Translation Quality Assessment of Academic Psychological Text Based On Juliane

‫‪MA in English Translation‬‬
‫‪Bandar Abbas Azad University‬‬
‫‪Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of‬‬
‫‪M.A. in English Translation Studies‬‬
‫‪Translation Quality Assessment of Academic Psychological Text based on Juliane‬‬

‫‪House's Model‬‬
‫‪Supervisor‬‬
‫‪Vafa Nadernia, Ph.D.‬‬
‫‪By‬‬
‫‪Zahra Ghaffarnejad‬‬
‫‪May 2017‬‬
‫دسترسی به این مدرک بر پایة آییننامة ثبت و اشاعة پیشنهادهها‪ ،‬پایاننامهها‪ ،‬و رسالههای تحصیل ت تکمیلی و صیانت از حقوق پدیدآوران در آنها ) وزار ت علوم‪ ،‬تحقیقا ت‪ ،‬فناوری به شمارة ‪/195929‬و تاریخ ‪ (1395/9/6‬از پایگاه اطلعا ت علمی ایران )گنج( در پژوهشگاه علوم و فننناوری‬
‫اطلعا ت ایران )ایرانداک( فراهم شده و استفاده از آن با رعایت کامل حقوق پدیدآوران و تنها برای هدفهای علمی‪ ،‬آموزشی‪ ،‬و پژوهشی و بر پایة قانون حمایت از مؤلفان‪ ،‬مصنفان‪ ،‬و هنرمندان )‪ (1348‬و الحاقا ت و اصلحا ت بعدی آن و سایر قوانین و مقررا ت مربوط شدنی است‪.‬‬
‫‪In the Name of GOD‬‬
‫‪DEDICATION‬‬
‫‪To‬‬
‫‪My husband,‬‬
‫‪My lovely children‬‬
‫‪And‬‬
‫‪My reverent parents‬‬
‫‪IV‬‬
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I praise God, the Almighty, for His showers of blessings that helped me
finish this work. I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my research
supervisor, Dr. Vafa Nadernia, who proved to me that how a man might be determined and
faithful to his scientific and academic goals. He gave me this opportunity to believe in myself
and to finish this research in proper manner. His valuable guidelines will never be forgotten. I
would also like to express my deepest appreciation to my husband and children, my parents
and my family members for their patience, motivation and continuous encouragement that
helped me finish this tough job. Finally, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the
readers of present research.
III
‫( از پایگاه اطلعا ت علمی ایران )گنج( در پژوهشگاه علوم و فننناوری‬1395/9/6 ‫و تاریخ‬/195929 ‫ فناوری به شمارة‬،‫ تحقیقا ت‬،‫ و رسالههای تحصیل ت تکمیلی و صیانت از حقوق پدیدآوران در آنها ) وزار ت علوم‬،‫ پایاننامهها‬،‫دسترسی به این مدرک بر پایة آییننامة ثبت و اشاعة پیشنهادهها‬
.‫( و الحاقا ت و اصلحا ت بعدی آن و سایر قوانین و مقررا ت مربوط شدنی است‬1348) ‫ و هنرمندان‬،‫ مصنفان‬،‫ و پژوهشی و بر پایة قانون حمایت از مؤلفان‬،‫ آموزشی‬،‫اطلعا ت ایران )ایرانداک( فراهم شده و استفاده از آن با رعایت کامل حقوق پدیدآوران و تنها برای هدفهای علمی‬
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................X
Chapter 1 :Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the study ...................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Statement of the problem .................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Objective of the Study .......................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Research question ............................................................................................................... 8
1.6 Definition of key terms ......................................................................................................... 8
1.7 Limitations and delimitations ................................................................................................ 9
Chapter 2 :Review of Related literature ..................................................................................... 11
2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 12
2.2 A Brief History of Translation Studies ................................................................................... 13
2.3 Translation Definition ........................................................................................................ 15
2.4 The Nature of Translation Quality Assessment ...................................................................... 17
2.5 Equivalence in Translation .................................................................................................. 18
2.6 Different Approaches of Equivalence in Translation ............................................................... 18
2.6.1 Jakobson and "Equivalence in Difference" ...................................................................... 19
2.6.2 Nida: Formal Equivalence vs. Dynamic Equivalence ......................................................... 20
2.6.3 Baker's approach to translation equivalence .................................................................. 20
2.6.4 Vinay and Darbelnet and their Equivalence Definition ..................................................... 21
2.6.5 Catford and Translation Shift and Equivalence ................................................................ 21
2.6.6 House, Overt and Covert Translation and Equivalence ..................................................... 23
2.6.7 Koller and Five Categories of Equivalence....................................................................... 23
2.7 Review of Approaches to Evaluating the Quality of Translation ............................................... 25
2.7.1 Anecdotal, Biographical and Neo-hermeneutic Approaches ............................................. 25
2.7.2 Response-oriented, Behavioral Approaches.................................................................... 26
2.7.3 Text-based Approaches to Evaluating Translations .......................................................... 27
2.7.3.1 Literature-oriented Approaches: Descriptive Translation Studies ................................ 27
2.7.3.2 Post-Modernist and Deconstructionist Approaches ................................................... 28
2.7.3.3 Functionalistic and Action and reception-theory Related Approaches ......................... 29
2.7.3.4 Linguistically-oriented approaches .......................................................................... 29
2.8 A Functional-Pragmatic Model of Translation Evaluation ........................................................ 33
IV
2.8.1 House's Framework for Analyzing and Comparing Original and Translation Texts ............... 33
2.8.1.1 Operation of House's Model ................................................................................... 37
2.8.2 Overt and Covert Translation ........................................................................................ 39
2.8.3 The Concept and Function of a Cultural Filter ................................................................. 41
2.9 The Application of House's Model in Research ...................................................................... 41
Chapter 3: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 48
3.1 introduction ...................................................................................................................... 49
3.2 design .............................................................................................................................. 49
3.3 materials .......................................................................................................................... 49
3.4 Theoretical framework ....................................................................................................... 50
3.4.1 The first level: Language/Text ....................................................................................... 50
3.4.2 The second level: Register ............................................................................................ 51
3.4.3 The third level: Genre .................................................................................................. 53
3.4.4 The fourth level: Function of the individual text .............................................................. 53
3.5 Procedure ......................................................................................................................... 54
3.6 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 55
3.7 Dependability of research ................................................................................................... 55
Chapter 4 :Results and Discussion............................................................................................. 57
4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 58
4.2 Restatement of the Research Question ................................................................................ 58
4.3 Summary of the Study ........................................................................................................ 58
4.4 Analysis of the Original Book: .............................................................................................. 59
4.4.1 Statement of Function ................................................................................................. 64
4.4.2 Analysis of sample paragraphs ...................................................................................... 65
4.4.3 Comparison of Original and Translation ....................................................................... 185
4.4.4 Statement of Quality ................................................................................................. 189
Chapter 5: Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 192
5.1 introduction .................................................................................................................... 193
5.2 summary and results........................................................................................................ 193
5.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 196
5.4 Implications .................................................................................................................... 197
5.5 suggestions for further studies .......................................................................................... 198
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 199
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Four Levels of House Translation Quality Assessment (1997) ........................................... 50
Table 2: Three levels of Register in House's Translation Quality Assessment .................................. 51
Table 3: Source Text Profile: Field ............................................................................................. 60
Table 4 : Source Text Profile: Tenor ........................................................................................... 61
Table 5: Source Text Profile: Mode ........................................................................................... 63
Table 6: Genre and Function .................................................................................................... 64
Table 7 : overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 1, chapter 1 .......................... 67
Table 8: overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 2, chapter 1 ........................... 70
Table 9: Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 3, chapter 1 .......................... 74
Table 10: Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 1, chapter 2 ........................ 82
Table 16: Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 1, chapter 4 ...................... 100
Table 24:Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 3, chapter 6 ....................... 127
Table 26: Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph2, chapter 7 ....................... 133
Table 34: Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 1, chapter 10 ..................... 152
Table 43:Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 2, chapter 13 ..................... 179
VII
‫‪Table 44: Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 3, chapter 13 ..................... 180‬‬
‫‪Table 45: Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 1, chapter 14 ..................... 181‬‬
‫‪Table 46: Categories of translation types and their percentage .................................................. 183‬‬
‫‪Table 47: Categories of Overtly Erroneous Errors and their Percentage ....................................... 184‬‬
‫‪Table 48: Source text and target text profile comparison ........................................................... 188‬‬
‫‪VIII‬‬
‫‪LIST OF FIGURES‬‬
‫‪Figure 1: Categorization of Translation's Type in Technical Words .............................................. 184‬‬
‫‪Figure2 : Categorization of Overtly Erroneous Errors ................................................................ 185‬‬
‫‪IX‬‬
ABSTRACT
Translation quality assessment (TQA) is one of the inseparable aspects of translation studies.
During recent years, there has been a crucial growth on the study of TQA. Various methods of
TQA have emerged on the scene among which Julian House's model is the most promising
one and can be applied on different genres. This research aimed to apply House's translation
quality assessment on a scientific Persian translation text in the genre of psychology namely
"Atkinson and Hilgard Introduction to Psychology" to evaluate its quality. Since scientific
texts are classified under the covert translation in House's model therefore, the selected text
must be translated covertly in order to support this notion and answer research questions. To
reach this goal, at first, 54 paragraphs were selected from the source text randomly. Then the
parallel translations were drawn from the target text. Based on House's model, the source text
profile was produced along a set of situational dimensions. This textual profile characterized
source text function -consisting of an ideational and an interpersonal functional component-
and its genre. The target text profile, genre and function were also identified in such a way
and finally these components were compared to each other. The result of this comparison
revealed that the ideational functional component and the interpersonal one were affected
through the changes of translation but the source and target texts are equivalent at the level of
genre and individual textual function. Furthermore, it was proved that translation was covert
and, consciously or unconsciously, the translator applied a cultural filter. The results also
disclosed that this model was applicable for assessing the quality of Persian translation of
psychological texts.
‫‪CHAPTER 1 :INTRODUCTION‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Translation as a way for exchanging ideas and thoughts has played a significant role in
human life throughout history. As Miremadi (2003) believes, translation is a means to an
opening to the world events. All countries and nations deal with other language texts in
various fields. Increasing improvements in knowledge, culture, technology, industry and
trading have enhanced the need for translation.
Translation can pave the way for people to know about all the developments in
communication and technology, get aware of latest technical and scientific achievements, and
also have access to different events happening in the world. So, a good translation is
constructive and informative but among the very translations which are produced, there may
be some which might not be transferred with great care and they may cause
misunderstanding. Such a translation creates confusion, anxiety and illusion among addresses
and does not increase their knowledge. But, how do we know when a translation is good or
not? As Juliane House puts it , "This question is one of the most important questions to be
asked in connection with translation and it is crucial to attend to answer this question on the
basis of a theory of translation and translation criticism" (2001 b, p.127).
Translation quality assessment (TQA) is one way to answer this question. It is the way
to evaluate the existing translations so as to differentiate good translations from those with
low quality. Since translation is a complex hermeneutic process and rely on translators'
intuition, its evaluation is a highly subjective task. Bowker (2001) states that, Translation
evaluation is among the most addressed research topics in translation studies but the main
difficulty associates with translation evaluation is its very subjectivity.
From the beginning of practice of translation, scholars have tried to find more objective
ways in order to evaluate the quality of a translation. Different views and models have been
proposed to prevent subjective assessments. These models apply different criteria. The criteria
listed will be different, depending on the aim of the evaluation and on the theoretical frame
work that people apply when they assess translation quality (Schaffner, 1997). In the words of
House "Evaluating the quality of a translation presupposes a theory of translation. Thus
different views of translation lead to different concepts of translational quality, and hence
different ways of assessing it" (1997, p.1) .
The first systematic view towards the evaluation of translated texts was proposed by
Nida through The Principle of Equivalent Effect (Munday, 2001, p.42). Then, the other
assessment methods e.g. Leuven Zwart, 1989, 1990; Toury, 1995; House, 1997; Marie, 1998;
Schaffner1998; Fawcett, 2000 have been developed by scholars and the translation industry
(Williams&Chesterman, 2002).
This development shows a crucial improvement in this field of study. It seems that from
among these models, translation quality assessment model provided by the German scholar
Julian House is promising. House's model on translation quality assessment is one of the most
recent and applicable ones as she has considered almost all kinds of texts and translational
theories in her study. She divided theories toward meaning into three categories, namely
"mentalist view, response-based view and discourse and text-based view" (House, 1997, p.8).
She stated that her view is a part of discourse based view.
This research focuses on the translation of an academic psychological text, as a
scientific or technical text based on House's model. Today, psychology course is one of the
most popular courses in Iran and a large number of students choose this course. Since the
most textbooks of this course are translated from western books, it feels the necessity of
assessing these translations.
Therefore, the researcher selected an English psychological text book namely "Atkinson
and Hilgard Introduction to Psychology" written by Susan Nolen Hoeksema et.al. This book
has been translated to Persian language by Hasan Rafiee with cooperation of Mojtaba
Delir.The English and Persian versions of this book were considered as the source and target
texts of this research and are supposed to be compared analytically. The researcher tries to
discover overt and covert translation paradigm of Julian House's model in selected corpus,
and intends to consider mismatches and errors that might have occurred in the translation
process.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Translation can be defined as the result of a linguistic- textual operation in which a text
in one language is re-contextualized in another language. In addition to linguistic factors, a
variety of extra linguistic factors also influence on a translation. It is this interaction between
"inner" linguistic-textual and "outer" extra-linguistic, contextual factors that makes translation
such a complex phenomenon (House, 1997).
So, translation is not simply the replacement of words, phrases and sentences by their
dictionary meaning but also it must convey all the meaning, features and concepts of the
original text. Mollanazar (2001) believes that a good translation is one which transmits the
same message accurately, naturally and clearly.
A good translation should create the same understanding and emotional feeling for the
target reader as the original one. Thus, the quality of a translation is of great importance and a
translation is something that has to be discussed (Newmark, 1988). According to above
mentioned points, to evaluate the quality of a translation is a necessary task, but it is worthy to
know how to assess such a quality. This simple question lies at the heart of all concerns with
translation criticism or assessment (House, 2001).
Assessment of translation quality is a difficult task. "It is notoriously difficult to say
why or even whether something is a good translation" (Halliday, 2001, p.14). The evaluation
of a translation as good or poor is an important issue and problematic subject (Bowker, 2001).
Judgments on the quality of a translation depend on a variety of factors: the translator's
interpretation of the text, the reason of translation, the reader, and variety of publishing and
marketing policies. These are among those social factors that affect the quality of translation
and make the task of criticism difficult (House, 2001).
To fulfill such a difficult task, a reliable framework or in other word a model of
translation quality assessment is needed. As long as translation concerned, there have been
always some scholars to propose models for assessing the quality of translation. Julian
House, the German theorist, is one of the translation scholars who proposed approach for
translation quality assessment. Like Holliday, Crystal and Davys, she considers feature of
textual function. She convincingly demonstrates that her linguistic approach to TQA includes
textual, situational and cultural aspects (Schaffner, 1997). House's model is based on
comparative source text and target text analysis in register, language/text and genre. In this
model, original text and its translation are equivalent when they have equivalent function. To
determine this equivalence, first the function of the source text is identified by the analysis the
original textual profile. This function acts as a norm and then translation is measured based on
it. The degree to which the textual profile and function of the translation match the profile and
function of the original is the degree to which the translation is adequate in quality (House,
2009b).
House, in her model, has introduced two types of translation which are suitable for
different texts based on their situational dimensions and functional equivalence. These two
translational types are overt and covert translations. House states that "functional equivalence
is only possible in covert translation "(House, 2009b, p.225). She says the functional
equivalence concept is the translation base. House's comparative source text and target text
analysis highlights mismatches or errors. Moreover, the final qualitative judgment of the
translation consists of a listing of both types of errors and of a statement the relative match of
the two functional components (House, 2009b).
The 20th century was called the science and technology era. This century has seen a
considerable enhancement in science and technology. Along with other sciences, the
psychology science has also developed in recent centuries. The attractiveness of this science,
its practical use in the most aspects of life and the effect of this science on the other sciences
like management, policy, and economy has been caused to a large number of students turn to
study this science .
Many Iranian students also study in this major abroad or in the country. Therefore a
great deal of materials is translated from English to Persian. So, translators should be aware of
the translation problems that affect the quality of translation of such writings. Therefore, this
research has been focused on an academic psychological text as a scientific or technical text
type. It attempts to apply House's model to assess Persian translation of the "Atkinson and
Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology". This book is one of the most important and the most
popular psychological books. In addition to psychology course, this book is also taught in
other courses like medical and nursing. There are different translations of this book that one
of them is 16th edition which was translated by Hasan Rafiee with cooperation of Mojtaba
Delir. The researcher selected this translation to discover if it is a covert translation.
Moreover, the researcher tries to consider the remaining mismatches after assessing the
translation in order to find out if she can present a better analysis of other mismatches.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
As English became the universal language of science in the 20th century, most scientific
research is written in English all over the world. Therefore, a lot of investigations have
dedicated to the translation of scientific texts, because there is a growing demand for
communicating scientific knowledge to the public (Sharkas, 2009). There is also an increasing
call for translation of different kinds of scientific works into the Persian language. So,
evaluating the translation of these works is a necessary urgent need. Psychological texts are
among scientific texts that have had many functions in recent years. Therefore, this research
focused on the quality assessment of an academic psychological text.
In addition to student communities which are the largest audiences of the translated
psychological texts, today these texts have also attracted many laymen. This research with
identifying the problems of translation of these texts can help students and laymen. It is hoped
that the findings of the present study will be helpful for translators.
Moreover, the evaluators and teachers can gain benefit from the results of the present
study in assessing the translation of psychological texts and other text types. The possible
results of this study, hopefully, can be used in the process of learning /teaching translation by
the instructors and the learners.
The findings of the current study are hoped to be of help to translators who want to
work in the field of psychological texts' translation to improve the quality of their translation.
It is also hoped that this study provides a common yardstick and model to evaluate the quality
of translation by translators and raters.
1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The main purpose of this study is to apply Julian house's model in assessing the Persian
translation of "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology" and find out what type of
translation, proposed by House (1997), would be followed in the Persian translated text of this
book. By using House's translation quality assessment model and identifying overt and
convert translation, the research will seek to answer the following questions:
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTION

1. Is the Persian translation of the "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology"
covert, considering House's model of translation quality assessment?
2. Is House's translation quality assessment model applicable for assessing the quality of
the Persian translation of psychological texts?
1.6 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

Translation: Translation is replacement of one language known as source language with
another that is known as target. "The process is usually an interlingual translation in which the
message in source language text is rendered as a target text in a different language'' (House,
2009, p.4).
Translation quality assessment: as Hatim and Mason (2014, p.52) put it, translation
quality assessment (TQA) is "the systematic evaluation of a TT (target text) by comparison
with a ST (source text).
House's model: This model is based on Holliday's systematic functional theory. It
provides the means for analysis and comparison of the source text and target text on three
different levels: language text, register (field, tenor and mode) and genre. After comparing the
texts and finding mismatches or errors, a "statement of the equality" is made of the translation
and then, the translation can be categorized into one of two types: overt translation or covert
translation (Munday, 2012, p.140).
Field: Field captures social activity, subject matter or topic, including differentiation of
degrees of "generality", "specificity' or 'granularity' in lexical items according to rubrics of
specialized, general, and popular (House, 2001, p.248).
Tenor: Tenor refers to the nature of the participants the addresser and the addressees,
and the relationships between them in terms of social power and social distance as well as
degree of emotional charge. Included here are the text producers' temporal, geographical and
social provenance as well as his intellectual, emotional or affective stance (his "personal view
point") vis a vis the content she is portraying. Further, Tenor captures "social attitude", i.e.
different styles (formal, consultative and informal) (House, 2001, p.248).
Mode: Mode refers to both the channel -spoken or written (which can be "simple", i.e.
"written to be read" or "complex", i.e. "written to be spoken as if not written") and the degree
to which potential or real participation is allowed for between writer and reader (House, 2001,
p.248).
Overt translation: An overt translation is one in which the addresses of the translation
text are quite "overtly" not being directly addressed: thus an overt translation is one which
must overtly be a translation not a ''second original'' (House, 1997, p.66).
Covert translation: A covert translation is a translation which enjoys the status of an
original source text in the target culture (House, 1997, p.69).
1.7 LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS

