CSE20201 Lecture 7

Structural Mechanics Lecture 7: Outline
(CSE 20201)
Lecture 7 1. Stress
2. Strain
3. Mechanics Properties of materials

Dr. Songye ZHU
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
4. Strain energy in tensile and compression
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 2
Chapter 6: STRESS 6.1 Introduction

• Introduction • Why do we introduce stress and strain?
• Average normal stress in an axially loaded bar – The intensity of internal forces acting within the body
• Average shear stress – Breakable
• Allowable stress (See textbook) – a deformable body
• Design of simple connections (See textbook) – Are used to compute deformations of a body
Reference:
Chapter 1, Mechanics of Materials – R. C. Hibbeler
CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 3 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 4

6.1 Introduction 6.1 Introduction
Historical development
• Beginning of 17th century (Galileo)
• Early 18th century (Saint-Venant, Poisson, Lamé and Navier) Which rod would
• In recent times, with advanced mathematical and computer techniques, break first ?
more complex problems can be solved
6.1 Introduction 6.2 Stress

Burden Intensity Concept of stress
• To obtain distribution of force acting over a
sectioned area
• Assumptions of material:
1. It is continuous (uniform distribution of matter)
2. It is cohesive (all portions are connected together)

6.2 Stress 6.2 Stress
Concept of stress
• Consider ΔA in figure below
Normal stress
• Small finite force, ΔF acts on ΔA • Intensity of force, or force per unit area, acting normal to ΔA
• As ΔA → 0, Δ F → 0 • Symbol used for normal stress, is σ (sigma)
• But stress (ΔF / ∆A) → finite limit
lim ΔFz
σz =
ΔA →0 ΔA
• Tensile stress: normal force “pulls” or “stretches” the area

element ΔA
• Compressive stress: normal force “pushes” or
“compresses” area element ΔA
6.2 Stress 6.2 Stress
Shear stress General state of stress

• Figure shows the state of stress
• Intensity of force, or force per unit area, acting acting around a chosen point in a
tangent to ∆A body
• Symbol used for shear stress is τ (tau) Units (SI system)
• Newtons per square meter (N/m2) or a
lim ΔFx pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
τzx =
ΔA →0 ΔA • kPa = 103 N/m2 (kilo-pascal)
• MPa = 106 N/m2 (mega-pascal)
lim ΔFy • GPa = 109 N/m2 (giga-pascal)
τzy =
ΔA →0 ΔA • MPa=N/mm2

6.3 Average Normal Stress In 6.3 Average Normal Stress In
Axially Loaded Bar Axially Loaded Bar
Examples of axially loaded bar Assumptions
• Usually long and slender structural members
1. Uniform deformation: Bar remains straight before
• Truss members, hangers, bolts
and after load is applied, and cross section
• Prismatic means all the cross sections are the same
remains flat or plane during deformation
2. In order for uniform deformation, force P be
applied along centroid axis of cross section
6.3 Average Normal Stress In 6.3 Average Normal Stress In

Axially Loaded Bar Axially Loaded Bar
Equilibrium
Average normal stress distribution
• Consider vertical equilibrium of the element
+ FRz = ∑ Fz ∫dF = ∫A σ dA
∑Fz = 0 σ (ΔA) − σ’ (ΔA) = 0
σ = σ’
P = σA
P
σ= Above analysis applies
A
to members subjected to
σ = average normal stress at any point tension or compression.
on cross sectional area
P = internal resultant normal force
A = x-sectional area of the bar
6.3 Average Normal Stress In
Axially Loaded Bar
Example 6-1
Maximum average normal stress Bar width = 35 mm, thickness = 10 mm
• For problems where internal force P and x-sectional A
were constant along the longitudinal axis of the bar, Determine max. average normal stress in bar when
normal stress σ = P/A is also constant subjected to loading shown.
• If the bar is subjected to several external loads along its
axis, change in x-sectional area may occur. Thus, it is
important to find the maximum average normal stress
• To determine that, we need to find the location where
ratio P/A is a maximum
Example 6-1 Example 6-1

Internal loading Average normal stress
PBC 30(103) N
σBC = = = 85.7 MPa
A (35 mm)(10 mm)
Normal force diagram

By inspection, largest
loading area is BC,
where PBC = 30 kN

Internal loading
Specific weight γst = 80 kN/m3
Based on free-body diagram,
Determine average normal stress acting at points A
and B. weight of segment AB determined from
Wst = γstVst
Average normal stress Average compressive stress

