should not neglect their importance.
- Some of the industrial pollutants that are being released daily into the water we drink and the air we
breathe can be extremely harmful in concentrations as small as 1 ppm.

Sample Problem
A water sample was reported to contain 250 ppm CaCO3. How many grams of CaCO3 is present in 4 liters of
water.
Solution:
250 ppm CaCO3 can be translated as 250 mg/liter of solution. Since this is a very dilute solution and the
solvent is water, the liter of solution could be equated to the Volume of water. So, we can use the expression
below,

The problem asks for the mass in grams of CaCO3 present in 4 liters of water:

Try this…
A commercial pesticide formulation contains 1.0 g deltamethrin in 1L solution. What is its concentration in
ppm?