There are some unavoidable limitations in this study: First, this research is conducted
only on a psychological text as a scientific genre. Therefore, to generalize the results, the
study should have considered more texts on different genres. So, the result of the study can be
acceptable only for the above mentioned genre and it can be different for other ones. Second,
House's model of translation quality assessment is used specifically for this research and no
‫‪other model is included. Third, logically this study will not examine the whole text; instead,‬‬
‫‪the researcher's selective criteria have been limited to 3 initial paragraphs of the chapters of‬‬
‫‪source and translated one so that the researcher would have comparable data.‬‬
‫‪10‬‬
‫‪CHAPTER 2 :REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE‬‬
‫‪11‬‬
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Translation is an important mediator between cultures and nations. As Munday believed
"Through history, written and spoken translations have played a crucial role in inter human
communication" (Munday, 2012, p.10).
The first translated works belong to ancient scripts in Egypt. They are more than 3200
years. Translation practice was started with the translation of the religious and philosophical
texts. Then, cultural and scientific developments, emergence of modern inventions and
discoveries and expansion of economic and commercial competitions have developed the
range of translated works.
Today, globalization also has resulted in increased interactions between people and
cultures of the world. These cross cultural interactions has increased the need for translation.
Therefore, interest in the field of translation has been stronger than past. Many books on
translation have appeared throughout the past two decades, new journals of translation, new
encyclopedias and new courses on translation in universities offer evidence of international
interest in translation studies, therefore, evidence of the interest in translation is everywhere
(Bassnet, 2013). The development of translation in various areas revealed the need for its
scientific study.
This chapter will first focus on the translation studies and the definition of translation.
Then the nature of TQA will be discussed. Afterwards there will be a section about the
concept of equivalence. Further, there is another section elaborating very briefly the various
theoretical approaches to translation quality assessment as the review of literature. The
purpose of this will be to highlight that there are in fact many different approaches to
translation quality assessment one of which is House's theory which lies within the group of
theories that are also known as functional-pragmatic approaches. Here, House's theory which
12
is used in this research will be presented and the section will focus on the main features of
House's theory.
2.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF TRANSLATION STUDIES

The practice of translation has a long history and many theorists have written much
about it so far. While the practice of translation is long established, the study of translation as
an academic subject has begun in past fifty years (Munday, 2012). The term "translation
studies" has been coined by Holms in his well-known paper, "The name and nature of
translation studies", which published and widely read in 1988.
Cicero and Horace (first century BCE) (as cited by Munday, 2012) were the first
theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense
translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generation of
translation up to the 20th century. Another period that was a turning point in translation
developments was marked by St. Jerome (fourth century CE). "His approach to translating the
Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translation of Scriptures" (Munday, 2012,
P.13).
In the 17th century, influential theories emerged; the most obvious is that of John
Dryden (1631-1700) whose trichotomy on translation types (metaphrase, paraphrase and
imitation) make big strides (Ghanooni, 2012).
At the outset of the 19th century, the Romanticism discussed the issue of translatability
and untranslatability. During the 1900s to 1930s, in translation theory the crucial trends are
rooted in German literary and philosophical traditions and hermeneutics. It is considered that
language is not communicative, but constitutive in its representations of thought and reality.
For translation, taking this into account, it is view as an interpretation which necessarily
reconstitutes and transforms the foreign text. For scholars as Schleiermacher and Bolt,
13
translation is a creative force in which specific translation strategies serve a variety of cultural
and social functions, paving the way for the construction of nations, literatures and languages
(Venuti, 2004, p.74).
At the outset of the 20th century, these philosophical theories reconsidered by Ezra
Pound and Walter Benjamin. They had particular influence upon later post-modern and
deconstructionist translators. In the 1940s to1950s, the prevalent concept is "translatability".
During this decade, the main issue is that whether the differences that separate the language
and culture can be brought back to friendship via translation or not (Ghanooni, 2012).
The more systematic and mostly linguistic-oriented approach to the study of translation
began to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s, in work by Vinay and Darbelnet in 1958, Alfred
Malblanc in 1963, Mounin in 1963 and Nida in 1964 (Munday, 2012).
According to Munday (2012) the movement of translation studies has seen fast
developments from 1970s. The linguistic-oriented science of translation has continued
strongly in Germany. The concept of equivalence was reconsidered. In Germany, some
theories emerged that were focus on text types and text purpose (the skopos theory of Reiss
and Vermeer). The Hallidayan influence of discourse analysis and systemic functional
grammar, came to prominence in the early 1990s, especially in Australia and the UK. It was
applied to translation in a series of works by scholars such as Bell (1991), Baker (1992/2011),
Hatim and Mason (1990/1997) and Munday (2008).
Descriptive approach was introduced in the late 1970s and 1980s that its origin was in
comparative literature and Russian Formalism. The polysystem theory was presented by
Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury in 1980s. The polysystemists worked with a Belgium-based
group including Jose Lambert and the late Andre Lefevere and with the UK-based scholars
Susan Bassnett and Theo Hermans (Munday, 2012).
14
The 1990s saw the emergence of new approaches and concepts. Canadian-based
translation and gender research led by Sherry Simon, the Brazilian cannibalist school was
established by Else Vieira and postcolonial translation theory with the prominent figures of
the Bengali scholars Tejaswini Niranjana and Gayatri Spivac. In the United States, the
cultural-oriented analysis of Lawrence Venuti called for greater visibility and recognition of
the translator. Developments continued at a fast pace in the new millennium, with special
interest devoted to translation, globalization and resistance, the sociology and historiography
of translation, translator training and process-oriented research (Munday,2012,p,21).
2.3 TRANSLATION DEFINITION

The term translation has been defined variously as many experts and theorists in this
subject have their own ideas about the definition of translation. It is necessary to understand
the concept of translation as mentioned by many translation experts and theorists to obtain an
overall picture of the translation process.
Catford (1965) defined translation as "translation is the replacement of textual material
in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)" (p.34).
Nida and Taber (1969) stated "translation consists of reproducing in the receptor
language, the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of
meaning and secondly in terms of style" (p.67).
Larson (1984) points out that" translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical
structures, communication situation and cultural context of the source language, analyzing it
in order to determine its meaning, then reconstructing the same meaning using the lexicon and
grammatical structure which is appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context"
(p.123).
15
Newmark (1988) said "translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another
language in the way that the author intended the text" (p.11).
Hatim and Mason (1990) suggested that translation is a process involving the
negotiation of meaning between producers and receivers of the text.
Bell (1991) views translation as the replacement of a text in one language by an
equivalent text in another language.
According to House (2009), translation is a process of replacing a text in one language
by a text in another. Translation is the process of replacing an original text, known as the
source text, with a substitute one, known as the target text. The process is usually an
interlingual translation in that the message in the source language text is rendered as a target
text in a different language.
From those definitions above, it can be inferred that translation is the process of
transferring meaning and message from source language into target language. In recent years,
experts and theorists believed that translation is not only transferring the meaning of source
text but source text and target text should also have the same value, function and effect. So
the translator must be careful in transferring the same meaning and value of source text. If the
translator cannot get the right meaning from source language, the result of the translation will
be misled.
To prevent this misleading results, translations always assessed and criticized by
translations scholars and translation quality assessment has been one of the most important
issues in translation studies.
16
2.4 THE NATURE OF TRANSLATION QUALITY ASSESSMENT
Translation quality assessment (TQA) is a type of evaluation. Evaluation is a need for
any performances and the products or the results of any job in order to assess the quality of
the final output. But, what is evaluation? Michal Scriven defines it as follows: "evaluation is
taken to mean the determination of merit, worth, or significance"(Scriven, 2007, p.1, as cited
in Williams, 2009). Since translation quality assessment is the evaluation of translation, it is
needed to determine its values, worth or significances. But how do we define these values or
worth? What are the criteria to determine these values or worth?
Translation quality was long time assessed based on its being grammatically correct
without taking into consideration the source text or units larger than sentence and also the
context. The focus of this grammatical approach was the linguistic aspect of translation
(Soltani and Neamati, 2013).Then linguistic model was replaced by other approaches, each of
which contributed more insights to the understanding of the complex phenomenon of
translation, and applied partly different criteria to translation quality assessment. Newmark
introduced "pragmatic accuracy" which is related to the textual and situational aspects of
translation. These aspects are important criteria in the text linguistic, pragmatic, and discourse
models of translation (Schaffner, 1997).
House (1981), Nord (1993), Kussmaul (1995) and Goundec (1981) wanted to define the
nature of translation errors. Duncette (1989) and Larose (1989) established various textual
levels on a hierarchical basis and linked the importance of mistakes to these levels. The
psycholinguistic theory of "scenes and frames" was proposed by Dancette (1992) and Snell-
Hornby (1995), which was a theory, related to translation quality assessment (Waddington,
2001). Reiss (2000) and Vermeer evaluated the translation according to the text type and
function (Munday, 2004).
17
According to Waddington (2001) most of the works in the field of translation quality
assessment, were theoretical and descriptive. In recent years, more and more translation
quality assessment models have employed the notion of "equivalence" and thus, have reduced
the high subjectivity of the task of translation quality assessment.
2.5 EQUIVALENCE IN TRANSLATION

Translation developed mainly in the second half of the 20th century. After debates
around literal and free translation, theoreticians in 1950s and 1960s attempted more
systematic analysis of translation. The most prominent issues were meaning and 'equivalence'.
As Halliday (2001, p.15) states, equivalence is" the central organizing concept" of translation.
But this concept is a controversial one. Over the following twenty years many theoreticians
attempted to define the nature of equivalence (Munday, 2001).
According to Koller (1995, p.197), it "merely means a special relationship- which can
be designated as the translation relationship- is apparent between two texts, a source (primary)
one and a resultant one." Or as Nord (1997, p.36) defines it "a static, result-oriented concept
describing a relationship of 'equal communicative value' between two texts or, on lower rank,
between words, phrases, sentences, syntactic structures and so on (in this context, 'value'
refers to meaning, stylistic connotations or communicative effect)."
2.6 DIFFERENT APPROACHES OF EQUIVALENCE IN TRANSLATION

As it was mentioned before, there are many definitions on the notion of translation.
Almost all translation scholars in their theories somehow refer to the equivalence as the most
significant part or at least one of the most crucial parts of translation. Equivalence is also the
conceptual basis of translation quality assessment. Accordingly, various equivalents were
described by translators from different points of view.
18
2.6.1 Jakobson and "Equivalence in Difference"
Jakobson (1959) as cited in Munday (2008) made a contribution to the theoretical
analysis of translation. He introduced the concept of 'equivalence in difference'. He describes
three kinds of translation known as:
 Intralingual
(within one language, i.e. rewording or paraphrase)
 Interlingual
(between two languages)
 Intersemiotic
(between sign systems)
Jakobson (1959) focuses on the question of 'equivalence', which is "the cardinal
problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics"(p.233). He states that, translation
from one language into another substitute's message in one language not for separate code-
units but is for entire message in some other languages. This means that in interlingual
translations there is no full equivalence between code-units. Jakobson also believes that the
act of "translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes" (p.233).
Jakobson discusses that differences in the structure and terminology of language make
the problem of meaning and equivalence, not inability of one language in rendering a message
(cited in Munday). In other words, the translator may face the problem of not finding a
translation equivalent. He acknowledges that "whenever there is deficiency, terminology may
be qualified and amplified by loan words or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic shifts,
and finally, by circumlocutions"(Jakobson, 1959, p.234).
19
2.6.2 Nida: Formal Equivalence vs. Dynamic Equivalence
Nida (1964) argued that there are two different types of equivalence: Namely formal
equivalence-which in the second edition by Nida is referred to as formal correspondence and
dynamic equivalence. He believes that, formal correspondence "focuses attention on the
message itself, in both form and content, unlike dynamic equivalence which is based upon the
principle of equivalent effect"(Nida, 1964, p.159). Formal correspondence consists of a target
language (TL) item which represents the closest equivalent of a source language (SL) word or
phrase.
Nida makes it clear that there are not always formal equivalents between language pairs.
He therefore suggests that these formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the
translation aims at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal
equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will
not be easily understood by the target audience (Fawcett, 1997).
Based on Nida, dynamic equivalence is" the principle of equivalent effect where the
relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which
existed between the original receptors and the message also; the message has to be natural for
the target language reader" (Nida, 1964 , p.156).
2.6.3 Baker's approach to translation equivalence
Baker (1992) introduced four kinds of equivalents as follows:
 Equivalence
that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating from one
language into another.
20
 Grammatical
equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories across
language.
 Textual
equivalence when referring to the equivalence between a source text and a target
text in terms of information and cohesion.
 Pragmatic
equivalence, when referring to imprimaturs and strategies of avoidance during
the translation process.
2.6.4 Vinay and Darbelnet and their Equivalence Definition
Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) view equivalence-oriented translation as a procedure
which" replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different
wording" (p.342). They also suggest that, if this procedure is applied during the translation
process, it can maintain the stylistic impact of the source language text in the target language
text. According to them, equivalence is therefore the ideal method when the translator has to
deal with proverbs, idioms, clichés, nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of
animal sounds (Leonardi, 2000).
2.6.5 Catford and Translation Shift and Equivalence
Catford (1996) presented a linguistic-based approach to translation and this approach is
based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution in the field of
translation theory is the introduction of the concepts of types and shifts of translation. Catford
proposed types of translation in terms of three criteria:
21
 The extent of
translation (full translation vs. partial translation).
 The
grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank-
bound translation vs. unbounded translation).
 The levels of
language involved in translation (total translation vs. restricted translation).
He described two kinds of equivalence namely textual equivalence and formal
correspondence. "A textual equivalent is any TL text or portion of text which is observed on a
particular occasion to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text. A formal
correspondent, on the other hand, is any TL category (unit, class, structure, element of
structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the' same' place in the
'economy' of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL" (Catford, 1996, p.27).
"The SL and TL items rarely have 'the same meaning' in the linguistic sense; but they
can function in the same situation. In total translation, SL and TL texts or items are translation
equivalents when they are interchangeable in a given situation. Therefore translation
equivalence can nearly always be established at sentence-rank -the sentence is the
grammatical unit most directly related to speech- function within a situation" (Catford, 1996,
p.49).
Catford (1996) described his latest category of equivalence (his notable contribution in
the field of translation). It is the binary taxonomy which sheds light on the translation studies.
Catford claimed that two factors affected the equivalence. They are linguistic and cultural
factors. These two factors resulted in two kind of equivalents. They are linguistic and cultural
22
equivalents. This finding of Catford is very significant because it consists of both important
approaches toward equivalence, namely, linguistic and cultural approaches (Heidary, 2009).
2.6.6 House, Overt and Covert Translation and Equivalence
According to House (1997) there are two types of translation:

 Overt
translation: In an overt translation the TT audience is not directly addressed.
Thus an overt translation is one which must overtly be a translation not a
"Second original".
 A covert
translation is a text that is functionally equivalent to the ST. "A covert
translation is a translation whose source text is not specifically addressed to a
particular source culture audience" (House, 1997, p.69).
House (1997) focused on functional equivalence. She states that "the fundamental
characteristic of a translation is that it is a text that is doubly bound: on the one hand to its
source text and on the other hand to the recipient's communicative conditions" (p.34).
In House believe the function of ST should be identified by determining the situational
dimensions of the ST. Then TT text should be evaluated. If the ST and the TT differ
substantially on situational features, then they are not functionally equivalent, and the
translation is not of a high quality. In fact, she stated that "a translation text should be only
match its source text in function, but employ equivalent situational-dimensioned means to
achieve that function" (House, 1997, p.99).
2.6.7 Koller and Five Categories of Equivalence
The five most important different equivalence are identified by Koller in House (2009a,
25) as follow:
23
 Denotative
equivalence: This type of equivalence refers to the extra linguistic, "read world".
 Connotative
equivalence: The connotation that is the culturally normative feelings by a
specific term and by different levels of style or social and geographical dialects.
 Text normative
equivalence: This type of equivalence refers to text types.
 Pragmatic
equivalence: Translation should fulfill the special communicative function of the
receiver of the text or message. This type of equivalence is called pragmatic
equivalence or communicative one. This is Nida's dynamic equivalence.
 Formal-
aesthetic equivalence: It relates to the aesthetic, formal characteristic of the
source text includes word plays and the individual stylistic features of the source
text.
Given above indicates the importance of equivalence notion within the translation
theories. "The central problem of translation-practice is that of finding TL (target language)
equivalents. A central task of translation theory is therefore that of defining the nature and
conditions of translation equivalence" (Catford, 1965, p.21). One of the most practical
definition types for equivalence belongs to House. She considers (1997) meaning as the core
of any kind of equivalence and then expands her theory. House (1997) discusses different
approaches to translation quality assessment and their stance in relation to three basic criteria
concerning the relationship between original and translation, between (features of) the text
and how they are perceived by human agents, and the consequences views of these
24
relationships have for determining the borders between a translation and other textual
operations. All three criteria implicitly touch upon the crucial concept of equivalence in
translation. Different approaches to evaluating the quality of translations will be explained in
follow.
2.7 REVIEW OF APPROACHES TO EVALUATING THE QUALITY OF TRANSLATION