Cross-sectional area at section is:
+ ∑ Fz = 0; P − Wst = 0 A = π(0.2)m2
P − (80 kN/m3)(0.8 m)π(0.2 m)2 = 0
P = 8.042 kN P 8.042 kN
σ= =
A π(0.2 m)2
σ = 64.0 kN/m2= 64.0 kPa

6.4 Average Shear Stress 6.4 Average Shear Stress
• Shear stress is the stress component that act in the plane Average shear stress over each
of the sectioned area. section is:
• Consider a force F acting to the bar V
τavg = A
• For rigid supports, and F is large enough, bar will deform
and fail along the planes identified by AB and CD
• Free-body diagram indicates that shear force, V = F/2 be τavg = average shear stress at section,
applied at both sections to ensure equilibrium assumed to be same at each pt on
the section
V = internal resultant shear force at
section determined from equations of
equilibrium
A = area of section
6.4 Average Shear Stress 6.4 Average Shear Stress

• Case discussed above is example of simple or Single shear
direct shear • Steel and wood joints shown below are examples of
• Caused by the direct action of applied load F single-shear connections, also known as lap joints.
• Occurs in various types of simple connections, • Since we assume members are thin, there are no
e.g., bolts, pins, welded material moments caused by F

6.4 Average Shear Stress Chapter 7: Strain
Single shear
• For equilibrium, x-sectional area of bolt and bonding surface
Reference:
between the two members are subjected to single shear force, V =
Chapter 2, Mechanics of Materials
F – R. C. Hibbeler
• The average shear stress equation can be applied to determine
average shear stress acting on colored section in (d).
Strain distribution in a rocket engine fuel block

(Courtesy of ONERA)
7.1 Deformation 7.2 Strain

Normal strain
Deformation • Defining average normal strain using εavg (epsilon)
• Occurs when a force is applied to a body
Δs’ − Δs
• Can be highly visible or practically unnoticeable εavg =
Δs
• Can also occur when temperature of a body is changed
• Is not uniform throughout a body’s volume, thus change in
geometry of any line segment within body may vary along
its length • As ∆s → 0, ∆s’ → 0
lim ∆s’ − ∆s
ε=
B→A along n ∆s

7.2 Strain Unit 7.3 Shear Strain
• Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity, as it’s a ratio of • Defined as the change in angle that occurs between two line
two lengths segments that were originally perpendicular to one another
• But common practice to state it in terms of meters/meter • This angle is denoted by γ (gamma) and measured in
(m/m) radians (rad).
• ε is small for most engineering applications, so is normally
expressed as micrometers per meter (μm/m) where 1 μm =
10−6
• Also expressed as a percentage,
e.g., 0.001 m/m = 0.1 %
7.4 Small Strain Deformation Example 7-1

• Most engineering design involves applications for which Rod below is subjected to temperature increase along its axis,
only small deformations are allowed creating a normal strain of εz = 40(10−3)z1/2,
• We’ll assume that deformations that take place within a where z is given in meters.
body are almost infinitesimal, so normal strains
occurring within material are very small compared to 1, Determine
i.e., ε << 1. (a) displacement of end B of rod due to
• This assumption is widely applied in practical temperature increase,
engineering problems, and is referred to as small strain (b) average normal strain in the rod.
analysis
• E.g., it can be used to approximate sin θ = θ, cos θ = 1
and tan θ = θ, provided θ is small

(a) Sum total of these segments along axis yields deformed
length of the rod, i.e.,
(a) Since normal strain reported at each point along 0.2 m
the rod, a differential segment dz, located at z’ = ∫0 [1 + 40(10−3)z1/2] dz
position z has a deformed length: = z + 40(10−3)(⅔ z3/2)|00.2 m
= 0.20239 m
dz’ = [1 + 40(10−3)z1/2] dz Displacement of end of rod is

ΔB = 0.20239 m − 0.2 m = 2.39 mm ↓

Plate is deformed as shown in figure. In this deformed shape,
(b) Assume rod or “line segment” has original horizontal lines on the on plate remain horizontal and do not
length of 200 mm and a change in length of change their length.
2.39 mm. Hence,
Determine
Δs’ − Δs 2.39 mm
εavg = = = 0.0119 mm/mm (a) average normal strain
Δs 200 mm along side AB,
(b) average shear strain in
the plate relative to x and
y axes