Evaluating the quality of translation assumes a theory of translation. There are different
views of translation. It leads to different concepts of translational quality, and hence different
ways of assessing. In the following different approaches to assessing the quality of translation
will be elaborated. They fall into a number of distinct categories: "Anecdotal and subjective,
including neo-hermeneutic approaches; response-oriented approaches; text-based approaches"
(House, 2009b, p.222).
2.7.1 Anecdotal, Biographical and Neo-hermeneutic Approaches
Anecdotal and subjective views on translation quality have been offered by professional
translators, poets and writers, philologists and philosophers. The main reflection of these
views are "faithfulness to the original", "retention of the original's special flavor" and
"preservation of the spirit of the source language" (House, 1997).
They oppose to derive more general rules or principles for translation quality and to list
a series of concrete examples of translation problems and their unexplained or inexplicable
optimal solutions (House, 1997). Proponents of this approach emphasize the belief that a
quality of a translation depends largely on the translator's subjective interpretation, his or her
personal knowledge, intuition and artistic competence (House, 2009b).
In Stolze's view," a 'good' translation can only come about when the translator identifies
herself fully with the text she is translating whether such identification enables or in fact
25
guarantees a translation of quality, and in either case how it is concretely to be assessed,
remains unclear" (House, 1997, p.2).
This approach emphasizes on only one aspect of translation: the process of
comprehension on the part of the translator. In this approach the original text, the translation
process proper, the relation between original and translation, the expectations of the target
text readers are given a little attention (House, 1997).
2.7.2 Response-oriented, Behavioral Approaches
A second approach of translation quality assessment is behavior- or response- oriented
approach. Adherents of this approach aim at a more scientific way of evaluating translations.
Response-based views of translation evaluation is influenced by American structuralism and
behaviorism Nida's (1964) pioneering work.
According to Nida reader's reaction to the translation is the main yardstick for assessing
a translation's quality. He states that a good translation is one leading to equivalence of
translation (House, 1997). Therefore, "response-oriented approaches to evaluating translations
are communicatively oriented and focus on determining the dynamic equivalence between
source and translation, i.e. the manner in which the receptors of the translated text respond to
it must be equivalent to the manner in which the receptors of the source text respond to the
source text" (House, 2009b, p.222).
Nida postulated three criteria for an optimal translation: general efficiency of the
communicative process, comprehension of intent and equivalence of response (House, 2009b,
222). House argues assuming that it is true that a "good" translation should produce
equivalent responses, but the question is whether it is at all possible to measure an "equivalent
response"(House, 2001).
26
As stated in House (1997) Nida and Taber (1969, p.173) propose another set of criteria:
"the correctness with which the receptors understand the message of the original, the ease of
comprehension and the involvement a person experiences as a result of the adequacy of the
form of the translation" (p.4). Again these behavioural criteria need to be explained and put to
the practical test. Nida and Taber suggest in House (1997, p.4) some practical tests of
translation quality such as cloze test, elicitation of respondents' reactions to several translation
alternatives, and reading aloud techniques.
These tests have also ultimately failed to provide the desired results, because they were
unable to capture such a complex phenomenon as the quality of translation. Further, the
source text is largely ignored in all these methods, which means that nothing can be said
about the relationship between original and translation, nor about whether a translation is in
fact a translation and not another secondary text derived via a different textual operation
(House, 2001).
2.7.3 Text-based Approaches to Evaluating Translations
Text-based approaches to translation quality assessment maybe informed by
comparative literature, by philosophy and sociology, by theories of action and reception and
by linguistics (House, 1997).
2.7.3.1 Literature-oriented Approaches: Descriptive Translation Studies
This approach is oriented towards the translation text. The quality of a translation is
assessed according to the function of the translation in the system of the target culture
literature (House, 1997). "A translation will be taken to be any target-language utterance
which is presented or regarded as such within the target culture, on whatever grounds (Toury,
1958, p.20, as cited in House, 1997). Thus, the source text played down to a considerable
extent in this approach. According to House in this approach, first of all the translated text is
27
criticized without reference to the source text, then specific solutions of translation problems
are analyzed by means of the "mediating functional-relational notion of translation
equivalence"(Toury, 1985, p.21).
The major problem with taking this approach is summarized by House in one question:
"on which criteria are we to legitimately say that one text is a translation, another one not, and
what exactly are the criteria for judging the merits and weaknesses of a given "translation"?
(House, 1997, p.8)
2.7.3.2 Post-Modernist and Deconstructionist Approaches
Theorists in this approach try to examine translation from a philosophical and
sociological point in order to reveal the unequal power relations that are reflected in the
translation directions from and into English, and the promotion of further English language
hegemony through one-sided translations from English and an ever decreasing number of
foreign texts being translated into English (House, 1997). They focus on "hidden process of
selecting texts for translation, and the reasons for, and effect of, certain strategies of
translation" (House, 1997, p.9). This indicates the influence that translators can exert through
their translation on national literature and its canon (House, 2001).They also investigated both
translation theories and individual translation acts pointing to their "cannibalistic" and
"imperialistic" nature (House, 1997).
Proponents of the post-colonialism approach are interested in how the translation of
texts can be seen as a socio-political act, and interventions in acts of translation can be
resulted in a more ethical practice in producing and reading translations (House, 2014).
Deconstructionist and post-structural approaches focus on basic concepts in translation
such as "meaning" and other basic notions involving language, texts and communication
(House, 2014).
28
2.7.3.3 Functionalistic and Action and reception-theory Related Approaches
Adherents of this approach (Reiss and Vermeer) claim that the "skopos" or purpose of a
translation is of overriding importance in evaluating a translation's quality. The target culture
norms are the crucial yardstick in assessing a translation (House, 2001a). They distinguish
between "equivalence" and "adequacy". "Equivalence refers to the relationship between an
original and its translation, where both fulfill the same communicative function; adequacy is
the relationship between source and translation where no functional match obtains and the
"skopos" of the translation has been consistently attended to" (House, 2009b, p.224).
According to Reiss and Vermeer (1984), "it is the translator who decides which function
he selects for his translation and his route of translation, he is given an important new role of
"co-author" (Vermeer, 1994, p.13 as cited in House, 1997, p.13).
The failure of this approach is that how one is to determine whether a given translation
is either adequate or equivalent, let alone how to assess its skopos. Another failure is that the
source text is of secondary importance because the crucial role assumed by the purpose or
skopos of a translation (House, 2009b). Also the notion of function is not clear in this
approach (House, 2001a).
Since translation is simultaneously bound to its source text and to the presuppositions
and conditions governing its reception in the new environment, skopos theory cannot be an
adequate theory when it tackle the evaluation of a translation in its fundamental
bidirectionality (House, 2001a).
2.7.3.4 Linguistically-oriented approaches
"In these approaches the source text, its linguistic and textual structure and its meaning
potential at various levels (including the level of context of situation in a systemic
framework), is seen as the most important, indeed constitutive factor in translation" (House,
29
1997, p.16). In linguistically-based approaches, pairs of source and target texts are compared
with a view to discovering syntactic, semantic, stylistic and pragmatic regularities of transfer
(House, 2009b).
Pioneering work in translation evaluation includes suggestions by Catford (1965), the
early Reiss (1971), Wilss (1974), Koller (1979) and translation scholars of the Leipzig school
(House, 2001a).
One of the most influential linguistic textual approaches was suggested by Reiss (1971).
She states that the most important invariant in translation is the text type to which the source
text belongs. She presents different types of texts based on Buhler's three functions of
language: content-oriented texts, form-oriented texts, and conative texts (cited in House,
1997). Reiss expresses in House (1997, p.17) that "it is these textual types which have to be
kept equivalent in an adequate translation". To determine the textual types, source text should
be analyzed carefully, but House states Reiss' approach is not explicit enough because she
does not indicate how one can establish language functions and the source text type (House,
1997).
"Koller (1972) suggests that the evaluation of a translation should proceed in three
stages; a. source text criticism, with a view to assessing transferability into the target
language, b. translation comparison, taking account of the methods used in the production of a
given translation, and c. translation evaluation on the basis of native-speaker metalinguistic
judgments based on the text-specific features established in stage a" (House, 2009b, p.223)
Wilss (1974; 1977) presented a model that feature criteria both for the detailed
description and interpretation of the source text and for evaluation of the "dependent"
translation text. He suggested that the area of the "norm of usage" in a given language
30
community with reference to a given situational context should be taken as a yardstick.
(House, 1997).
The Leipzig School (otto kade, Gert Jager, Albrecht Neubert) investigated translational
processes as linguistic processes with analysis of translation focusing on linguistic
mechanisms of transfer. (Jager, 1973 as cited in House 1997)
Neubert (1968), as a proponent of the textually and pragmatically oriented approach
claims that "communicative values are the proper objects of translation" (Neubert, 1994, p, 19
as cited in House 1997). He stated that equivalence is the relation between texts, source texts
and target texts and it is only communication values that can be equivalent. In addition,
textual equivalence is the basis of the equivalence to lower-level units.
Another linguistic textual approach to translation quality assessment belongs to
Newmark. His distinction between somatic and communicative translation is as House's
distinction between overt and covert translation. (House, 1997). Newmark believed that the
conception of translation is not solely a "science" but it is also a basic artistic process
requiring the translator's taste, wit and elegance (Newmark, 1981. p.137 as cited in House,
1997). Consequently he has avoided from setting up a consistent model of translation quality
assessment.
Hatim and Mason (1990), Bell (1991), Gutt (1991) and Baker (1992) attempt to
investigate translation through integrating the notion of linguistics and conceptions like
sociolinguistics, speech act theory, discourse analysis and pragmatics which makes their work
valuable for translation quality assessment (House,1997).
Baker (1992) and Hatim and Mason (1990) recognize that any theory of translation and
translation assessment must concern itself with how meaning is generated within and between
different groups of people in different cultures (House 1997, p. 20).
31
Hatim and Mason (1990) define register and discourse analysis, text linguistics as well
as pragmatics and semiotics. They emphasize that register analysis into the communicative
dimension of context are insufficient (House, 1997). Hatim and Mason distinguish another
dimension in order to supplement register analysis, which they refer to as "semiotic"
including considerations of genre, discourse and textually.
Gutt (1991) presents a "relevance-theoretic approach" to translation, He emphasize that
meaning is not determined in advance of actual performance of an utterance but depends on
the addressee's interaction with contextual factors. Context in this theory bound to the
addressee's view about the world, which he uses to interpret the utterance. So Gutt's approach
is audience related and can also be placed alongside the response-oriented and functionalistic
theories (House, 1997). Gut distinguishes two uses of language: descriptive and interpretive,
and it is especially interpretative use that should be the basis for translation (House 1997).
Most of the linguistic approaches take account of the interconnectedness of context and
text because the inextricable link between language and the real world is both definitive in
meaning making and in translation such a view of translation as re-contextualization is the
line taken by House in a functioned pragmatic evaluation model (House,2001a).
House (1997) set up a linguistically oriented model, that aims at providing a detailed
description and explanation of whether and how a translation is equivalent to its source. She
demonstrates that her linguistically approach to translation quality assessment includes
textual, situational and cultural aspect which makes her model on translation quality
assessment, one of the most recent and applicable ones: as she considers almost all kinds of
texts and traditional theories in her study (Schaffner, 1998).
32
2.8 A FUNCTIONAL-PRAGMATIC MODEL OF TRANSLATION EVALUATION
2.8.1 House's Framework for Analyzing and Comparing Original and Translation Texts
House's assessment model (1997) is based on Hallidayan model which is a systematic-
functional theory. But, she draws eclectically on Prague school ideas, speech act theory,
pragmatics, discourse analysis and corpus-based distinction between spoken and written
language.
"House bases her model on comparative ST-TT analysis leading to the assessment of
the quality of the translation, highlighting 'mismatches' or 'errors' " (Munday, 2012, p, 140).
She provides for the analysis and comparison of an original and its translation on three
different levels: the levels of Language/Text, Register (field, mode and tenor) and Genre
(House, 2001, p. 247).
One of the basic concepts in her model is "translation equipment" that House bases her
model on it. She claims "translation is constituted by a 'double-binding' relationship both to its
source and to the communicative conditions of the receiving linguaculture, and it is the
concept of equivalence which captures this relationship (House, 1997, p. 29)".
But the concept of equivalence has a different notion in House's model according to
derived distinction into overt and covert translation. According to House "in overt translation,
the function of the translation is to enable its reader's access to the function of the original in
its original linguacultural setting through another language" (House, 1997, p. 29). This means,
there can be no simple functional equivalence but there is a kind of 'second level' function
which allows the target text receptor a view of the original through a foreign language in a
different discourse world (House, 1997).
On the other hand, a covert translation imitates the original's function in a different
discourse frame and a different discourse world. Here, functional equivalence is sought in
33
relation to new language and in its linguacultural setting. This functional equivalence is
achieved via the employment of a cultural filter (House, 1997).
Since any two linguistic items in two different languages are multiply ambiguous and
languages cut up reality in different ways, equivalence cannot be linked to formal, syntactic
and lexical similarities alone (House, 2001a). This is the reason of using functional, pragmatic
equivalence as a type of equivalence which is most appropriate for describing relations
between original and translation. And it is this type of equivalence which is used in the
functional pragmatic model suggested by House (1997) (House, 2001a). Here, the notion of
equivalence is related to the preservation of 'meaning' across two different lingua-cultures.
Three aspects of translation: a semantic, a pragmatic and a textual aspect (House, 2014).
Translation is viewed as the recontextualization of a text in L1 by a semantically and
pragmatically equivalent text in L2. First requirement for this equivalence is that a translation
text have a function equivalent to that of its original (House, 2001a). Here, "function is the
application or use which the text has in the particular context of a situation"(House, 1997, p.
36). Such a function of a text involves the identification of its 'textual profile', which results
from a systematic linguistic-pragmatic analysis of the text in its context of situation (House,
1997). House (1997) defines the context of situation as "the situation in which a text unfolds
and which must be taken into account for the text's interpretation"(p. 36). "since textual
function is defined as the use of a text in a particular situation, each individual text must be
referred to the particular situation enveloping it and for this away must be found for breaking
down the broad notion of 'situation' into manageable parts, i.e. Features of the context of
situation or 'situational dimension' " (House, 2014, p. 27).
For her purpose of constructing a model for situational-functional text analysis and
assessment of translation, House adapts Crystal and Davy's (1969) scheme (House, 2014).
34
House (1997) proposes Crystal and Davy's model as follows:
A. Individuality
Dialect
Time
B. Discourse
a. (simple/complex) Medium (speech, writing)
b. (simple/complex) participation (Monologue, Dialogue)
C. Province
Status
Modality
Singularity
(Cristal and Davy 1969, p.66)
House collapses the three sections A, B, and C into two sections: "Dimensions of
Language User" and "Dimension of Language Use", featuring the following subcategories:
A. Dimensions of Language User

1. Geographical Origin
2. Social Class
3. Time
B. Dimensions of Language Use
1. Medium: simple/complex
2. Participation: simple/complex
3. Social Role Relationship
4. Social Attitude
5. Province
In the section "Dimensions of Language User", House divides Crystal and Davy's
Dialect into Geographical Origin and Social Class. She also omits the dimension of
Individuality. As discussed above the textual function should be kept equivalent in translation.
According to House (1997) the function of a text can be determined by analyzing the text
35
along the eight situational dimensions as outlined above. "The basic criterion of function
match for translation equivalence can now be refined: a translation text should not only match
its source text in function, but employ equivalent situational dimensional means to achieve
that function, i.e., for a translation of optimal quality it is desirable to have a match between
source and translation text along these dimensions which are found-in the course of the
analysis- to contribute in a particular way to each of the two functional components,
ideational and interpersonal, of the text's function" (House, 1997, p. 42).
In her revised model (1997), House uses the classic Hallidayan register concepts of
'field', 'mode' and 'tenor' (House, 1997).
Field captures social activity, subject matter or topic, including differentiations of
degrees of generality, specificity or 'granularity' in lexical items according to rubrics of
specialized, general and popular (House, 2001a, p. 248).
Tenor refers to nature of the participants, the addresser and the addresses, and the
relationship between them in terms of social power and social distance, as well as degree of
emotional charge, included here are the text producer's temporal, geographical and social
provenance as well as his intellectual, emotional or affective stance (his 'personal view point')
vis a vis the content she is portraying, further, Tenor captures 'social attitude', i.e. different
styles (formal, consultative and informal) (ibid).
Mode refers to both the channel-spoken and written (which can be 'simple', i.e., 'written
to be read' or 'complex', e.g. 'written to be spoken as if not written'), and the degree to which
potential or real participation is allowed for between writer and reader. Participation can be
'simple', i.e. a monologue with no addressee participation built into the text, or 'complex' with
various addressee-involving linguistic mechanisms characterizing the text (ibid).
36
However, the type of linguistic-textual analysis in which linguistic features identified in
the original and the translation by using register (Field, Tenor, Mode) notion, does not
directly lead to a statement of the individual textual function. Therefore House incorporates
the concept of (Genre) into the analytic scheme, ' in between' the register categories Field,
Tenor, Mode (House, 2014).
The category of Genre enables one to refer single textual exemplar to the class of texts
with which it shares a common purpose or function and to characterize 'deeper' textual
structures and patterns. In other word, while register captures the connection between texts
and their 'micro-context', Genre connects texts with the 'macro-context' of the linguistic and
cultural community in which the text is embedded (ibid). The resultant scheme for textual
analysis, comparison and assessment is as follows:
The analysis provided in the revised model for translation quality assessment along the
levels of language/text, register and genre resulted in a textual profile that identify the
individual textual function.
2.8.1.1 Operation of House's Model
In this section, the operation of the model will be explained. This operation is consisted
of analyzing and comparing texts by indicating how the various situational dimensions of the
model are realized syntactically, lexically and textually.
House (1997) believes that in order to make qualitative statements about a translation
text (TT), TT must be compared with the source text's (ST) textual profile. To do this, ST
should be analyzed in detail by using the set of situational dimensions of the original outlined
above. It is necessary to establish text-specific linguistic correlates to the situational
dimensions (House, 2014). "The resulting textual profile of the original characterizes its
function, which is then taken as the norm against which the translation is measured; the
37
degree to which the textual profile and function of the translation watch the profile and
function of the original is the degree to which the translation is adequate in quality" (House,
2009b, p.224).
House (1997) differentiates syntactic, lexical and textual means on each of the
situational dimensions, although all three categories might not found on a particular
dimension. She also distinguishes three main textual aspects: theme dynamics, clausal linkage
and iconic linkage.
"In evaluating the relative match between original and translation, a distinction is made
between dimensional mismatches and non-dimensional mismatches. Dimensional mismatches
are pragmatic errors that have to do with language users and language use" (House, 2009b,
p.224). In other word, any mismatch along the mentioned situational dimensions is a
dimensional error. Such dimensional errors are referred to as covertly erroneous errors
(House, 1997). Non-dimensional mismatches or overtly erroneous errors resulted either from
a mismatch of the denotative meanings of source and translation text elements or from a
breach of the target language system. Cases where the denotative meaning of the source text
items and structures are changed by the translator subdivided into omissions, additions, and
substitutions consisting of either wrong selections or wrong combinations of elements. Cases
of breaches of the target language system are subdivided into cases of ungrammaticality, i.e.
clear breaches of the language system, and cases of dubious acceptability, i.e. breaches of the
norm of usage which are defined as a bundle of linguistic rules underlying the actual use of
language as opposed to the language system (House, 1997).
"The final qualitative judgment of the translation then consists of a listing of both types
of errors and of a statement of the relative match of the two functional components" (House,
2009b, p.224)
38
2.8.2 Overt and Covert Translation
House's model has been developed on the basis of contrastive German-English
discourse analyses (House, 1997). Empirical work with the model has resulted in a distinction
between two basic types of translation, overt translation and covert translation (House,
2009b).
In an overt translation the receptors of the translation are not being addressed overtly.
Thus an overt translation is one which is overtly a translation, not a 'second original' (House,
2014). "In an overt translation the source text is tied in a specific manner to the source
language community and its culture" (House, 1997, p.66).
"A covert translation is a translation which enjoys the status of an original source text in
the target culture. A covert translation is a translation whose source text is not specifically
addressed to a particular source culture audience, i.e. it is not particularly tied to the source
language and culture" (House, 1997, p.69).
House explains the distinction between overt and covert translation in detail by using
the concepts of 'frame' and 'frame shifting', 'discourse world' and 'world shifting' (House,
2014). According to House (2014) "translation involves a transfer of texts across time and
space, and whenever texts move, they also shift frames and discourse worlds. A frame often
operates as an explanatory principle, i.e. any message that defines a frame gives the receiver
instructions in his interpretation of the message included in the frame. The notion of the
'discourse world' also refers to some superordinate structure for interpreting meaning in a
certain way" (p.66). Applying these concepts to overt and covert translation, House states:
"In overt translation, the translation text is embedded in a new speech event, which also
gives it a new frame. An overt translation is a case of 'language mention' (as opposed to
'language use' in the case of 'covert translation'); it is thus similar to a quotation relating the
39
concept of 'overt translation' to the four level in the analytic model, (Function-Genre-Register-
Language/Text), we can state that an original and its overt translation are to be equivalent at
the level of language/text and register as well as genre" (House, 2014, p.66).
"At the level of the Individual Textual Function, functional equivalence is still possible
but it is of a different nature: it can be described as enabling access to the function the original
text has in its discourse world or frame"(House, 1997, p. 112).
Since this access is to be realized in a different language and takes place in the target
linguistic and cultural community, a change in discourse world and frame becomes necessary,
i.e., the translation is differently framed, it operates in its own frame and its own discourse
world, and can thus reach at best second-level functional equivalence. Here, the original's
frame and discourse world are co-activated because this type of equivalence is achieved
through equivalence at the levels of Language/Text, Register and Genre (House, 2001a).
"Since, it is the translator's task to permit target culture members to gain access to the
original text and its cultural impact on source culture members, the translator puts target
culture members in apposition to observe and/or judge this text 'from outside' " (House, 2014,
p. 67).
In covert translation, the translator attempts to re-create on equivalent speech event.
Consequently, the function of a covert translation is to reproduce the function the original has
in its frame and discourse world in the target text. A covert translation operates therefore quite
'overtly' in the frame and discourse world provided by the target culture, with no attempt
being made to co-activate the discourse world in which the original unfolded (House, 2014).
Since true functional equivalence is aimed at the covert translation, the original may be
manipulated at the levels of Language/Text and Register via the use of a 'cultural filter'. The
result may be a very real distance from the original. While the original and its covert
40
translation need not be equivalent at the levels of Language/Text and Register, they must be
equivalent at the levels of Genre and the Individual Textual Function.
2.8.3 The Concept and Function of a Cultural Filter
The cultural filter is a means which to be applied in a covert translation in House's
model (1997). In a covert translation it is both possible and desirable to keep the function of
the source text equivalent in the translation text. To achieve this a 'cultural filter' need to be
insert in translation (House, 2014). In other word in a covert translation, the translator has to
place a cultural filter between ST and TT, i.e., he has to view ST through the glasses of a
target culture member (House, 1997). The cultural filter is thus" a means of capturing socio-
cultural difference in expectation norms and stylistic conventions between the source and
target linguistic-cultural communities" (House, 2014, p.68). Cultural filter modify cultural
elements and thus give the impression that the target text is an original. This may involve
changes at the levels of language and register (Munday, 2012).
Using cultural filter in covert translation makes evaluation of this kind of translation
difficult because it involves assessing the quality of the cultural filters introduced in
translation, as well as operationalizing the concept of 'context' (House, 2006, as cited in
House, 2009b).
2.9 THE APPLICATION OF HOUSE'S MODEL IN RESEARCH

Many researchers have applied House's model in their articles and research:
Jamal al Qiani (2000), in his article, "Translation Quality Assessment, Strategies,
Parameters and Procedures", introduces objective rather than subjective impressionism in
judging translation quality according to House's model (1976). Like House (1981), he also
describes it in this way, "it seems unlikely that translation quality assessment can ever be
41
objectified in the manner of natural science" (p.47). He declared that: "according to Houses
Pragmatic-textual approach translation operates not with sentences but with utterances.
Equivalence, therefore, is sought at the pragmatic level even if it overrides semantic
meaning"(Pp.28-29).
Malcolm Williams (2001) in his article, "The Application of Argumentation Theory to
Translation Quality Assessment", proposed the model of House (1997) as a model which
presents a detailed non-quantitative, descriptive-explanatory approach to translation quality
assessment. He states that House uses the functional text feature explored by Halliday and
Crystal and Davey (1969). He declares House view about TQA subjectivity, difficulties of
empirically establishing, norm of usage, the necessity of knowing differences in sociocultural
norms and this point that her model is a kind of descriptive–explanatory, as opposed to a
socio-psychologically based value judgment.
Rui-Rothe-Neves (2002), in his article, "Translation Quality Assessment for Research
Purposes an Empirical Approach", referred the model of quality assessment by Houses (1987;
2000) as the most famous example in this field. He stated that: "in her book, A Land Mark in
Translation Research, House introduces the concern towards a scientific treatment of quality
in translation. She also revises empirical studies directed to the reception of the translated text
by the target-culture render and brings to the field the very used and still very useful concept
of communicative". He believed that background of House model opened a way to future
studies that incorporated cultural aspects to the understanding of translation. But, her model
was directed towards translation as a second language classroom exercise, and this puts a
serious limit to it as a tool to investigate translation as an end.
Other work based on House's model belongs to Almeida and Nascimento (1996) who
applied this model to assess the quality of contract translations from English into Portuguese.
42
Their main purpose of this study is to test the applicability of House's model to the translation
of legal contacts to determine if the parameters established by House could help identify
errors and inadequacies in the translation of contract texts. Another purpose is to verify the
usefulness of House's model in the assessment of different translation of the same source text.
To fulfill these objects, first House's model was elaborated. Then, source text (ST) and target
text (TT) were analyzed, the textual profile of source text and target text was determined, and
errors were identified. At last, the following conclusions were achieved:
1. The application of House's model to the corpus of this study revealed that it is useful
in the assessment of contract translations from English into Portuguese. Thus, the
main purpose of this study was accomplished.
2. This model proved to be useful in the identification of the covertly erroneous errors.
3. From all the breaches of equivalence made visible by the application of the model,
following problems are importance in the translation of contracts:
a) The translation of [+formal] terms in English into [-formal] counterparts in
Portuguese.
b) The change in the degree of symmetry in the social roll relationship.
c) The occurrence of omissions and insertions that are identified as covertly
erroneous errors, and that make the text less precise, emphatic or formal.
4. House's model is useful in the comparison of different translations of the same
source text, i.e. the second objective of this study.
Mohebbi Poor (2010) in his article assessed the quality of Persian translation of
Faulkner's "The sound and the Fury" by Saleh Hosseini. At the beginning of research, he
explains the House's translation quality assessment model in details. He defines the origin of
House's model and her types of translation errors and cultural filters. He highlights the
43
importance of function and equivalence in this model. Finally, he chooses the overt vs. covert
category as a means for measuring the quality of Persian translation of the English book. He
selects some sentences and their Persian translation and analyzes them based on House's
model. Since the translated book is a literary work, it must be translated overtly but the result
shows that, the translation is covert one and in deemed sentences, the translator renders some
part of them wrongly (Mohebbi Poor, 2010).
Gehrmann (2011) used the TQA model proposed by House (1997) to assess Swedish
translation of Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings". In this research, first the textual profile of
source text (ST) and target text (TT) was determined. Then, several mismatches in terms of
tenor and field dimensions were found by analyzing the profiles of the two texts. There were
also some overt errors caused by the semantic additions. No errors were found regarding the
dimensions of genre and tenor. Gehreman finally concluded that the translation of the "Lord
of the Rings" was a covert kind.
Heidary (2011) applied House's model on a psychological text namely "Synopsis of
Psychiatry" written by Sadock (as a scientific or technical text) base on Baker's taxonomy of
grammar and vocabulary within scientific or technical text. Firstly, the translation quality
assessment model of House was defined and illustrated. Then, this model was applied on a
scientific psychological text in terms of overtness and covertness and according to text type of
Baker and type of translation which House suggested for that type in covert or overt view. He
concluded that this psychological text was translated overtly. However, according to House's
model any type of scientific text should be translated covertly (Heidary, 2011).
Nahid Bagher Poor(2013) in her thesis " Translation Quality Assessment of Scientific
Texts based on House's Model" examined House's translation quality assessment model on a
44
scientific text, the American author Michael Talbot's famous book in the genre of physics
namely "The Holographic Universe" written in 1991 and its only Persian translation which
belongs to Dariush Mehrjui, were selected. According to House's model, the scientific texts
must be translated covertly. In order to support this hypothesis, firstly 90 paragraphs have
decided on at a random selection from the source text and then the parallel translations were
drawn from the target text. Based on House's model, the genre and the function that are
followed from the source text profile were determined. Furthermore, the target text genre and
function were identified to be the same as the source text. Finally, by the genre assistance,
analysis and comparison of source and target text profile, the quality of Persian translation
was established. The analysis results revealed that the ideational functional component and to
a much lesser degree, the interpersonal ones were affected through changes in the translation.
At last, the researcher concluded that translation was covert and consequently the hypothesis
was supported.
Another work based on House's model was done by Ghasem Zafarani (2013) Zafarani
in his thesis "Application of House's model (TQA) in translation of English political texts into
Persian" attempts to assess quality of translation of political texts from English into Persian
during November and December 2012 published on the website of press TV (www.presstv.ir)
according to House's revisited model (1997). After comparing of source text profile with
target text profile, the results showed that the most important errors or mismatches are at the
level of tenor: source texts differ from target texts in respect to their social attitude. Whereas
interviewees and papers often create informal social attitude is ST, translation of interviewees
and papers always make formal social attitude in TT. Moreover, theme-dynamics in source
texts contrast with theme-dynamics in target texts: whereas theme-dynamics in ST give strong
cohesion, they give weak cohesion in TT. On the other hand, clausal linkage and iconic
45
linkage in ST are similar to TT in that they both give weak cohesion-in other words, at first,
ST should heavily be edited by professional editors; Later, TT should heavily be edited or
retranslated by professional translators. The researcher, thus, could not classify translation
into overt or covert one according to House's model (1997).
Esmaeil Faghih and Morvarid Jazaei (2015) applied House’s (1997) TQA model to
assess two English translation of some "Nazim Hikmet’s Poetry" in order to evaluate the
quality of these translations. To do this, first House’s model was defined in details. Then, the
errors were identified, classified and the frequency of their occurrences was computed. As
House has suggested the errors were categorized into covert and overt errors. Overt errors
were further categorized into seven subcategories:
1. Not translated 5. Breach of the source language
system
2. Slight change in meaning
6. Creative translation
3. Significant change in meaning
7. Cultural filtering
4. Distortion of meaning
According to House’s model, poetry has to be translated overtly and deviations will be
considered as errors.
The findings of the research revealed that the first translation by Ruth Christie, Richard
Mc Kane & Talat sait Halman (2007), has fewer errors (95) in comparison with the second
translation (123) by Randy Blasing and Mutle Konuk (2001). Finally, it is concluded that the
quality of first translation was superior to that of the second one.
46
‫‪As mentioned before many researches have been done in the field of TQA on different‬‬
‫‪text types but nobody has done a search on academic psychological texts. This was a reason‬‬
‫‪that made researcher to do the present research and this study will pave the way for students‬‬
‫‪of translation to do a better translation.‬‬
‫‪47‬‬
‫‪CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY‬‬
‫‪48‬‬
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will deal with five parts: design, materials, theoretical framework,
procedure and data analysis. This chapter will concern the selection of source and target text.
It will be explained how the data has been selected. It will also be elaborated on how the data
has been processed.
3.2 DESIGN
The present study concerns a qualitative aspect. It is going to be done through
comparative ST-TT analysis of House's model which is leading to the assessment of the
quality of translation. This analysis is through lexical, syntactic and textual means. It also
refers to what information is being conveyed and what the relationship is between sender and
receiver. The analysis of the translation and the source text make it possible to determine
whether the text is translated covertly or overtly.
3.3 MATERIALS
This study intends to apply House's translation quality assessment model on a famous
academic psychological book namely "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to psychology"
written originally by Susan Nolen-Hoeksema, Barbara L.Fredrikson, Geoffrey R.Loftus and
Christel Lutz. The 16th edition translation of this book belongs to Hasan Rafiee with
cooperation of Mojtaba Delir which has been selected by the researcher. According to House's
model some comparable data are needed. Therefore, source and target text's three paragraphs
of each eighteen chapters have been selected.
49
3.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This study is going to be carried out through applying House's model on comparative
ST-TT. To do this comparison, source and target text's three paragraphs of each eighteen
chapters have been selected. The researcher's analytic procedure will follow House's (1997)
translation quality assessment model. This procedure will be described in the following table.
House proposed four levels in her revised model in 1997 (see table 3.1).
Table 1: Four Levels of House Translation Quality Assessment (1997)
Language/Text Register Genre Function of the
Individual text
-Geographical Origin -Field -Generic Purpose -Textual Profile
-Social class -Tenor (Source Text)
-Time -Mode -Statement of Quality
(Target Text)
3.4.1 The first level: Language/Text
House calls it the "Dimension of Language User". "Geographical Origin", "Social
Class" and "Time" are the three subcategories which are considered here.
"Geographical Origin deals with the so called 'regional dialect', i.e. features which mark
an author's geographical origin (regional dialect), where the unmarked case is the national
standard language" (House, 1997, p.38).
Social class (social dialect) indicates an author's position on a social scale where the
unmarked case is the construct of the educated middle class speaker of the standard language
(ibid).
50
And time refers to those features which provide clues to a text's temporal provenance
(ibid).
This way, Language/Text provides means for identifying lexical, syntactical and
phraseological features which conform to Source's standard language or deviate from it.
3.4.2 The second level: Register
The concepts of field, tenor and mode corresponded to the Dimension of Language Use
employed for register analysis (see table 3.2).
Table 2: Three levels of Register in House's Translation Quality Assessment
Register
Field Tenor Mode
Subject matter and social -Participant relation - Medium (simple/complex)
action -Social role relationship -Participation (simple/complex)
-Social attitude
According to House (1997) Field captures social action, subject matter or topic. It refers
to "what is going on". House differentiates degrees of generality, specificity or "granularity"
in lexical items according to rubrics of specialized, general and popular.
Field as a subcategory of register, refers to the delimitations such as "the language of
science", "the language of diplomacy" etc.
Tenor, the second category of register, refers to the nature of the participants, the
addressees and the addresser and the relationship between them in terms of social power and
51
social distance, as well as the degree of emotional charge. Included here are the addresser's
temporal, geographical, social provenance as well as his intellectual, emotional or affective
stance (his "personal view point") vis-à-vis the content he is portraying. Further, tenor
captures "social attitude", i.e. different styles (formal, consultative and informal) (House,
1997).
Tenor concerns the participant's relationship, which is divided into a) Social Role
Relationship and b) Social Attitude.
Social Role Relationship is determined by the relationship between addresser and
addressee which may be either symmetrical (marked by the existence of solidarity or equality)
or asymmetrical (marked by the presence of some kind of authority). But social attitude is
determined by the levels of distancing or closing in between the author/narrator and the
reader, which establish a relative formality or informality (ibid)
Mode, "this category refers to both the channel spoken or written (which can be
"simple", e.g. "written to be read" or "complex", e.g. "written to be spoken as if not written"),
and the degree to which potential or real participation is allowed for between the writer and
reader. Participation can be "simple", i.e. a monologue with no addressee participation built
into the text or "complex" with various addressees involving linguistic mechanisms
characterizing the text" (ibid, p, 109).
Mode also refers to the means employed for the production of a given text. This
category of register is divided into a) Medium and b) Participation. The first one is
determined by the distinction between oral and written communication; it is simple when the
author of ST just aims his text to be read, the case of a newspaper or report, for instance. An
instance of complex medium is political address, which usually is carefully planned through
52
written language and later on, spoken to the audience at a public performance. In turn,
participation may be simple or complex; it is determined by the distinction between
monologue and 'pure' dialogue or dialogue with 'combined features' (ibid, p. 39).
3.4.3 The third level: Genre
Moreover, in third level according to House's definition of genre as "a socially
established category characterized in terms of occurrence of use, source and communicative
purpose or any combination of these" (1997, p. 107) the genre of the source text was
identified.
3.4.4 The fourth level: Function of the individual text
This section concerned the elaboration of ST's textual profile. By using situational
dimensions of the source text, a particular textual profile was obtained for the source text.
This profile which characterized the function of the text was the norm against which the
quality of the translation text was to be measured, i.e. the degree to which its textual profile
and function matched or did not match the source text's, was the degree to which the
translation text was more or less adequate in quality.
Following the analysis of source text, the target text, has been analyzed in the same
manner and the two textual profiles have been compared for the relative matching. In
regarding the elaboration of TT's quality, House (1997) lists the mismatches along the various
dimensions. Any mismatch along the dimensions was an error which House calls them
"covertly erroneous errors". Also, she introduces overtly erroneous errors which resulted
either from a mismatch of the denotative meaning of source and translation text elements or
from a breach of the target language system. House subdivides cases where the denotative
meaning of elements of ST is changed by the translator into omissions, additions and
53
substitutions consisting of either wrong selections or wrong combinations of elements and
cases of breaches of the target language system are subdivided into cases of ungrammatical,
i.e. clear breaches of the target system, and cases of dubious acceptability, i.e. breaches of the
norm of usage. This procedure has been done in order to assess the quality of the Atkinson
and Hilgard Introduction to Psychology translation.
3.5 PROCEDURE
This research examined the quality of the "Atkinson and Hilgard introduction to
psychology" Persian translation. The analysis was based on House's translation quality
assessment model in order to determine the type of translation i.e. overt or covert translation.
To accomplish this purpose, three paragraphs of eighteen chapters from the source text were
selected and their paralleled translation was drawn from the target text. Then the researcher
made a textual profile of source text along the situational dimensions which consist of
dimensions of language user and dimensions of language use. Field, tenor and mode were
identified at the register level. In the field category, subject matter and social action of the
source text were determined. In the tenor category, author's provenance and stance, social role
relationship and also social attitude were determined and in the mode category, medium and
participation of the source text were determined. Then at the genre level, the genre of the
source text was identified. Furthermore, the function of this text consisting of two
components, the ideational and the interpersonal function, was determined. Following the
analysis of source text, the target text was also analysed in such the way and the two textual
profiles were compared for the relative matching. While comparing source and target texts,
some mismatches were identified. Any mismatch along the dimensions was an error which
House calls them "covertly erroneous errors". Also, there were "overtly erroneous errors"
which resulted either from a mismatch of the denotative meanings of source and translation
54
text elements or from a breach of the target language system. As house subdivides, cases
where the denotative meaning of elements of source text is changed by the translator fall into
omissions, additions and substitutions which were highlighted in each sentence. Also, the
technical words of each sentence and the type of their translation i.e. overt or covert was
recognized. Then tables consisted of overtly erroneous errors and translation types (overt or
covert) were designed. Cases of errors and cases of overt or covert translations were counted
in these tables. After that, a total table was designed which contained all mismatches of the
text and showed the frequency of each error. The frequency of translation types was also
demonstrated in another table. After that, the kind of translation based on the results was
determined.
3.6 DATA ANALYSIS

In the present study the data gathered from an academic psychological book. Three
paragraphs of each of its eighteen chapters were selected. Besides, the parallel translations
were selected. Then the original and the translation were compared. Since this study was
based on House's (1997) model and this model was a non-quantitative and descriptive-
explanatory one, a non-statistical and descriptive method was used in order to analyse the
data. This research tend to analyse the data to find out the translation of Atkinson and Hilgard
Introduction to Psychology is following covert or overt translation.
3.7 DEPENDABILITY OF RESEARCH

Dependability in qualitative research is defined as the stability of data over time and
over conditions. Dependability can be compared to reliability in quantitative studies.
According to Shenton (2004) reliability is employing techniques to show that, if the work
55
were repeated, in the same context, with the same methods and with the same participants,
similar results would be obtained. Shenton states that "in order to address the dependability
issue, the processes within the study should be reported in detail, thereby enabling a future
researcher to repeat the work. So text should include sections devoted to
a) The research design and its implementation, describing what was planned and
executed on a strategic level.
b) The operational detail of data gathering, addressing the minutiae of what was done in
the field.
c) Reflective appraisal of the project, evaluating the effectiveness of the process of
inquiry undertaken" (Shenton, 2004, p. 71).
In order to confirm dependability of this research, the research design, data collection
steps and data analysis process were presented in research. The selected materials were
studied and data were analysed by supervisor and another MA student of English translation
and the same results were achieved.
56
‫‪CHAPTER 4 :RESULTS AND DISCUSSION‬‬
‫‪57‬‬
4.1 INTRODUCTION
As mentioned in chapter one, the researcher attempted to test the translation quality of a
psychological book namely "Atkinson and Hilgard's introduction to psychology" based on
House's model. Therefore, in order to answer the research question the collected data will be
analysed in the current chapter.
4.2 RESTATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH QUESTION

The following research questions were examined in the present study:
1. Is the Persian translation of "Atkinson and Hilgard's introduction to psychology"
covert considering House's model of translation quality assessment?
2. Is House's translation quality assessment model applicable for assessing the
quality of the Persian translation of psychological texts?
4.3 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY

This research investigated the quality of the "Atkinson and Hilgard's introduction to
psychology" Persian translation. The analysis was based on House's translation quality
assessment model in order to determine the type of translation, i.e., overt or covert one. First
the researcher decided on at a random selection of the paragraphs. Three paragraphs were
selected from every eighteen chapter of the source text. In general, 54 paragraphs were
singled out. Then the parallel translations were drawn from the target text. Based on House's
model, the genre and function that follow from the source text profile were determined.
Furthermore, the target text genre and function was identified as the same as the source text.
By the analysis of the source and target text profile and by genre assistance the quality of
Persian translation was established. The analysis of source and target text is indicated in the
following of the present chapter.
58
4.4 ANALYSIS OF THE ORIGINAL BOOK:
Field
The original book is one of the most famous academic books in psychological
introduction in western countries. In this book, Hilgard has tried to state the educational issues
in a research way. This book is consisted of eighteen chapters which presents all subjects of
psychological scope. These chapters include different subjects in the scope of public and
specialized psychology and even the research and statistical aspects of this science. The
present book is consisted of notions like: historical origins of psychology, biological bases of
psychology, cognition and metacognition, normal and abnormal personality, individual
differences and their context, behavioural, mental and social disorders and their effect on
person, and statistical and research methods which are used in psychology. One of the main
features which have differentiated this book from other psychological books is referring to
research's result about each subject, elaborating the main notions of each subject in all
chapters, presenting of related pictures, tables and charts. These features have made this book
a comprehensive and attractive one in psychology.
Lexical in the domain of field means:
A) Use of technical terminology, i.e. psychological lexical items, e.g.

amnesia, neuron, antianxiety, claustrophobia, conditioning, masochism, disorder,
narcissism, preconscious, psychotherapy.
B) Use of precise, explicit and unambiguous lexical items and phrases
revealing care, planning, and a concern for clarity, e.g. paragraph II is precisely
indicating the cognitive perspective.
C) Use of various cohesive devices. For example "Addition" such as:
moreover, also, and in addition, another cohesive device which is used is
"Comparison" such as: in the same way. Also, for example, for instance and thus are
samples of "Exemplification".
59
D) Absence of colloquial lexical items.
In this part Syntactic is meant:
A) Short clauses
B) Simple syntactic structures
C) Ample use of passive voices
D) Ample use of foregrounded phrase structures
And textual means:
Presence of strong textual cohesion due to the employment of several mechanisms of
theme dynamics, clausal linkage and iconic linkage.
A) Repetition of lexical items and phrases throughout the text e.g. in

paragraph I: nature and knowledge, in paragraph II: contemporary cognitive
approach and in paragraph III: participant
B) Use of anaphoric pronominal reference e.g. in paragraph III:" they" is
anaphoric referring participants and "it" is anaphoric referring study. Another
example of anaphoric is "it" in paragraph VIIII which refers to Acetylcholine.
C) Frequency of clausal linkage e.g. and, but, because, as, since, whether
and when.
The results of field analysis are shown in the following table.
Table 3: Source Text Profile: Field
Subject Matter Social Action
Scientific Specific
60
Tenor
The following table is the result of tenor analysis.
Table 4 : Source Text Profile: Tenor
Author's Provenance and Stance Social Role Relationship Social Attitude
Unmarked, Contemporary educated asymmetry formal

middle-class Standard American
English Psychologist and University
instructor
As table 4.2 shows author's Temporal, Social and Geographical Provenance is
unmarked contemporary educated middle-class standard American English.
Authors' Personal Stance:
The authors of the book are from the United State of America. They are psychologists
as well as university professors. Their book is aimed for being taught in psychological
courses. Accompanied with technical words, it is written in a formal way without any
emotional interference.
Social Role Relationship:
There is asymmetry between the author and the reader because it is according to author-
reader and professor-student relationship. The social role relationship in this text maybe
characterized as follows: the addressers are fully aware of the "authority gap" between
himself and his addresses in terms of knowledge of his special field thus they attempt to state
scientific issues in a simple, unambiguous and attractive way.
61
In this part lexical regarding the social role relationship means:
Presence of noun phrases, e.g., posterior system, Freudian slip, posthypnotic amnesia.
Syntactic means:
Presence of personal pronoun (you) as behooves an academic text.
And textual means:
Theme-dynamics is obtained through the bold words e.g. in paragraph I: nature-nurture,
nature view and in paragraph III informed consent and through Repetition of key lexical
items, e.g. in paragraph III: participant and in paragraph VIIII: Acetylcholine.
Social attitude:
Formal, i.e. marked by social distance between the author and the reader.
Lexical regarding to the social attitude means:
Absence of interjections
In this regard syntactic means:
a) Frequency of impersonal constructions using it, there and that

b) Absence of contractions
Mode
Medium
Simple: written to be read
In this part lexical regarding the medium means:
Absence of interjections and other characteristics of the spoken mode, presence of
[+abstract] noun phrases.
Syntactic means:
62
Absence of elliptical clauses, contractions, comment parentheses and other kinds of
spoken language signals such as gambits i.e. discourse elements such as well, you know, you
see, question tags, etc. and modal particles.
Textual in the domain of mode means:
This is an emic text i.e. there are a few pronominal references to author or readers
because the immediate circumstances of the text's production and reception are irrelevant for
the organization of the message. As a result of this, the text is determined through text-
immanent criteria and is marked through the explicitness and elaborateness of the
monologously written mode.
The medium in this text can be characterized along Biber's dimensions as informational,
explicit and abstract.
Participation:
Simple: Monologue
The text is also simple, since it is a monologue with no addressee which is built into the
text and the author is the only utterer. The reaction of the readers are never directly elicited.
The content and the way this content is presented is of utmost importance. The table 4.3 is the
results of mode analysis which are shown below.
Table 5: Source Text Profile: Mode
Medium Participation
Simple: Written to be read Simple: Monologue
63
Genre
"Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology" is an academic psychological text,
using technical words. This book presents all subjects of psychological scope. The authors
attempt to explicitly demonstrate the psychological facts. To accomplish this goal they use
pictures, tables and charts.
4.4.1 Statement of Function
The table 4.4 shows genre and function of the source text.
Table 6: Genre and Function
Genre function
Psychology Ideational and Interpersonal
The function of this text consisting of the two component, the ideational and the
interpersonal, maybe summed up as follows: the authors' intention is to give an effective
information text in the psychological scope. They attempt to provide a comprehensive,
scientific and educational attitude toward the psychology in an attractive and unambiguous
way. They present a critical analysis of the most important historical and contemporary issues
of psychology. The authors also inform the addressees about psychological facts in such a
way that the material presented to the addressees is made interesting and easily digestible.
The Genre of the text is a psychological text. It is obvious that the text aims to pass on factual
information to the reader. Given the above characterization and the text's Genre, the ideational
functional component is strongly marked, whereas the interpersonal component although
present.
64
This summary statement of the text's function has been derived by an examination of
the individual dimensions. The individual dimensions operate in the following way:
On field dimension, the careful choice of precisely technical lexical items, clearly
defined technical terminology, repetition of key lexical items, use of various cohesive devices
in structures and absence of colloquial lexical items clearly feed into the ideational functional
component, whereas presence of short clauses with simple structure which make the text
pleasant for readers support the interpersonal functional component.
On Tenor, the impersonality of the relationship emphasizes the ideational component.
The fact that, readers do not present in the text at all. On social attitude the formal style level
marked by carefully selected lexis. Taken together, the dimension Tenor supports the
ideational functional component more strongly because the information which is given is
priority.
On Mode dimension, the written to be read medium, which is here marked as
informational, explicit and abstract, feeds into the ideational functional component. On the
participation, the lack of addressee participation acts in support of the ideational component,
besides, the totally monologues nature of the text, emphasizes the message and supports the
ideational functional component.
4.4.2 Analysis of sample paragraphs
In this study 54 paragraphs have been compared with their translation but 40 paragraphs
and their parallel translations are presented in the following part as samples and the results of
the analysis will be shown in the following tables. The tables indicate the overtly erroneous
errors of House's model, the number and type of errors. In other words, the following tables
are the categorization of overtly erroneous errors accompanied by some examples. Tables
65
‫‪show additions and omissions in Persian and original texts underlined, in which additions‬‬
‫‪belong to Persian translation and omissions belong to source text. Substitutions were shown‬‬
‫‪with highlights.‬‬
‫‪66‬‬
‫‪Table 7 : overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 1, chapter 1‬‬
‫‪sent‬‬ ‫‪English‬‬ ‫‪Persian‬‬ ‫‪omission‬‬ ‫‪addition‬‬ ‫‪substitution‬‬ ‫‪Breach of‬‬ ‫‪Covert‬‬ ‫‪Overt‬‬
‫‪TL System‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Nature-nurture debate one‬‬ ‫مجادله ی طبیعت‪-‬تربیت‬ ‫‪today‬‬ ‫‪Nature-nurture‬‬