(a) Line AB, coincident with y axis, becomes line AB’ (a) Therefore, average normal strain for AB is,
after deformation. Length of line AB’ is
AB’ − AB 248.018 mm − 250 mm
(εAB)avg = =
AB 250 mm
= −7.93(10−3) mm/mm
AB’ = √ (250 − 2)2 + (3)2 = 248.018 mm Negative sign means
strain causes a
contraction of AB.
Chapter 8: Mechanical
Example 7-2 Properties of Materials
(b) Due to displacement of B to B’, angle BAC referenced Reference:
from x, y axes changes to θ’. Chapter 3, Mechanics of Materials
Since γxy = π/2 − θ’, thus – R. C. Hibbeler
3 mm
γxy = tan−1 ( ) = 0.0121 rad
250 mm − 2 mm

8.1 Stress-strain Diagram 8.1 Stress-strain Diagram
• A stress-strain diagram is obtained by plotting the various Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram
values of the stress and corresponding strain in the • Likewise, nominal or engineering strain is found directly
specimen from strain gauge reading, or by
Conventional stress-strain diagram
• Using recorded data, we can determine nominal or δ
ε=
engineering stress by L0
Assumption: Strain is constant throughout region between
P gauge points
σ=
A0
Assumption: Stress is constant over the x-section and throughout region
By plotting σ (ordinate) against ε (abscissa), we get a
between gauge points conventional stress-strain diagram

Conventional stress-strain diagram Conventional stress-strain diagram
• Figure shows the characteristic stress-strain diagram for steel, a
commonly used material for structural members and mechanical Elastic behavior
elements • A straight line
• Stress is proportional to strain,
Conventional and true stress-strain i.e., linearly elastic
diagrams
• Upper stress limit, or
for
proportional limit; σpl
Steel (ductile material)
• If load is removed upon reaching
Tensile test elastic limit, specimen will return
to its original shape

Strain hardening
Yielding
• Ultimate stress, σu
• Material deforms
permanently; yielding; plastic Figure 3-4 • While specimen is Figure 3-4
deformation elongating, its x-sectional
• Yield stress, σY
area will decrease
• Decrease in area is fairly

• Once yield point reached, specimen continues to elongate (strain) without uniform over entire gauge
any increase in load length
• Note figure not drawn to scale, otherwise induced strains is 10-40 times
larger than in elastic limit
• Material is referred to as being perfectly plastic

Necking Necking
• At ultimate stress, x- • Specimen finally breaks
sectional area begins to
Figure 3-4 at fracture stress, σf Figure 3-4
decrease in a localized
region
• As a result, a constriction or
“neck” tends to form in this
region as specimen elongates
further
• Specimen finally breaks at fracture stress, σf
True stress-strain diagram Ductile materials

Offset method to determine yield strength
• Instead of using original cross-sectional area and length, we
can use the actual cross-sectional area and length at the 1. Normally, a 0.2 % strain is
instant the load is measured chosen.
• Values of stress and strain thus calculated are called true 2. From this point on the ε axis, a
stress and true strain, and a plot of their values is the true line parallel to initial straight-
stress-strain diagram line portion of stress-strain
diagram is drawn.
3. The point where this line
intersects the curve defines the
yield stress.
8.1 Stress-strain Diagram 8.1 Stress-strain diagram

Brittle Materials
• Material that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are
referred to as brittle materials, e.g., gray cast iron
Brittle vs. Ductile Behavior
• Brittle materials do not have a well-defined tensile fracture
stress, since appearance of initial cracks in a specimen is
quite random

8.2 Hooke’s law 8.2 Hooke’s law
• As shown above, most grades of steel have
• Most engineering materials exhibit a linear relationship same modulus of elasticity, Est = 200 GPa
between stress and strain within the elastic region • Modulus of elasticity is a mechanical
• Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using springs, property that indicates the stiffness of a
material
known as Hooke’s law
• Materials that are stiff have large E values,
while spongy materials (vulcanized rubber)
σ = Eε have low values
• E represents the constant of proportionality, also called the modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus
• E has units of stress, i.e., pascals, MPa or GPa.
8.2 Hooke’s law 8.3 STRAIN ENERGY

• When material is deformed by external loading, energy is
IMPORTANT stored internally throughout its volume
• Modulus of elasticity E, can be used only if a material has • Internal energy is also referred to as strain energy
linear-elastic behavior. • Stress develops a force,
• Also, if stress in material is greater than the proportional
limit, the stress-strain diagram ceases to be a straight line
and the equation is not valid ΔF = σ ΔA = σ (Δx Δy)
δz = ε Δz
U= δz× ½ ΔF= ½ σεΔV