‫‪of the earliest debates about‬‬ ‫مجادله ی ‪debate /‬‬
‫یکی از نخستین مناظره ها درباره‬
‫‪human psychology is still‬‬ ‫طبیعت‪-‬تربیت‬
‫ی روانشناسی انسان هنوز هم‬
‫‪raging today.‬‬
‫مطرح است‪.‬‬
‫‪2nd‬‬ ‫‪This nature-nurture debate‬‬ ‫مجادله ی طبیعت‪-‬تربیت حول‬ ‫‪this‬‬ ‫‪Centres on the‬‬
‫‪centers on the question of‬‬ ‫سوال شکل گرفته است‬
‫محور این ٔ‬ ‫حول ‪question/‬‬
‫‪whether human capabilities‬‬ ‫که آیا توانایی های بشر ذاتی است‬ ‫محور این سؤال‬
‫‪are‬‬ ‫‪inborn‬‬ ‫‪or‬‬ ‫‪acquired‬‬ ‫یا از رهگذر تجربه اکتساب می‬ ‫شکل گرفته است‬
‫‪through experience.‬‬ ‫شود؟‬
‫‪3rd‬‬ ‫‪The nature view holds that‬‬ ‫مطابق دیدگاه طبیعت گرا انسان ها‬ ‫مطابق‪Holds/‬‬
‫‪human‬‬ ‫‪beings‬‬ ‫‪enter‬‬ ‫‪the‬‬ ‫با مجموعه ای از دانش ها و با‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Inborn‬‬
‫‪world with an inborn store‬‬ ‫فهمی از واقعیت پا به جهان می‬
‫‪of‬‬ ‫‪knowledge‬‬ ‫‪and‬‬ ‫گذارند‪.‬‬ ‫‪Enter the‬‬
‫‪understanding of reality.‬‬ ‫پا به جهان ‪world/‬‬
‫می گذارند‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Early philosophers believed‬‬ ‫فیلسوفان قدیم بر این باور بودند که‬ ‫با درون نگری و‬
‫‪that this knowledge and‬‬ ‫با درون نگری و استدالل دقیق می‬ ‫استدالل دقیق‪/‬می‬
‫‪67‬‬
‫‪understanding‬‬ ‫‪could‬‬ ‫‪be‬‬ ‫توان به این فهم و دانش دست‬ ‫توان به این فهم و‬
‫‪accessed‬‬ ‫‪through‬‬ ‫‪careful‬‬ ‫یافت‪.‬‬ ‫دانش دست یافت‬
‫‪reasoning and introspection.‬‬
‫‪Could be‬‬
‫می ‪accessed/‬‬
‫توان دست یافت‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪In the seventeenth century,‬‬ ‫دکارت‪ ،‬فیلسوف قرن هفدهم‪ ،‬در‬ ‫‪In, by arguing‬‬ ‫فیلسوف‪ ،‬معتقد‬ ‫در ‪Supported/‬‬
‫‪Descartes‬‬ ‫‪supported‬‬ ‫‪the‬‬ ‫دفاع از این دیدگاه معتقد بود که‬ ‫بود‬ ‫دفاع از‬
‫‪nature view by arguing that‬‬ ‫مفاهیمی نظیر خدا‪،‬خود‪،‬بدیهیات‬
‫دکارت‪/‬فیلسوف‬
‫‪some ideas (such as GOD,‬‬ ‫بینهایت‪،‬مفاهیمی‬ ‫هندسه‪،‬کمال‪،‬و‬
‫قرن هفدهم‬
‫‪the self, geometric axioms,‬‬ ‫ذاتی اند‪.‬‬
‫‪perfection, and infinity) are‬‬
‫‪innate.‬‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪Descartes is also notable for‬‬ ‫نکته ی قابل ذکر دیگر درباره ی‬ ‫‪are studied‬‬ ‫‪Descartes is‬‬
‫‪his conception of the body‬‬ ‫دکارت تلقی او از بدن به صورت‬ ‫‪also notable‬‬
‫‪as a machine that can be‬‬ ‫دستگاهی بود که درست مثل‬ ‫نکته ی قابل ‪for/‬‬
‫‪studied‬‬ ‫‪much‬‬ ‫‪as‬‬ ‫‪other‬‬ ‫هردستگاه دیگری می توان آن را‬ ‫ذکر دیگر درباره‬
‫‪machines are studied.‬‬ ‫مطالعه کرد‪.‬‬ ‫ی دکارت‬
‫‪Can be‬‬
‫میتوان ‪studied/‬‬
‫آن را مطالعه کرد‬
‫‪Other‬‬
‫‪68‬‬
‫هر ‪machines/‬‬
‫دستگاه دیگری‬
‫‪8th‬‬ ‫‪This is the root of modern‬‬ ‫این تلقی ‪،‬ریشه ی دیدگاه های‬ ‫تلقی‪ ،‬قایل به‬
‫‪information-processing‬‬ ‫جدید قایل به پردازش اطالعات‬
‫‪perspectives on the mind,‬‬ ‫است که در همین فصل مورد بحث‬
‫‪discussed‬‬ ‫‪later‬‬ ‫‪in‬‬ ‫‪this‬‬ ‫قرار خواهند گرفت‪.‬‬ ‫‪On the mind‬‬
‫‪chapter.‬‬
‫‪69‬‬
‫‪Table 8: overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 2, chapter 1‬‬
‫‪sent‬‬ ‫‪English‬‬ ‫‪Persian‬‬ ‫‪omission‬‬ ‫‪addition‬‬ ‫‪substitution‬‬ ‫‪Breach of TL‬‬ ‫‪Covert‬‬ ‫‪Overt‬‬
‫‪System‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪The cognitive perspective:‬‬ ‫‪ Tended to‬دیدگاه شناختی‪:‬‬ ‫غفلت ‪ Neglect/‬در آن‬ ‫‪The cognitive‬‬
‫‪the contemporary‬‬ ‫شده است‬ ‫‪perspective/‬‬
‫دیدگاه شناختی معاصر‬
‫‪cognitive perspective is in‬‬ ‫دیدگاه شناختی‬
‫تاحدودی بازگشت به‬
‫‪part a return to the‬‬
‫ریشه های شناختی‬
‫‪cognitive roots of‬‬
‫روانشناسی است و تا‬
‫‪psychology and in part a‬‬
‫حدودی نیز واکشنی‬
‫‪reaction to the narrowness‬‬
‫است به محدودیت های‬
‫‪of behaviorism, which‬‬
‫رفتار گرایی که در‬
‫‪tended to neglect complex‬‬
‫آن‪ ،‬اغلب از فعالیت‬
‫‪human activities like‬‬
‫های پیچیده ی انسانی‬
‫‪reasoning, planning,‬‬
‫نظیر استدالل ‪،‬برنامه‬
‫‪decision making, and‬‬
‫ریزی ‪،‬تصمیم گیری ‪،‬‬
‫‪communication.‬‬
‫و پیام رسانی غفلت‬
‫شده است‪.‬‬
‫‪70‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Like the nineteenth-‬‬ ‫دیدگاه شناختی معاصر‬ ‫‪ Is‬باز هم‬
‫‪century version, the‬‬ ‫نظیر گونه قرن‬ ‫‪concerned/‬‬
‫‪contemporary cognitive‬‬ ‫نوزدهمی آن باز هم به‬ ‫می پردازد‬
‫‪perspective is concerned‬‬ ‫فرایند های روانی از‬
‫‪with mental processes‬‬ ‫قبیل ادراک کردن‪ ،‬به‬
‫‪such as perceiving,‬‬ ‫خاطر آوردن ‪،‬استدالل‬
‫‪remembering, reasoning‬‬ ‫کردن‪،‬تصمیم گرفتن‪،‬‬
‫‪deciding, and problem‬‬ ‫و حل مسئله می‬
‫‪solving.‬‬ ‫پردازد‪.‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Unlike the nineteenth‬‬ ‫‪ approach‬اما شناخت گرایی جدید‬ ‫شناخت گرایی‬
‫‪century version, however,‬‬ ‫برخالف گونه ی قرن‬
‫‪the contemporary‬‬ ‫نوزدهمی شناخت‬
‫‪cognitive approach is not‬‬ ‫گرایی‪،‬مبتنی بر درون‬
‫‪based on introspection.‬‬ ‫نگری نیست؛‬
‫‪71‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Instead , it assumes that‬‬ ‫‪ we‬بلکه بر دو فرض‬ ‫‪It assumed‬‬
‫‪(1) only by studying‬‬ ‫مبتنی است‪)1:‬تنها با‬ ‫بر دو ‪that/‬‬
‫‪mental processes can we‬‬ ‫مطالعه ی فرایند های‬ ‫فرض مبتنی‬
‫‪fully understand what‬‬ ‫روانی است که می‬ ‫است‬
‫‪organisms do, and (2) we‬‬ ‫توان به فهم کامل آنچه‬
‫‪Can we fully‬‬
‫‪can study mental‬‬ ‫جاندار انجام می دهد‬
‫‪understand/‬‬
‫‪processes in an objective‬‬ ‫نایل شد؛ و ‪)2‬می توان‬
‫می توان به فهم‬
‫‪fashion by focusing on‬‬ ‫فرایند های روانی را‬
‫کامل نایل شد‬
‫‪specific behaviors (just as‬‬ ‫به گونه ای عینی‬
‫‪behaviorists do) but‬‬ ‫مطالعه کرد‪،‬بدین نحو‬ ‫‪We can‬‬
‫‪interpreting them in terms‬‬ ‫که رفتار هایی‬ ‫می توان ‪study/‬‬
‫‪of underlying mental‬‬ ‫مشخص را مورد توجه‬ ‫مطالعه کرد‬
‫‪processes.‬‬ ‫قرار داد(همان کاری‬
‫بدین نحو‪By/‬‬
‫که رفتار گرایان می‬
‫کنند) منتها رفتار را‬ ‫‪Focusing‬‬
‫باید بر اساس فرایند‬ ‫مورد توجه ‪on/‬‬
‫های روانی زیربنایی‬ ‫قرار داد‬
‫آن تفسیر کرد‪.‬‬
‫رفتار‪Them/‬‬
‫‪72‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪In making these‬‬ ‫‪ In making,‬روانشناسان شناختی‬ ‫‪Computer/‬‬
‫‪interpretations, cognitive‬‬ ‫‪ between‬برای چنین تفاسیری‬ ‫رایانه‬
‫‪psychologists have often‬‬ ‫اغلب به شباهت ذهن با‬
‫‪relied on an analogy‬‬ ‫رایانه تکیه می کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪between the mind and a‬‬
‫‪computer.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪Incoming information is‬‬ ‫اطالعات بدست آمده‬

‫‪processed in various‬‬ ‫به چند طریق مختلف‬
‫‪ways: it is selected,‬‬ ‫پردازش می‬
‫‪compared, and combined‬‬ ‫شود‪:‬گزینش می شود ‪،‬‬
‫‪with other information‬‬ ‫با اطالعات دیگری که‬
‫‪already in memory,‬‬ ‫از قبل در حافظه‬
‫‪transformed, rearranged,‬‬ ‫وجود داشته ‪،‬مقایسه و‬
‫‪and so on.‬‬ ‫ترکیب می شود‪،‬تغییر‬
‫شکل داده می شود‪،‬باز‬
‫آرایی می شود‪،‬و از‬
‫این قبیل‪.‬‬
‫‪73‬‬
‫‪Table 9: Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 3, chapter 1‬‬
‫‪Sent‬‬ ‫‪English‬‬ ‫‪Persian‬‬ ‫‪omission‬‬ ‫‪addition‬‬ ‫‪substitution‬‬ ‫‪Breach of TL‬‬ ‫‪Covert‬‬ ‫‪Overt‬‬
‫‪System‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪The second‬‬ ‫دومین اصل در‬ ‫‪governing‬‬ ‫آنها‬ ‫‪Informed‬‬
‫‪principle‬‬ ‫برخورد اخالقی‬ ‫‪consent‬‬
‫‪governing the‬‬ ‫با شرکت کنندگان‬ ‫‪principle/‬اصل‬
‫‪ethical‬‬ ‫انسانی رضایت‬ ‫رضایت آگاهانه‬
‫‪treatment of‬‬ ‫آگاهانه ی آنهاست‪.‬‬
‫‪human‬‬
‫‪participants is‬‬
‫‪informed‬‬
‫‪consent.‬‬
‫‪74‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Participants must be told‬‬ ‫پیش از انجام پژوهش باید‬ ‫‪ Participants/‬با پژوهش‬
‫‪ahead of time about any‬‬ ‫هریک از جنبه های مطالعه‬ ‫آنها‬
‫‪aspects of the study that‬‬ ‫که ممکن است بر تمایل‬
‫شرکت ‪Their/‬‬
‫‪could influence their‬‬ ‫شرکت کنندگان برای‬
‫کنندگان‬
‫‪willingness to co-operate‬‬ ‫همکاری با پژوهش اثر‬
‫‪and, after this disclosure,‬‬ ‫بگذارد‪ ،‬به آنها گفته شود و‬ ‫از ‪From it/‬‬
‫‪they must enter the study‬‬ ‫پس از این افشاگری‪ ،‬آنها‬ ‫ادامه همکاری‬
‫‪voluntarily and be‬‬ ‫باید داوطلبانه وارد مطالعه‬
‫‪permitted to withdraw‬‬ ‫شوند و هر زمان هم که‬
‫‪from it at any time they‬‬ ‫دلشان خواست‪،‬اجازه داشته‬
‫‪desire without penalty.‬‬ ‫باشند بدون پرداخت هیچ‬
‫غرامتی از ادامه ی همکاری‬
‫خودداری کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪75‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Like the principle of‬‬ ‫اصل رضایت آگاهانه هم‬ ‫اصل ‪،‬اکثر‬ ‫‪Principle of‬‬
‫‪minimal risk, informed‬‬ ‫مثل اصل حداقل خطر‬ ‫‪minimal‬‬
‫‪consent is not always easy‬‬ ‫همیشه به راحتی قابل اجرا‬ ‫اصل حداقل ‪risk/‬‬
‫‪to implement. in‬‬ ‫نیست‪.‬به ویژه آنکه رضایت‬ ‫خطر‬
‫‪particular, informed‬‬ ‫آگاهانه گاه با یکی دیگر از‬
‫‪consent is sometimes at‬‬ ‫ملزومات اکثر پژوهش ها‬
‫‪odds with another‬‬ ‫تنافر پیدا می کند‪:‬این که‬
‫‪common requirement of‬‬ ‫شرکت کنندگان باید از‬
‫‪research: that participants‬‬ ‫فرضیه ای که قرار است در‬
‫‪be unaware of the‬‬ ‫مطالعه آزموده شود‪،‬اطالعی‬
‫‪hypotheses being tested in‬‬ ‫نداشته باشند‪.‬‬
‫‪a study.‬‬
‫‪76‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪If a researchers plans to‬‬ ‫هرگاه پژوهشگری بخواهد‬ ‫یعنی‬
‫‪compare participants who‬‬ ‫میان شرکت کنندگانی که‬
‫‪learn lists of familiar‬‬ ‫فهرستی از واژه های آشنا را‬
‫‪words with participants‬‬ ‫به خاطر می سپرند و آنهایی‬
‫‪who learn lists of‬‬ ‫که فهرستی از واژه های نا‬
‫‪unfamiliar words, no‬‬ ‫آشنا را به خاطر می سپرند‪،‬‬
‫‪ethical problem arises by‬‬ ‫مقایسه ای انجام دهد‪ ،‬هیچ‬
‫‪simply telling participants‬‬ ‫مشکلی از نظر اخالقی بروز‬
‫‪ahead of time that they‬‬ ‫نمی کند و فقط کافی است به‬
‫‪will be learning list of‬‬ ‫شرکت کنندگان از پیش‬
‫‪words: they do not need to‬‬ ‫بگوید که قرار است فهرستی‬
‫‪know how the words vary‬‬ ‫از چند واژه را به خاطر‬
‫‪from one participant to‬‬ ‫بسپرند‪:‬یعنی الزم نیست آنها‬
‫‪another.‬‬ ‫بدانند که واژه های داده شده‬
‫به هرکس با دیگری چه‬
‫تفاوت هایی دارد‪.‬‬
‫‪77‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Nor are any serious‬‬ ‫حتی اگر از این افراد‬ ‫یعنی واژه هایی‬
‫‪ethical issues raised if‬‬ ‫"امتحان غیر منتظره ای"به‬ ‫پرسیده شود که‬
‫‪participants are given a‬‬ ‫عمل آید‪،‬یعنی واژه هایی‬ ‫به آنها داده نشده‬
‫‪surprise quiz they did not‬‬ ‫پرسیده شود که به آنها داده‬ ‫بود‬
‫‪expect.‬‬ ‫نشده بود‪،‬باز هم هیچ مشکل‬
‫اخالقی مهمی بروز نمی کند‪.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪But what if the researcher‬‬ ‫اما اگر پژوهشگری بخواهد‬ ‫‪ Participants/‬به شکلی‬
‫‪wants to compare‬‬ ‫میان شرکت کنندگان مقایسه‬ ‫دسته ای که‪،‬دیگر‬
‫‪participants who learn‬‬ ‫ای به عمل آورد‪،‬به شکلی‬
‫‪words while in a neutral‬‬ ‫که دسته ای از آنها واژه ها‬
‫‪mood with participants‬‬ ‫را در حالتی خنثی به خاطر‬
‫‪who learn words while‬‬ ‫بسپرند و دسته ای دیگر در‬
‫‪they are angry or‬‬ ‫حالتی که عصبانی یا‬
‫?‪embarrassed‬‬ ‫شرمگین هستند ‪،‬چطور؟‬
‫‪78‬‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪Clearly the research‬‬ ‫واضح است که اگر به‬ ‫‪ Have to be‬گرانبهایی‬
‫‪would not yield valid‬‬ ‫شرکت کنندگان از پیش‬ ‫بگویند‪told/‬‬
‫‪conclusions if participants‬‬ ‫بگویند که قرار است آنها را‬
‫‪have to be told ahead of‬‬ ‫(با برخوردی گستاخانه‬
‫‪time that they would be‬‬ ‫)عمدا ً عصبانی یا (با القای‬
‫‪intentionally angered (by‬‬ ‫این پندار در آنها که به طور‬
‫‪being treated rudely) or‬‬ ‫اتفاقی چیز گرانبهایی را‬
‫‪embarrassed (by being led‬‬ ‫شکسته اند) خجالت زده‬
‫‪to believe that they had‬‬ ‫کنند‪،‬دیگر از این‬
‫‪accidentally broken a‬‬ ‫پژوهش‪،‬نتایج معتبری بدست‬
‫‪piece of equipment).‬‬ ‫نمی آید‪.‬‬
‫‪79‬‬
‫‪8th‬‬ ‫‪Accordingly, the‬‬ ‫لذا در رهنمود ها ذکر شده‬ ‫‪To proceed‬‬ ‫ذکر ‪ Specify/‬که در آن‬
‫‪guidelines specify that if‬‬ ‫که اگر چنین مطالعه ای‬ ‫شده شرکت کردند‬
‫‪such a study is permitted‬‬ ‫اساسا ً مجوز گرفت ‪ ،‬برای‬
‫‪Must be‬‬
‫‪to proceed at all,‬‬ ‫شرکت کنندگان پس از اینکه‬
‫‪debriefed/‬‬
‫‪participants must be‬‬ ‫در آن شرکت کردند ‪ ،‬باید‬
‫باید یک جلسه‬
‫‪debriefed about it as soon‬‬ ‫هر چه زودتر یک جلسه ی‬
‫ی مطلع سازی‬
‫‪as possible afterwards.‬‬ ‫مطلع سازی گذاشته شود و‬
‫گذاشته شود‪.‬‬
‫در آن برایشان توضیح داده‬
‫شود که چرا می بایست‬
‫برخی مسائل را ندانند‪-‬یا‬
‫اطالعاتی نادرست داشته‬
‫باشند‪-‬‬
‫‪80‬‬
‫‪9th‬‬ ‫‪During debriefing, the‬‬ ‫‪ .‬باهرگونه واکنش هیجانی‬ ‫‪About the‬‬ ‫‪ Debriefing/‬ضرورت و‬
‫‪reasons to keeping them‬‬ ‫باقی مانده باید چنان برخورد‬ ‫‪procedure‬‬ ‫آن ارزش‬
‫‪in ignorance-or deceiving‬‬ ‫کرد که حیثیت شرکت کننده‬
‫‪The reasons‬‬
‫‪them- about the procedure‬‬ ‫اعاده شود و به فهم بیشتری‬
‫‪to keeping‬‬
‫‪must be explained, and‬‬ ‫از ضرورت و ارزش‬
‫‪them in‬‬
‫‪any residual emotional‬‬ ‫پژوهش نائل آید‪.‬‬
‫‪ignorance/‬‬
‫‪reactions must be dealt‬‬
‫چرا می بایست‬
‫‪with so that participants‬‬
‫برخی مسائل را‬
‫‪leave with their dignity‬‬
‫ندانند‬
‫‪intact and their‬‬
‫‪appreciation for the‬‬ ‫‪Deceiving‬‬
‫‪research enhanced.‬‬ ‫‪them/‬‬
‫اطالعاتی‬
‫نادرست داشته‬
‫باشند‬
‫اعاده ‪Intact/‬‬
‫شود‬
‫‪81‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Acetylcholine is present at‬‬ ‫استیل کولین در سرتاسر‬ ‫در سر تا سر‬ ‫‪Acetylchol‬‬
‫‪many synapses throughout‬‬ ‫دستگاه عصبی و در سیناپس‬ ‫دستگاه عصبی‪/‬‬ ‫استیل‪ine /‬‬
‫‪the nervous system.‬‬ ‫های متعددی یافت می شود‪.‬‬ ‫ودر سیناپس‬ ‫کولین‬
‫های متعددی‬
‫یافت می شود‬
‫‪It is usually excitatory, but‬‬ ‫این عصب‪-‬رسانه معموالً‬ ‫‪type‬‬ ‫عصب‪-‬رسانه‪،‬‬

‫‪it can also be inhibitory,‬‬ ‫عصب‪-‬رسانه ای تحریکی‬ ‫واقع می شود‬
‫‪depending on the type of‬‬ ‫است‪ ،‬ولی بسته به مولکول‬
‫‪receptor molecule in the‬‬ ‫گیرنده ای که در غشای‬
‫‪membrane of the‬‬ ‫نورون دریافت کننده ی آن‬
‫‪receiving neuron.‬‬ ‫واقع می شود‪،‬اثر مهاری هم‬
‫می تواند داشته باشد‪.‬‬
‫‪82‬‬
‫‪Acetylcholine is‬‬ ‫استیل کولین به خصوص در‬ ‫به عهده ‪ Plays/‬در آنجا‬ ‫‪Hippocampus/‬‬
‫‪particularly prevalent in‬‬ ‫ناحیه ای از مغز پیشین به‬ ‫دارد‬ ‫دم اسبی‬
‫‪an area of the forebrain‬‬ ‫نام دم اسبی فراوان است و‬
‫‪called the hippocampus,‬‬ ‫در آنجا نقش کلیدی در‬
‫‪which plays a key role in‬‬ ‫تشکیل خاطرات جدید به‬
‫‪the formation of new‬‬ ‫عهده دارد(ایکنباوم‪)2222،‬‬
‫‪memories.‬‬
‫‪This neurotransmitter‬‬ ‫استیل کولین در بیماری‬ ‫‪This‬‬

‫‪plays a prominent role in‬‬ ‫آلزایمر که یک اختالل‬ ‫‪neurotransm‬‬
‫‪Alzheimer's disease, a‬‬ ‫مخرب حافظه است نقش‬ ‫استیل ‪itter/‬‬
‫‪devastating memory‬‬ ‫برجسته ای دارد‪.‬‬ ‫کولین‬
‫‪disorder.‬‬
‫‪83‬‬
‫‪Neurons in the forebrain‬‬ ‫نورون های مولد استیل‬ ‫در نتیجه‪ ،‬تولید‬ ‫نورون های‬ ‫‪Degenerate/‬‬
‫‪that produce acetylcholine‬‬ ‫کولین در مغز پیشین بیماران‬ ‫استیل کولین در‬ ‫مولد استیل‬ ‫مضمحل‬
‫‪tend to degenerate in‬‬ ‫آلزایمری اغلب‬ ‫مغز کاهش می‬ ‫کولین‪ /‬در مغز‬
‫‪Alzheimer's patients.‬‬ ‫مضمحل(دژنره) می شوند و‬ ‫یابد‬ ‫پیشین‬
‫در نتیجه‪،‬تولید استیل کولین‬
‫‪In‬‬
‫در مغز کاهش می یابد‪.‬‬
‫‪Alzheimer's‬‬
‫در ‪patients/‬‬
‫مغز پیشین‬
‫بیماران‬
‫آلزایمری‬
‫‪The less acetylcholine is‬‬ ‫هرچه تولید استیل کولین در‬ ‫مغز پیشین‬
‫‪produced, the more‬‬ ‫مغز پیشین کمتر باشد‬
‫‪serious the memory loss.‬‬ ‫‪،‬نقصان حافظه نیز جدی تر‬
‫خواهد بود‪.‬‬
‫‪84‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Molecular genetics of‬‬ ‫وراثت شناسی مولکولی‬ ‫این نکته را‬ ‫‪ Molecular/‬وراثت ‪Genetics/‬‬
‫‪behavior:‬‬ ‫رفتار‪:‬‬ ‫شناسی‬ ‫مولکولی‬
‫‪In recent years, some‬‬ ‫در سالهای اخیر برخی‬ ‫‪Neurotransmit‬‬

‫‪researchers have‬‬ ‫محققان این نکته را مطرح‬ ‫عصب‪-‬رسانه ‪ter/‬‬
‫‪suggested that certain‬‬ ‫کرده اند که صفات انسانی‬ ‫ای‬
‫‪human traits, such as‬‬ ‫ویژه ای نظیر برخی جنبه‬
‫‪some aspects of‬‬ ‫های شخصیت تحت تاثیر ژن‬
‫های مشخصی قرار دارند که ‪personality, are influenced‬‬
‫‪by specific genes, which‬‬ ‫به نظر می رسد برگیرنده‬
‫‪are thought to affect‬‬ ‫های عصب‪-‬رسانه ای‬
‫‪particular‬‬ ‫خاصی اثر می‬
‫‪neurotransmitter receptors‬‬ ‫گذارند(زاکرمن‪.)1991،‬‬
‫‪(Zuckerman, 1995).‬‬
‫‪85‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪In most studies of this‬‬ ‫در اکثر این مطالعات ‪،‬‬ ‫‪Sort‬‬ ‫‪Studies of‬‬ ‫‪Psychological‬‬
‫‪sort, family members who‬‬ ‫اعضایی از خانواده که‬ ‫این ‪this sort/‬‬ ‫صفت روانی‪trait/‬‬
‫‪have a certain‬‬ ‫دارای صفت روانی خاصی‬ ‫مطالعات‬
‫‪psychological trait are‬‬ ‫هستند ‪ ،‬شناسایی و با‬
‫‪identified and compared‬‬ ‫اعضای فاقد این صفت در‬
‫‪with family members who‬‬ ‫آن خانواده مقایسه می شوند‪.‬‬
‫‪lack that trait.‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Using techniques of‬‬ ‫سپس محققان با استفاده از‬ ‫‪Presence of‬‬ ‫ژنی‪Genes/‬‬
‫‪molecular genetics, the‬‬ ‫فنون وراثت شناسی ملکولی‬
‫‪Chromoso‬‬
‫می کوشند قطعه هایی ژنی یا ‪researchers attempt to find‬‬
‫‪me/‬‬
‫‪genes or chromosome‬‬ ‫کروموزومی را پیدا کنند که‬
‫کروموزومی‬
‫‪segments that are‬‬ ‫با صفت مورد مطالعه‬
‫‪correlated with the‬‬ ‫همبستگی داشته باشد‪.‬‬
‫‪presence of the trait under‬‬
‫‪study.‬‬
‫‪86‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪For example, a‬‬ ‫مثالً ترکیبی از صفات که‬ ‫‪Novelty‬‬ ‫‪Dopamine‬‬
‫‪combination of traits‬‬ ‫"نوجویی" خوانده می‬ ‫نوجویی‪seeking/‬‬ ‫دوپامینی‪/‬‬
‫‪referred to as 'novelty‬‬ ‫شود(یعنی گرایش به تکانشی‬
‫‪seeking' (that is, a‬‬ ‫بودن‪ ،‬جستجو گری ‪،‬و زود‬
‫‪tendency to be impulsive,‬‬ ‫از کوره در رفتن‪،‬براساس‬
‫‪exploratory, and quick-‬‬ ‫امتیاز هایی در مقیاس های‬
‫‪tempered, as measured by‬‬ ‫شخصیت) ‪ ،‬به ژنی ربط‬
‫‪scores on personality‬‬ ‫داده شده که گیرنده ی‬
‫‪scales) has been linked to‬‬ ‫را کنترل می ‪D4‬دوپامینی‬
‫‪a gene that controls the‬‬ ‫کند‪.‬‬
‫‪D4 receptor for dopamine.‬‬
‫‪87‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Asymmetries in the brain:‬‬ ‫ناقرینگی در مغز‪:‬‬ ‫یکدیگر‬ ‫دو نیمه ی مغز‬
‫انسان‪/‬در نگاه‬
‫‪At first glance, the two‬‬ ‫دو نیمه ی مغز انسان در‬
‫نخست‬
‫‪halves of the brain look‬‬ ‫نگاه نخست شبیه تصاویر‬
‫‪like mirror images.‬‬ ‫آینه ای یکدیگر ست‪.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪But when brains are‬‬ ‫‪ When‬اما اندازه گیری مغز در کالبد‬ ‫‪ Are‬نشان داده که‬ ‫کالبد ‪Autopsies/‬‬
‫‪measured during‬‬ ‫شکافی(اتوپسی) نشان داده‬ ‫‪measured/‬‬ ‫شکافی‬
‫‪autopsies, the left‬‬ ‫که نیمکره ی چپ تقریبا‬ ‫اندازه گیری‬
‫‪hemisphere is almost‬‬ ‫همیشه بزرگتر از نیمکره ی‬
‫‪always larger than the‬‬ ‫راست است‪.‬‬
‫‪right hemisphere.‬‬
‫‪88‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪The right hemisphere also‬‬ ‫همچنین نیمکره ی راست‬ ‫‪Large‬‬ ‫‪ Provide‬در نتیجه این‬ ‫‪Neural‬‬
‫‪contains many long neural‬‬ ‫حاوی تعداد زیادی رشته ی‬ ‫‪numbers‬‬ ‫‪ large‬نیمکره‬ ‫رشته ی ‪fibers/‬‬
‫‪fibers that connect widely‬‬ ‫بلند عصبی است که نواحی‬ ‫‪numbers of‬‬ ‫عصبی‬
‫‪separated areas of the‬‬ ‫بسیار دور مغز را به هم‬ ‫‪interconnect‬‬
‫‪brain, whereas the left‬‬ ‫وصل می کند ‪ ،‬حال آنکه در‬ ‫‪ions within‬‬
‫‪hemisphere has many‬‬ ‫نیمکره ی چپ تعداد زیادی‬ ‫‪a limited‬‬
‫‪shorter fibers that provide‬‬ ‫رشته ی کوتاه وجود دارد و‬ ‫از حیث ‪area/‬‬
‫‪large numbers of‬‬ ‫در نتیجه این نیمکره از حیث‬ ‫پیوندهای‬
‫‪interconnections within a‬‬ ‫پیوند های درونی نواحی‬ ‫درونی نواحی‬
‫‪limited area (Hellige,‬‬ ‫کوچک غنی است(هیلیگ‬ ‫کوچک غنی‬
‫‪1993).‬‬ ‫‪.)1991،‬‬ ‫است‬
‫‪89‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Piaget's stage theory:‬‬ ‫نظریه مرحله ای پیاژه‪:‬‬ ‫‪ Naturally/‬انجام داده بود‬ ‫‪Stage‬‬
‫مطابق طبیعت‬ ‫نظریه ی ‪theory/‬‬
‫‪Partly as a result of his‬‬ ‫پیاژه تا حدودی بر اثر‬
‫خود‬ ‫مرحله ای‬
‫‪observation of own‬‬ ‫مشاهداتی که در مورد‬
‫‪children, Piaget became‬‬ ‫کودکان خود انجام داده بود‪،‬‬
‫‪interested in the‬‬ ‫به رابطه ی توانایی های‬
‫‪relationship between the‬‬ ‫کودک که مطابق طبیعت‬
‫‪child's naturally maturing‬‬ ‫خود در حال بالندگی هستند‪،‬‬
‫‪abilities and his or her‬‬ ‫با تعامل های او با محیط‬
‫‪interactions with the‬‬ ‫عالقه مند شده بود‪.‬‬
‫‪environment.‬‬
‫‪90‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪He saw the child as an‬‬ ‫او کودک را مشارکت کننده‬
‫‪active participant in the‬‬ ‫ای فعال در این فرایند می‬
‫‪process, rather than as a‬‬ ‫دید‪،‬نه پذیرای منفعل نمو‬
‫‪passive recipient of‬‬ ‫زیستی یا محرک های‬
‫‪biological development or‬‬ ‫بیرونی‪.‬‬
‫‪external stimuli.‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪He view children as‬‬ ‫معتقد ‪ View/‬باید‬