8.3 STRAIN ENERGY 8.4 Poisson’s Ratio
• Strain-energy density is strain energy per unit volume of • When body subjected to axial tensile force, it elongates
material and contracts laterally
• Similarly, it will contract and its sides expand laterally when
∆U σε subjected to an axial compressive force
u= =
∆V 2
• If material behavior is linear elastic, Hooke’s law applies,
σ σ σ2
u= ( )
2 ε
=
2E
8.4 Poisson’s Ratio 8.4 Poisson’s Ratio

• Strains of the bar are:
• ν is unique for homogenous and isotropic material
δ δ’ • Why negative sign? Longitudinal elongation cause lateral
εlong = εlat =
L r contraction (-ve strain) and vice versa
• Lateral strain is the same in all lateral (radial) directions
• Early 1800s, S.D. Poisson realized that within elastic
• Poisson’s ratio is dimensionless, 0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5
range, ration of the two strains is a constant value, since
both are proportional.
εlat
Poisson’s ratio, ν = − εlong

Bar is made of A-36 steel and behaves elastically. Normal stress in the bar is
Determine change in its length and change in dimensions of
its cross section after load is applied. P
σz = = 16.0(106) Pa
A
From tables, Est = 200 GPa, strain in z-direction is
σz
εz = = 80(10−6) mm/mm
Est
Axial elongation of the bar is,
δz = εzLz = [80(10−6)](1.5 m) = −25.6 μm/m
Example 8-1
Using νst = 0.32, contraction strains in both x and y directions

are
εx = εy = −νstεz = −0.32[80(10−6)] = −25.6 μm/m
Thus changes in dimensions of cross-section are

The End
δx = εxLx = −[25.6(10−6)](0.1 m) = −25.6 μm of the Session
δy = εyLy = −[25.6(10−6)](0.05 m) = −1.28 μm

CSE20201 Lecture 7

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CSE20201 Lecture 7

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Structural Mechanics Lecture 7: Outline

3. Mechanics Properties of materials

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 2

Chapter 6: STRESS 6.1 Introduction

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 3 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 4

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 5 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 6

6.1 Introduction 6.2 Stress

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 7 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 8

• Tensile stress: normal force “pulls” or “stretches” the area

6.2 Stress 6.2 Stress

Shear stress General state of stress

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 11 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 12

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 13 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 14

6.3 Average Normal Stress In 6.3 Average Normal Stress In

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 17 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 18

Example 6-1 Example 6-1

Normal force diagram

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 19 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 20

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 21 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 22

Example 6-2 Example 6-2

Average normal stress Average compressive stress

σ = 64.0 kN/m2= 64.0 kPa

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 23 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 24

6.4 Average Shear Stress 6.4 Average Shear Stress

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 27 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 28

Strain distribution in a rocket engine fuel block

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 29 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 30

7.1 Deformation 7.2 Strain

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 31 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 32

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 33 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 34

7.4 Small Strain Deformation Example 7-1

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 35 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 36

dz’ = [1 + 40(10−3)z1/2] dz Displacement of end of rod is

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 37 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 38

Example 7-1 Example 7-2

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 39 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 40

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 41 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 42

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 43 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 44

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 45 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 46

8.1 Stress-strain Diagram 8.1 Stress-strain Diagram

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 47 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 48

• Decrease in area is fairly

8.1 Stress-strain Diagram 8.1 Stress-strain Diagram

True stress-strain diagram Ductile materials

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 53 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 54

8.1 Stress-strain Diagram 8.1 Stress-strain diagram

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 55 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 56

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 57 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 58

8.2 Hooke’s law 8.3 STRAIN ENERGY

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 59 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 60

• If material behavior is linear elastic, Hooke’s law applies,

8.4 Poisson’s Ratio 8.4 Poisson’s Ratio

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 63 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 64

δz = εzLz = [80(10−6)](1.5 m) = −25.6 μm/m

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 65 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 66

Using νst = 0.32, contraction strains in both x and y directions

εx = εy = −νstεz = −0.32[80(10−6)] = −25.6 μm/m

Thus changes in dimensions of cross-section are

CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 67 CSE20201 Structural Mechanics: Lecture 7 68

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