‫او معتقد بود که کودک را‬
‫‪'inquiring scientists' who‬‬ ‫بود‬
‫باید"دانشمند کاوشگری"‬
‫‪experiment with objects‬‬
‫دانست که اشیا و وقایع محیط‬ ‫‪Children/‬‬
‫‪and events in their‬‬
‫را می آزماید تا ببیند چه‬ ‫کودک‬
‫‪environment to see what‬‬
‫اتفاقی می افتد("اگر گوش‬
‫‪will happen. ('What does‬‬ ‫‪Scientists/‬‬
‫خرس عروسکی ام را بمکم‬
‫‪it feel like to suck on the‬‬ ‫دانشمند‬
‫چه می شود؟" "اگر بشقابم‬
‫‪teddy bear's ear?' 'What‬‬
‫را از لبه ی میز هل بدهم‬ ‫‪What does‬‬
‫‪happens if I push my dish‬‬
‫پایین ‪،‬چه اتفاقی می افتد؟")‪.‬‬ ‫‪it feel‬‬
‫‪off to the edge of the‬‬
‫چه می ‪like/‬‬
‫)'?‪table‬‬
‫شود‬
‫‪91‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪The results of these‬‬ ‫با استفاده از نتایج این‬ ‫با ‪Are used/‬‬
‫‪'experiments' are used to‬‬ ‫"آزمایش ها" طرحواره ها‬ ‫استفاده‬
‫‪construct schemas-‬‬ ‫ساخته می شوند که نظریه‬
‫که‪-/‬‬
‫‪theories about now the‬‬ ‫هایی درباره ی نحوه ی‬
‫‪physical a social worlds‬‬ ‫عملکرد جهان مادی و‬
‫‪operate.‬‬ ‫اجتماعی هستند‪.‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Upon encountering a‬‬ ‫وقتی کودک با شیء یا واقعه‬ ‫کودک‪/‬با شیء‬
‫‪novel object or event, the‬‬ ‫ی تازه ای رو به رو می‬ ‫یا واقعه ی تازه‬
‫‪child attempts to‬‬ ‫شود‪،‬می کوشد شبیه سازی‬ ‫ای‪...‬‬
‫‪assimilate it-understand it‬‬ ‫کند‪،‬یعنی آن را در قالب‬
‫یعنی‪-/‬‬
‫‪in terms of a pre-existing‬‬ ‫طرحواره ای بشناسد که از‬
‫‪schema.‬‬ ‫پیش داشته است‪.‬‬
‫‪92‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪Piaget argued that if the‬‬ ‫پیاژه معتقد بود که اگر این‬ ‫قدیمی‬ ‫که‪،/‬‬ ‫‪Accommodati‬‬
‫‪new experience does not‬‬ ‫تجربه ی جدید با طرحواره‬ ‫مناسب سازی‪on/‬‬
‫‪fit the existing schema,‬‬ ‫های موجود جور در‬
‫‪the child, like any good‬‬ ‫نیاید‪،‬کودک‪،‬مثل هر دانشمند‬
‫‪scientist, will engage in‬‬ ‫قابل دیگری به مناسب سازی‬
‫‪accommodation,‬‬ ‫روی می آورد که تعدیل‬
‫‪modifying a schema to fit‬‬ ‫طرحواره ای قدیمی برای‬
‫‪new information, thereby‬‬ ‫جور شدن با اطالعات جدید‬
‫‪extending the child's‬‬ ‫و در نتیجه ‪ ،‬گسترش نظریه‬
‫‪theory of the world‬‬ ‫ی کودک درباره ی جهان‬
‫‪(Piaget & Inhelder, 1969).‬‬ ‫است(پیاژه و‬
‫اینهلدر‪.)1999،‬‬
‫‪93‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪By analyzing answers to‬‬ ‫کلبرگ با تحلیل پاسخ های‬ ‫‪He‬‬ ‫‪ Kohlberg/‬توانست‬ ‫‪Preconvention‬‬
‫‪several such dilemmas,‬‬ ‫داده شده به معماهایی از این‬ ‫کلبرگ‬ ‫پیش قراردادی‪al/‬‬
‫‪Kohlberg arrived at six‬‬ ‫دست توانست شش مرحله را‬
‫‪Dilemmas/‬‬ ‫‪Conventional/‬‬
‫‪developmental stages of‬‬ ‫در رشد قضاوت های‬
‫معماهایی‬ ‫قراردادی‬
‫‪moral judgment, which he‬‬ ‫اخالقی افراد تعیین کند که‬
‫‪grouped into three levels:‬‬ ‫در سه سطح قرار می گیرند‪:‬‬ ‫‪Grouped/‬‬ ‫‪Postconventio‬‬
‫‪preconventional,‬‬ ‫پیش قراردادی‪،‬قراردادی ‪ ،‬و‬ ‫قرار می گیرند‬ ‫پسا قراردادی‪nal/‬‬
‫‪conventional, and‬‬ ‫پسا قراردادی‪.‬‬
‫‪postconventional.‬‬
‫‪94‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪The answers are scored on‬‬ ‫او بر اساس دالیلی که‬ ‫‪ Answers/‬او‪ ،‬شرکت‬
‫‪the basis of the reasons‬‬ ‫شرکت کننده در توجیه‬ ‫پاسخ او کننده‪ ،‬در‬
‫‪given for the decision, not‬‬ ‫تصمیم گیری های مختلف‬ ‫توجیه‪ ،‬مختلف‪،‬‬
‫‪Are‬‬
‫‪on the basis of whether‬‬ ‫مطرح می کرد به پاسخ او‬ ‫فالن‬
‫امتیاز ‪scored/‬‬
‫‪the action is judged to be‬‬ ‫امتیاز می داد‪،‬نه بر این‬
‫می داد‬
‫‪right or wrong.‬‬ ‫اساس که آیا فالن تصمیم‬
‫گیری را درست می دانست‬ ‫مطرح ‪Given/‬‬
‫یا نادرست‪.‬‬ ‫می کرد‬
‫‪Action/‬‬
‫تصمیم گیری‬
‫‪95‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪For example, agreeing‬‬ ‫مثالً اگر شرکت کننده می‬ ‫می ‪ Agreeing/‬شرکت کننده‬
‫‪that the man should have‬‬ ‫پذیرفت که مرد باید دارو را‬ ‫پذیرفت‬
‫‪stolen the drug because 'if‬‬ ‫می دزدید‪،‬چون "اگر کسی‬
‫‪Your‬‬
‫‪it let your wife die, you'll‬‬ ‫اجازه دهد زنش بمیرد‬
‫زنش‪wife/‬‬
‫‪get in trouble' or‬‬ ‫‪،‬دردسر برایش پیش خواهد‬
‫‪disagreeing because 'if‬‬ ‫آمد"‪،‬یا نمی پذیرفت‬ ‫کسی‪You/‬‬
‫‪you steal the drug, you'll‬‬ ‫چون"اگر کسی چیزی بدزدد‬
‫‪Are‬‬
‫'‪be caught and sent to jail‬‬ ‫‪ ،‬دستگیرش می کنند و به‬
‫تلقی ‪scored/‬‬
‫‪are both scored at level I ,‬‬ ‫زندان می افتد"هردو را در‬
‫می کرد‬
‫‪or preconventional.‬‬ ‫مرحله ی یک یا پیش‬
‫قراردادی تلقی می کرد‪.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪In both instances, the‬‬ ‫‪ Man's‬چرا که در هر دو حال عمل‬ ‫‪ Instances/‬چرا که‬
‫‪man's actions are‬‬ ‫بر اساس مجازاتی که در‬ ‫حال‬
‫‪evaluated as right or‬‬ ‫انتظار او بود‪،‬ارزیابی (اعم‬
‫‪Right or‬‬
‫‪wrong on the basis of‬‬ ‫از مثبت یا منفی ) می شد‪.‬‬
‫مثبت ‪wrong/‬‬
‫‪anticipated punishment.‬‬
‫یا منفی‬
‫‪96‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Because some babies did‬‬ ‫‪ Seem‬از آنجا که برخی از کودکان‬ ‫بچه های‪،‬‬ ‫که‪،/‬‬ ‫‪Disorganized/‬‬
‫‪not seem to fit any of this‬‬ ‫در هیچ یک از این طبقات‬ ‫خوانده می‬ ‫نابسامان‬
‫‪categories, studies have‬‬ ‫نمی گنجند‪ ،‬در بررسی های‬ ‫شوند‬
‫‪included a fourth‬‬ ‫بعدی دسته ی چهارمی نیز‬
‫‪category, disorganized‬‬ ‫مطرح شده که بچه های‬
‫‪(Main & Solomon, 1986).‬‬ ‫نابسامان خوانده می‬
‫شوند(مین و‬
‫سولومون‪.)1999،‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Babies in this category‬‬ ‫این بچه ها اغلب رفتار های‬ ‫‪In this‬‬
‫‪often show contradictory‬‬ ‫متناقضی از خود نشان می‬ ‫‪category‬‬
‫‪behaviors.‬‬ ‫دهند‪.‬‬
‫‪97‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪For example, they may‬‬ ‫مثالً سعی می کنند بدون‬ ‫‪Approach‬‬ ‫مادر‬ ‫سعی می کنند‬
‫‪approach the mother while‬‬ ‫اینکه به مادر نگاه کنند به‬ ‫‪her‬‬ ‫بدون اینکه به‬
‫‪taking care not to look at‬‬ ‫وی نزدیک شوند‪،‬سپس با‬ ‫مادر نگاه‬
‫‪her, approach her and then‬‬ ‫سرگشتگی از او دور می‬ ‫کنند‪/‬به وی‬
‫‪show dazed avoidance, or‬‬ ‫شوند یا همینکه مادر‬ ‫نزدیک شوند‬
‫‪suddenly cry out after‬‬ ‫آرامشان کرد ‪،‬ناگهان زیر‬
‫‪Show dazed‬‬
‫‪having settled down.‬‬ ‫گریه می زنند‪.‬‬
‫با ‪avoidance/‬‬
‫سرگشتگی از‬
‫او دور می‬
‫شوند‬
‫‪Having‬‬
‫‪settled‬‬
‫مادر ‪down/‬‬
‫آرامشان کرد‬
‫‪98‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Some seem disoriented,‬‬ ‫برخی از اینها سرگردان ‪،‬‬ ‫‪Disoriented/‬‬
‫‪appear emotionless, or‬‬ ‫بی هیجان ‪ ،‬یا افسرده به‬ ‫سرگردان‬
‫‪look depressed.‬‬ ‫نظر می رسند‪.‬‬
‫‪Emotionless/‬‬
‫بی هیجان‬
‫‪Depressed/‬‬
‫افسرده‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Babies who are maltreated‬‬ ‫کودکانی که با آنها بدرفتاری‬ ‫‪For mental‬‬
‫‪or whose parents are‬‬ ‫شده است یا در خانواده هایی‬ ‫‪disorders/‬‬
‫‪being treated for mental‬‬ ‫بزرگ شده اند که والدینشان‬ ‫روان پزشکی‬
‫‪disorders are more likely‬‬ ‫تحت درمان روان پزشکی‬
‫‪to fall into this category.‬‬ ‫قرار داشته اند بیشتر احتمال‬
‫دارد در این دسته قرار‬
‫بگیرند‪.‬‬
‫‪99‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪A typical single-cell‬‬ ‫یکی از آزمایش های نوعی‬ ‫‪Single-cell‬‬ ‫‪Is‬‬
‫‪recording experiment is‬‬ ‫‪ recording‬در این زمینه را در شکل ‪-4‬‬ ‫‪illustrated/‬‬
‫‪illustrated in figure 4.6.‬‬ ‫‪ 9‬می بینید‪.‬‬ ‫می بینید‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪This is a vision‬‬ ‫این آزمایش روی بینایی‬ ‫‪This is a‬‬

‫‪experiment, but the‬‬ ‫انجام می شود اما روال آن‬ ‫‪vision‬‬
‫‪procedure is similar for‬‬ ‫برای مطالعه ی حس های‬ ‫‪experiment/‬‬
‫‪studying other senses.‬‬ ‫دیگر نیز همین است‪.‬‬ ‫این آزمایش‬
‫روی بینایی‬
‫انجام می شود‬
‫‪100‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Before the experiment, the‬‬ ‫حیوان (در این آزمایش ‪،‬‬ ‫‪In which‬‬ ‫حیوان‪/‬پیش از‬ ‫قشر مخ‪Cortex/‬‬
‫‪animal (in this case a‬‬ ‫میمون) را پیش از آزمایش‬ ‫آزمایش‬
‫‪monkey) has undergone a‬‬ ‫تحت عمل جراحی قرار می‬
‫‪Has‬‬
‫‪surgical procedure in‬‬ ‫دهند و سیم های نازکی را‬
‫‪undergone/‬‬
‫‪which thin wires are‬‬ ‫در نواحی خاصی از قسمت‬
‫قرار می دهند‬
‫‪inserted into selected‬‬ ‫بینایی قشر مخش کار می‬
‫‪areas of its visual cortex.‬‬ ‫گذارند‪.‬‬ ‫‪Are‬‬
‫کار ‪inserted/‬‬
‫می گذارند‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪The thin wires are‬‬ ‫نوک این سیم های نازک که‬ ‫‪ Insulated‬در نتیجه‬
‫‪microelectrodes, insulated‬‬ ‫ریز الکترود نام دارند‪،‬لخت‬ ‫‪except at‬‬
‫‪except at their tips that‬‬ ‫است و در نتیجه می شود به‬ ‫‪their‬‬
‫‪can be used to record‬‬ ‫کمک آنها فعالیت الکتریکی‬ ‫نوک این ‪tips/‬‬
‫‪electrical activity of the‬‬ ‫نورون هایی را ثبت کرد که‬ ‫سیمها لخت‬
‫‪neurons they are in‬‬ ‫با آنها تماس دارند‪.‬‬ ‫است‬
‫‪contact with.‬‬
‫‪101‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪They cause no pain, and‬‬ ‫کارگذاشتن این ریز‬ ‫کار گذاشتن این‬
‫‪the monkey moves around‬‬ ‫الکترودها هیچ دردی ایجاد‬ ‫ریز الکترودها‬
‫‪and lives quite normally.‬‬ ‫نمی کند و میمون به راحتی‬
‫این طرف و آن طرف می‬
‫رود و زندگی کامالً طبیعی‬
‫خود را دارد‪.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪During the experiment,‬‬ ‫در حین آزمایش‪ ،‬میمون را‬ ‫‪Is‬‬
‫‪the monkey is placed in a‬‬ ‫در دستگاه آزمایش قرار می‬ ‫قرار ‪placed/‬‬
‫‪testing apparatus and the‬‬ ‫دهند و ریز الکترودهایش را‬ ‫می دهند‬
‫‪microelectrodes are‬‬ ‫به ابزارهای ثبت و تقویت‬
‫‪Are‬‬
‫‪connected to recording‬‬ ‫وصل می کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪connected/‬‬
‫‪and amplifying devices.‬‬
‫وصل می کنند‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪The monkey is then‬‬ ‫سپس اورا در معرض انواع‬ ‫‪Controlled‬‬ ‫‪ The‬و اقسام‬ ‫صفحه ‪Monitor/‬‬
‫‪exposed to various visual‬‬ ‫و اقسام محرک های بصری‬ ‫او‪monkey/‬‬ ‫ی نمایشگر‬
‫‪stimuli on a computer-‬‬ ‫روی صفحه ی نمایشگر‬
‫‪Is‬‬
‫‪controlled monitor.‬‬ ‫رایانه قرار می دهند‪.‬‬
‫‪exposed/‬‬
‫قرار می دهند‬
‫‪102‬‬
‫‪8th‬‬ ‫‪For each stimulus, the‬‬ ‫پژوهشگر در مورد هر‬ ‫به این ترتیب‪،‬‬ ‫پژوهشگر‪/‬در‬
‫‪researcher can determine‬‬ ‫محرک می تواند ببیند چه‬ ‫محرک‬ ‫مورد هر‬
‫‪which neurons respond to‬‬ ‫الکترودهایی پیام های مداوم‬ ‫محرک‬
‫‪it by observing which‬‬ ‫می فرستند و به این ترتیب‬
‫می تواند ببیند‬
‫‪microelectrodes produce‬‬ ‫در یابد چه نورون هایی به‬
‫چه‬
‫‪sustained outputs.‬‬ ‫آن محرک پاسخ می دهند‪.‬‬
‫الکترودهایی‪/...‬‬
‫وبه این ترتیب‬
‫دریابد چه‬
‫نورون هایی‪...‬‬
‫‪9th‬‬ ‫‪This is an example of‬‬ ‫این مثالی از رمزگزاری‬ ‫‪Distributive or‬‬

‫‪distributive or spatial‬‬ ‫مکانی یا توزیعی است که‬ ‫‪spatial‬‬
‫‪coding, where a specific‬‬ ‫طی آن محرک خاصی‬ ‫‪coding/‬‬
‫‪stimulus activates an area‬‬ ‫نورون یا ناحیه ی خاصی را‬ ‫رمزگذاری مکانی‬
‫‪or a specific neuron in the‬‬ ‫در مغز فعال می کند‪.‬‬ ‫یا توزیعی‬
‫‪brain.‬‬
‫‪103‬‬
‫‪10th‬‬ ‫‪Most neurons emit a‬‬ ‫‪ Second‬اکثر نورون ها تعدادی تکانه‬ ‫‪In whatever‬‬ ‫‪Nerve‬‬
‫‪series of nerve impulses‬‬ ‫ی عصبی صادر میکنند که‬ ‫‪format the‬‬ ‫تکانه ‪impulses/‬‬
‫‪that appear on a second‬‬ ‫روی صفحه ی نوسان نگار‬ ‫‪experimente‬‬ ‫ی عصبی‬
‫‪computer screen in‬‬ ‫به صورت امواج نیزه ای‬ ‫به ‪r wishes/‬‬
‫‪whatever format the‬‬ ‫عمودی ظاهر می شود‪.‬‬ ‫صورت امواج‬
‫‪experimenter wishes.‬‬ ‫نیزه ای عمودی‬
‫‪11th‬‬ ‫‪Even in the absence of a‬‬ ‫حتی اگر هیچ محرکی هم‬ ‫‪even‬‬
‫‪signal (i.e. even in a‬‬ ‫وجود نداشته باشد (در‬
‫‪noise-only situation),‬‬ ‫موقعیتی که فقط همهمه‬
‫‪many cells will respond at‬‬ ‫هست )‪،‬سلول های زیادی با‬
‫‪a slow rate.‬‬ ‫سرعتی اندک واکنش نشان‬
‫می دهند‪.‬‬
‫‪12th‬‬ ‫‪If a signal to which the‬‬ ‫هرگاه محرکی ارائه شود که‬ ‫ارائه شود‪/‬که‬
‫‪neuron is sensitive is‬‬ ‫نورون به آن حساس است ‪،‬‬ ‫نورون به آن‬
‫‪presented, the cells‬‬ ‫سلول ها با سرعت بیشتری‬ ‫حساس است‬
‫‪respond faster.‬‬ ‫پاسخ خواهند داد‪.‬‬
‫‪104‬‬
‫‪13th‬‬ ‫‪This is the most‬‬ ‫این بنیادی ترین همبسته ی‬ ‫‪We‬‬ ‫‪Described/‬‬ ‫‪Neural‬‬
‫‪fundamental neural‬‬ ‫عصبی موقعیت تشخیص پیام‬ ‫توصیف شد‬ ‫‪correlate/‬‬
‫‪correlate of the signal-‬‬ ‫است که پیش تر توصیف‬ ‫همبسته ی عصبی‬
‫‪detection situation that we‬‬ ‫شد‪.‬‬
‫‪described above.‬‬
‫‪105‬‬
‫‪TL system‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Color appearance:‬‬ ‫ظاهر رنگی اشیا ‪:‬‬ ‫اشیا‪،‬از یک‬

‫سو‪ ،‬خود‪ ،‬تولید‬
‫‪Seeing color is a‬‬ ‫دیدن رنگ ‪ ،‬از یک سو‬
‫می کند‬
‫‪subjective experience in‬‬ ‫‪،‬تجربه ای درون ذهنی‬
‫‪the sense that 'color' is a‬‬ ‫است؛ به این معنا که "رنگ"‬
‫‪construction of the brain‬‬ ‫خود سازه ای است که مغز‬
‫‪based on an analysis of‬‬ ‫براساس تحلیل طول موج‬
‫‪wavelengths of light.‬‬ ‫های نور تولید می کند‪.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪However, it is also‬‬ ‫از سوی دیگر دیدن رنگ‬ ‫تجربه ای‬ ‫از ‪However/‬‬ ‫سلول ‪Cones/‬‬
‫‪objective in that any two‬‬ ‫تجربه ای عینی است؛ به این‬ ‫سوی دیگر‬ ‫های مخروطی‬
‫‪viewers with the same‬‬ ‫معنا که دو بیننده با گیرنده‬
‫دیدن رنگ‪It/‬‬
‫‪kinds of color receptors‬‬ ‫های رنگی (سلول های‬
‫‪(cones) appear to‬‬ ‫مخروطی) مشابه ‪ ،‬سازه ی‬ ‫به این ‪In that/‬‬
‫‪construct 'color' in the‬‬ ‫"رنگ" را ظاهراً به گونه ی‬ ‫معنا‬
‫‪same way.‬‬ ‫واحدی تولید می کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪106‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪The most common way of‬‬ ‫رایج ترین شیوه برای نامیدن‬ ‫رنگ ‪Colour/‬‬ ‫فام‪Hue/‬‬
‫‪referring to the various‬‬ ‫تجربه های گوناگون رنگ‬ ‫بینی‬
‫‪Brightness/‬‬
‫‪color experiences of a‬‬ ‫بینی بینندگان نوعی ‪،‬‬
‫درخشندگی‬
‫‪typical viewer is to‬‬ ‫سازماندهی این تجربه ها‬
‫‪organize them on three‬‬ ‫حول سه محور است‪:‬‬ ‫‪Saturation/‬‬
‫‪dimensions: hue,‬‬ ‫فام‪،‬درخشندگی‪ ،‬و اشباع‪.‬‬ ‫اشباع‬
‫‪brightness and saturation.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Hue refers to the quality‬‬ ‫فام عبارت است از کیفیتی‬

‫‪best described by the‬‬ ‫که نام آن رنگ بهترین‬
‫‪color's name, such as red‬‬ ‫توصیف آن است‪،‬نظیر قرمز‬
‫‪or greenish- yellow.‬‬ ‫یا زرد متمایل به سبز‪.‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Brightness refers to how‬‬ ‫درخشندگی به مقدار نوری‬

‫‪much light appears to be‬‬ ‫مربوط است که ظاهراً از‬
‫‪reflected from a colored‬‬ ‫یک سطح رنگی تابیده می‬
‫‪surface, with white being‬‬ ‫شود ‪،‬چنان که سفید درخشنده‬
‫‪the brightest possible‬‬ ‫ترین رنگ ممکن و سیاه‬
‫‪color and black the‬‬ ‫مات ترین آن هاست‪.‬‬
‫‪dimmest.‬‬
‫‪107‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪Saturation refers to the‬‬ ‫اشباع هم به معنای درجه ی‬ ‫‪Fully,‬‬ ‫رنگ های‬
‫‪purity of the color, in that‬‬ ‫‪ while, in‬خلوص آن رنگ است‪ :‬رنگ‬ ‫اشباع نشده‪،‬‬
‫‪a fully saturated color,‬‬ ‫های اشباع نشده‪ ،‬پریده و‬ ‫‪that‬‬ ‫پریده و‬
‫‪such as crimson, appears‬‬ ‫کمرنگ به نظر می رسد‬ ‫کمرنگ‪/...‬‬
‫‪to contain no gray, while‬‬ ‫(نظیر صورتی)‪ ،‬و رنگ‬ ‫رنگ های‬
‫‪an unsaturated color, such‬‬ ‫های اشباع شده (مثل‬ ‫اشباع شده (مثل‬
‫‪as pink, appears to be a‬‬ ‫زرشکی)چنان به نظر می‬ ‫زرشکی)‪...‬‬
‫‪mixture of red and white.‬‬ ‫آیند که گویی هیچ رنگ‬
‫سفید‪Grey/‬‬
‫سفیدی در آن وجود ندارد‪.‬‬
‫‪Appears to‬‬
‫‪be a mixture‬‬
‫‪of red and‬‬
‫پریده و ‪white/‬‬
‫کمرنگ به نظر‬
‫می رسد‬
‫‪108‬‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪American artist Albert‬‬ ‫نقاشی آمریکایی به نام آلبرت‬ ‫رنگ‪Them/‬‬
‫‪Munsell proposed a‬‬ ‫مانسل برای نشان دادن‬
‫‪scheme for specifying‬‬ ‫سطوح رنگی‪،‬طرحی‬
‫‪colored surfaces by‬‬ ‫پیشنهاد کرد که در آن به هر‬
‫‪assigning them one of ten‬‬ ‫رنگ نام یکی از ده فام و نیز‬
‫‪hue names and two‬‬ ‫دو عدد داد که یکی درجه ی‬
‫‪numbers, one indicating‬‬ ‫اشباع آن را نشان می دهد و‬
‫‪saturation and the other‬‬ ‫دیگری درخشندگی آنها را‪.‬‬
‫‪brightness.‬‬
‫‪8th‬‬ ‫رنگ ها را طبق نظام مانسل‬ ‫‪Are‬‬ ‫‪Colour‬‬

‫‪The colors in the Munsell‬‬
‫به صورت سه بعدی رنگ‬ ‫‪represented/‬‬ ‫سه بعدی ‪solid/‬‬
‫‪system are represented by‬‬
‫نشان می دهند(شکل ‪.)19-4‬‬ ‫نشان می دهند‬ ‫رنگ‬
‫‪the color solid (see figure‬‬
‫)‪4.18‬‬
‫‪109‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪The pain system:‬‬ ‫دستگاه حس درد‪:‬‬
‫‪Any stimulus that is‬‬ ‫هرمحرکی اگر آنقدر شدید‬

‫‪intense enough to cause‬‬ ‫باشد که صدمه ی بافتی ایجاد‬
‫‪tissue damage is a‬‬ ‫کند‪ ،‬محرکی برای درد است‪.‬‬
‫‪stimulus for pain.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪It may be pressure,‬‬ ‫‪ irritants‬این محرک ممکن است فشار‬ ‫مجرک‬
‫‪temperature, electric‬‬ ‫‪،‬حرارت‪،‬شوک برقی‪،‬یا مواد‬
‫‪shock, or chemical‬‬ ‫شیمیایی باشد‪.‬‬
‫‪irritants.‬‬
‫‪110‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Such a stimulus causes the‬‬ ‫چنین محرکی موجب آزاد‬ ‫‪In turn‬‬ ‫و این مواد‬ ‫‪The‬‬
‫‪release of chemical‬‬ ‫شدن مواد شیمیایی خاصی‬ ‫شیمیایی‪،‬خاصی‬ ‫‪transduction‬‬
‫‪substances in the skin,‬‬ ‫در پوست می شود و این‬ ‫مرحله ی ‪stage/‬‬
‫‪which in turn stimulate‬‬ ‫مواد شیمیایی گیرنده های‬ ‫تبدیل‬
‫‪distinct high-threshold‬‬ ‫خاصی را که آستانه ی‬
‫‪receptors (the‬‬ ‫باالیی دارند ‪،‬تحریک می‬
‫‪transduction stage).‬‬ ‫کنند(مرحله ی تبدیل)‪.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪These receptors are‬‬ ‫گیرنده های مزبور نورون‬

‫‪neurons with specialized‬‬ ‫هایی با پایانه های عصبی‬
‫‪free nerve endings, and‬‬ ‫آزاد و ویژه هستند و محققان‬
‫‪researchers have identified‬‬ ‫چندیدن نوع از آنها را کشف‬
‫‪several types (Brown‬‬ ‫کرده اند(براون و‬
‫‪&Deffenbacher, 1979).‬‬ ‫دفنباخر‪.)1999،‬‬
‫‪111‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪With regard to variations‬‬ ‫با توجه به کیفیت های‬ ‫دردی‪ Kind/‬دو نوع درد‬ ‫‪Phasic‬‬
‫‪in the quality of pain,‬‬ ‫گوناگونی که حس درد دارد‬ ‫است‬ ‫درد خنجری‪pain/‬‬
‫‪Has‬‬
‫‪perhaps the most‬‬ ‫‪،‬احتماالً مهم ترین تمایز‬
‫‪accurred/‬‬ ‫درد ‪Tonic pain/‬‬
‫‪important distinction is‬‬ ‫دردها مربوط به دونوع درد‬
‫وقوع‬ ‫فشاری‬
‫‪between the kind of pain‬‬ ‫است‪:‬دردی که بالفاصله پس‬
‫‪we feel immediately upon‬‬ ‫از وقوع جراحت حس می‬ ‫حس ‪We feel/‬‬
‫‪suffering an injury, called‬‬ ‫شود و درد خنجری نام دارد‪،‬‬ ‫می شود‬
‫‪phasic pain, and the kind‬‬ ‫و دردی که مدتی پس از‬
‫‪we experience after the‬‬ ‫وقوع جراحت به انسان دست‬
‫‪injury has occurred, called‬‬ ‫می دهد و درد فشاری خوانده‬
‫‪tonic pain.‬‬ ‫می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪Phasic pain is typically a‬‬ ‫درد خنجری معموالً دردی‬ ‫‪whereas‬‬
‫‪sharp, immediate pain that‬‬ ‫است تند و آنی که دیری نمی‬
‫‪is brief in duration (that is,‬‬ ‫پاید (یعنی شدتش به سرعت‬
‫‪it rapidly rises and falls in‬‬ ‫باال می رود و سپس افت می‬
‫‪intensity), whereas tonic‬‬ ‫کند) و درد فشاری معموالً‬
‫‪pain is typically dull and‬‬ ‫دردی مبهم و دیرپاست‪.‬‬
‫‪long-lasting.‬‬
‫‪112‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪The importance of context‬‬ ‫اهمیت بافتار‬ ‫نکته‬ ‫بافتار‪Context/‬‬
‫‪A key distinction in‬‬ ‫نکته ی کلیدی در مورد‬ ‫‪Have‬‬ ‫‪Bottom-up‬‬

‫‪perception, to which we‬‬ ‫ادراک که باید قبال به آن‬ ‫باید ‪alluded/‬‬ ‫فرایند ‪process/‬‬
‫‪have previously alluded,‬‬ ‫اشاره می کردیم ‪،‬تمایزی‬ ‫اشاره می‬ ‫صعودی‬
‫‪is that between bottom-up‬‬ ‫است که میان فرایندهای‬ ‫کردیم‬
‫‪Top-down‬‬
‫‪and top-down processes.‬‬ ‫صعودی(از پایین به باال) و‬
‫تمایز‬ ‫فرایند ‪process/‬‬
‫نزولی (از باال به پایین)‬
‫نزولی‬
‫وجود دارد‪.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Bottom-up processes are‬‬ ‫فرایند های صعودی صرفا‬ ‫درون داد‪Input/‬‬
‫‪driven solely by the input‬‬ ‫از درون دادها ناشی می‬
‫– ‪– the raw, sensory data‬‬ ‫شود(داده های حسی خام)در‬
‫‪whereas top-down‬‬ ‫حالی که فرایند های نزولی‬
‫‪processes are driven by a‬‬ ‫از دانسته ها ‪،‬تجربه ‪،‬توجه و‬
‫‪person's knowledge,‬‬ ‫انتظار های فرد سرچشمه‬
‫‪experience, attention, and‬‬ ‫می گیرد‪.‬‬
‫‪expectations.‬‬
‫‪113‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪To illustrate, recognizing‬‬ ‫برای مثال اگر کسی صرفا ً‬ ‫‪ Recognizin‬اگر کسی‪ ،‬در‬ ‫ژئون‪Geon/‬‬
‫‪the shape of an object‬‬ ‫بر اساس توصیف ژئون های‬ ‫تشخیص دهد‪ g/‬این کار‪،‬یعنی‪،‬‬
‫‪solely on the basis of its‬‬ ‫یک شیء تشخیص دهد که‬ ‫آن درون داد‬
‫‪The shape‬‬
‫‪geon description involves‬‬ ‫شیء مزبور المپ است ‪،‬در‬
‫‪of an‬‬
‫;‪only bottom-up processes‬‬ ‫این کار فقط از فرایند های‬
‫شیء ‪object/‬‬
‫‪one starts with primitive‬‬ ‫صعودی کمک گرفته‬
‫مزبور المپ‬
‫‪features of the input,‬‬ ‫است؛یعنی نخست خصایص‬
‫است‬
‫‪determines the geon‬‬ ‫ابتدایی آن درون داد را‬
‫‪configuration of the input,‬‬ ‫شناسایی و ترکیب ژئون های‬ ‫‪One starts‬‬
‫‪and then makes this‬‬ ‫آن را تعیین می کند و سپس‬ ‫‪with‬‬
‫‪description available to‬‬ ‫توصیف آن درون داد را با‬ ‫‪primitive‬‬
‫‪shape descriptions stored‬‬ ‫توصیف های شکلی ذخیره‬ ‫‪features…/‬‬
‫‪in memory.‬‬ ‫شده در حافظه اش مقایسه‬ ‫نخست‬
‫نموده است‪.‬‬ ‫خصایص‬
‫ابتدایی آن‬
‫درون داد‪...‬‬
‫‪Makes‬‬
‫‪available/‬‬
‫مقایسه نموده‬
‫است‬
‫و‪،/‬‬
‫‪114‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪In contrast, recognizing‬‬ ‫اما اگر المپ بودن آن شیء‬ ‫‪Regarding‬‬ ‫‪ Recognizin‬در این کار‬
‫‪that the object is a lamp‬‬ ‫را براین اساس دریابد که در‬ ‫‪shape‬‬ ‫دریابد‪g/‬‬
‫‪partly on the basis of its‬‬ ‫ضمن ببیند روی میز چراغ‬
‫توجه ‪Is used/‬‬
‫‪being on a night table next‬‬ ‫خواب و در نزدیکی تختی‬
‫کرده است‬
‫‪to a bed involves some‬‬ ‫قرار دارد‪ ،‬در این کار‬
‫‪top-down processes; other‬‬ ‫برخی از فرایند های نزولی‬
‫‪information is used‬‬ ‫هم دخالت داشته است؛یعنی‬
‫‪besides the input‬‬ ‫به اطالعاتی به جز درون‬
‫‪regarding shape.‬‬ ‫داد هم توجه کرده است‪.‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪While most of the‬‬ ‫بیشتر فرایند هایی که تا‬ ‫‪While, in‬‬
‫‪processes considered thus‬‬ ‫کنون اشاره کرده ایم فرایند‬ ‫‪this chapter‬‬
‫‪far in this chapter are‬‬ ‫های صعودی بوده اند اما‬
‫‪bottom-up ones, top-down‬‬ ‫فرایند های نزولی هم در‬
‫‪processes also play a‬‬ ‫ادراک اشیا نقش مهمی ایفا‬
‫‪major role in object‬‬ ‫می کند‪.‬‬
‫‪perception.‬‬
‫‪115‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Failure of recognition:‬‬ ‫اختالل در بازشناسی‪:‬‬ ‫بی‪Effortless/‬‬ ‫اختالل‪Failure/‬‬

‫هیچ تالشی‬
‫‪Recognizing an object is‬‬ ‫بازشناسی اشیا معموال‬ ‫‪Recognition/‬‬
‫انجام می شود‬
‫‪usually so automatic and‬‬ ‫فرایندی کامال خودکار است‬ ‫بازشناسی‬
‫‪effortless that we take it‬‬ ‫و بی هیچ تالشی انجام می‬
‫‪for granted.‬‬ ‫شود به طوریکه آن را‬
‫بدیهی می پنداریم‪.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪But the process sometimes‬‬ ‫اما این فرایند ممکن است با‬
‫‪breaks down.‬‬ ‫اشکال رو به رو شود‪.‬‬
‫‪116‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪We have already seen that‬‬ ‫قبال عنوان شد که گاهی در‬ ‫‪We,‬‬ ‫ممکن است‬ ‫‪Have‬‬ ‫خطای ‪Illusory/‬‬
‫‪in normal people‬‬ ‫افراد طبیعی ممکن است در‬ ‫‪situation‬‬ ‫عنوان ‪seen/‬‬ ‫ادراکی‬
‫‪recognition can fall in‬‬ ‫موقعیت های ساده(مثل تلفیق‬ ‫شد‬
‫‪simple situations (as with‬‬ ‫های مبتنی بر خطای‬
‫‪illusory conjunctions) and‬‬ ‫ادراکی) و یا پیچیده تر(مثال‬
‫‪in more complex‬‬ ‫وقتی چادر با خرس اشتباه‬
‫‪situations (as when a tent‬‬ ‫می شود) ممکن است فرایند‬
‫‪is mistaken for a bear).‬‬ ‫باز شناسی مختل شود‪.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Recognition also fails‬‬ ‫همچنین اگر کسی دچار‬ ‫‪Certain‬‬ ‫‪Recognition‬‬ ‫سکته ی ‪Stroke/‬‬
‫‪routinely in people who‬‬ ‫صدمات مغزی (براثر‬ ‫‪kinds‬‬ ‫این فرایند‪/‬‬ ‫مغزی‬
‫‪have suffered from certain‬‬ ‫تصادف یا بیماری های نظیر‬
‫‪kinds of brain damage‬‬ ‫سکته ی مغزی) شده باشد‬
‫‪(due to accidents or‬‬ ‫این فرایند معموال با اشکال‬
‫‪diseases such as strokes).‬‬ ‫رو به رو می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪The general term for such‬‬ ‫اصطالح کلی برای‬ ‫‪Agnosia/‬‬
‫‪breakdowns or disorders‬‬ ‫اختالالتی که در بازشناسی‬ ‫نشناسی‪،‬ادراک‬
‫‪in recognition is agnosia.‬‬ ‫رخ می دهد نشناسی (یا‬ ‫پریشی‬
‫ادراک پریشی یا‬
‫آگنوزی)است‪.‬‬
‫‪117‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Perceiving forms:‬‬ ‫درک شکل‪:‬‬ ‫‪Be able to‬‬ ‫‪One part of‬‬ ‫‪Visual‬‬
‫‪it from‬‬ ‫حدت ‪acuity/‬‬
‫‪To be able to perceive an‬‬ ‫برای آنکه کسی بتواند شی‬
‫‪another/‬‬ ‫بینایی‬
‫‪object, a person must first‬‬ ‫ای را درک کند نخست باید‬
‫اجزای مختلف‬
‫‪be able to discriminate‬‬ ‫اجزای مختلف آن را از هم‬
‫آن‬
‫‪one part of it from‬‬ ‫تمییز دهد؛ به این قابلیت ‪،‬‬
‫‪another, an ability referred‬‬ ‫حدت بینایی می گویند‪.‬‬
‫‪to as visual acuity.‬‬
‫‪118‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Acuity is often assessed‬‬ ‫اغلب حدت بینایی را با تغییر‬ ‫‪Is‬‬ ‫تضاد‪Contrast/‬‬
‫‪by varying both the‬‬ ‫در تضاد یک تصویر‬ ‫‪assessed/‬‬
‫‪Spatial‬‬
‫‪contrast in a pattern (the‬‬ ‫(اختالف درخشندگی بین‬ ‫بررسی می‬
‫‪frequency/‬‬
‫‪difference in brightness‬‬ ‫نواحی تاریک و روشن) و‬ ‫کنند‬
‫بسامد فضایی‬
‫‪between dark and light‬‬ ‫بسامد فضایی یک طرح‬
‫‪regions) and the spatial‬‬ ‫(تعداد دفعاتی که یک طرح‬
‫‪frequency of the pattern‬‬ ‫در یک ناحیه ی مفروض‬
‫‪(the number of times a‬‬ ‫تکرار می شود) بررسی می‬
‫‪pattern is repeated within‬‬ ‫کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪a given area).‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪For any particular level of‬‬ ‫همواره در هر سطحی از‬ ‫به دلیل ظرافت‬
‫‪contrast there are always‬‬ ‫تضاد ‪ ،‬تعدادی از بسامد های‬ ‫بیش از‬
‫‪some spatial frequencies‬‬ ‫فضایی هستند که به دلیل‬ ‫حد‪/‬توسط‬
‫‪that cannot be resolved by‬‬ ‫ظرافت بیش از حد ‪،‬توسط‬ ‫دستگاه بینایی‬
‫‪the visual system because‬‬ ‫دستگاه بینایی قابل افتراق‬ ‫قابل افتراق‬
‫‪they are too fine.‬‬ ‫نیستند‪.‬‬ ‫نیستند‬
‫‪119‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪At the other extreme,‬‬ ‫در آن سوی طیف ‪،‬بسامد‬ ‫تغییرات آنها‬
‫‪there are other spatial‬‬ ‫های فضایی دیگری هستند‬ ‫نیاز به‪/...‬به‬
‫‪frequencies that cannot be‬‬ ‫که تغییرات آنها نیاز به‬ ‫همین دلیل قابل‬
‫‪seen because they change‬‬ ‫فضای بسیار وسیعی دارد و‬ ‫دیدن نیستند‬
‫‪over too large an area.‬‬ ‫به همین دلیل قابل دیدن‬
‫‪They‬‬
‫نیستند‪.‬‬
‫‪change over‬‬
‫‪too large an‬‬
‫تغییرات ‪area/‬‬
‫آنها نیاز به‬
‫فضای بسیار‬
‫وسیعی دارد‬
‫‪120‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪The unconscious :‬‬ ‫ناهشیاری‪:‬‬ ‫‪Unconscious/‬‬

‫ناهشیاری‬
‫‪One of the earliest‬‬ ‫یکی از اولین نظریه ها‬
‫‪theories of consciousness‬‬ ‫درباره ی هشیاری –و نیز‬ ‫‪Psychoanalyti‬‬
‫‪– and one that has been‬‬ ‫نظریه ای که در طول سالیان‬ ‫روانکاوانه‪c/‬‬
‫‪subject to considerable‬‬ ‫متمادی مورد انتقاد های‬
‫– ‪criticism over the years‬‬ ‫فراوان قرار گرفته‪-‬نظریه ی‬
‫‪is the psychoanalytic‬‬ ‫روانکاوانه ی زیگموند‬
‫‪theory of Sigmund Freud.‬‬ ‫فروید است‪.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Freud and his followers‬‬ ‫فروید و پیروانش معتقد بودند‬ ‫‪Are not‬‬ ‫‪Memories/‬‬
‫‪believed that there is a‬‬ ‫که بخشی از ذهن انسان به‬ ‫‪accessible/‬‬ ‫خاطرات‬
‫‪portion of the mind, the‬‬ ‫نام ناخودآگاه (ناهشیار)حاوی‬ ‫دسترسی ندارد‬
‫تکانه ‪Impulses/‬‬
‫‪unconscious that contains‬‬ ‫خاطرات ‪،‬تکانه ها‪،‬و امیالی‬
‫ها‬
‫‪some memories, impulses,‬‬ ‫است که بخش هشیار ذهن به‬
‫‪and desire that are not‬‬ ‫آنها دسترسی ندارد‪.‬‬ ‫امیال‪Desire/‬‬
‫‪accessible to‬‬
‫‪consciousness.‬‬
‫‪121‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Freud believed that some‬‬ ‫فروید معتقد بود که برخی از‬ ‫آزرده‪Painful/‬‬ ‫‪Are‬‬
‫‪emotionally painful‬‬ ‫خاطرات و امیالی که فرد را‬ ‫می کنند‬ ‫واپس ‪repressed/‬‬
‫‪memories and wishes are‬‬ ‫به لحاظ هیجانی آزرده می‬ ‫زده می شوند‬
‫با آنکه از آنها‬
‫‪repressed – that is,‬‬ ‫کنند‪ ،‬واپس زده می شوند‪-‬‬
‫با خبر‬
‫‪diverted to the‬‬ ‫یعنی به بخش ناهشیار رانده‬
‫نیستیم‪/‬ممکن‬
‫‪unconscious, where they‬‬ ‫می شوند و در آنجا با آنکه‬
‫است همچنان‬
‫‪may continue to influence‬‬ ‫از آنها باخبر نیستیم ممکن‬
‫بر اعمال ما‬
‫‪our actions even though‬‬ ‫است همچنان براعمال ما‬
‫تأثیر بگذارند‬
‫‪we are not aware of them.‬‬ ‫تاثیر بگذارند‪.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Repressed thoughts,‬‬ ‫افکار و تکانه های واپس زده‬ ‫به ناخود آگاه‬ ‫یعنی‪-/‬‬ ‫رؤیاها‪Dreams/‬‬
‫‪impulses cannot enter our‬‬ ‫به ناخودآگاه‪ ،‬نمی توانند‬
‫‪Irrational‬‬
‫‪consciousness, but they‬‬ ‫وارد ذهن هشیار ما شوند‬
‫‪behaviours/‬‬
‫‪can affect us in indirect or‬‬ ‫ولی به نحو غیر مستقیم یا‬
‫رفتارهای غیر‬
‫‪disguised ways – through‬‬ ‫تغییر شکل داده‪ ،‬یعنی از‬
‫منطقی‬
‫‪dreams, irrational‬‬ ‫طریق رویاها ‪،‬رفتارهای‬
‫‪behaviors, mannerisms,‬‬ ‫غیر منطقی ‪،‬حرکات ادایی‬ ‫‪Mannerisms/‬‬
‫‪and slips of the tongue.‬‬ ‫‪،‬و لغزش های زبانی برما‬ ‫حرکات ادایی‬
‫تاثیر می گذارند‪.‬‬
‫‪Slips of‬‬
‫لغزشهای ‪tongue/‬‬
‫زبانی‬
‫‪122‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪The term Freudian slip is‬‬ ‫اصطالح" لغزش فرویدی"‬ ‫‪Are‬‬ ‫‪Freudian‬‬
‫‪commonly used to refer to‬‬ ‫که به فراوانی به کار می‬ ‫‪assumed/‬‬ ‫لغزش ‪slip/‬‬
‫‪unintentional remarks that‬‬ ‫رود‪ ،‬به حرف ها و اشارات‬ ‫مطابق مفروض‬ ‫فرویدی‬
‫‪are assumed to reveal‬‬ ‫غیر عامدانه ای اطالق می‬ ‫های روانکاوی‬
‫‪hidden impulses.‬‬ ‫شود که مطابق مفروض های‬
‫روانکاوی‪ ،‬وجود تکانه هایی‬
‫پنهان را برمال می کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪Saying, "I'm sad you're‬‬ ‫نمونه ای از لغزش فرویدی‬ ‫‪intented‬‬ ‫به جای آنکه‬ ‫نمونه ای از‬
‫‪better" when you intended‬‬ ‫آن است که به جای آنکه‬ ‫لغزش ‪/...‬به‬
‫‪to say, "I'm glad you're‬‬ ‫بگویید "خوشبختانه به نظر‬ ‫جای آنکه‬
‫‪better" is an example of‬‬ ‫می رسد بهتر شده اید"‬ ‫بگویید‪...‬‬
‫‪such a slip.‬‬ ‫بگویید" بدبختانه به نظر می‬
‫گفتن‪Saying/‬‬
‫رسد بهتر شده اید"‪.‬‬
‫‪I'm sad/‬‬
‫بدبختانه به نظر‬
‫میرسد‬
‫‪I'm glad/‬‬
‫خوشبختانه به‬
‫نظر می رسد‬
‫‪123‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Theories of dreaming:‬‬ ‫نظریه هایی درباره ی دیدن‬ ‫‪Was‬‬

‫رویا‪:‬‬ ‫‪suggested/‬‬
‫‪One of the earliest‬‬
‫مطرح کرده‬
‫‪theories of the function of‬‬ ‫یکی از نخستین نظریه ها‬
‫است‬
‫‪dreams was suggested by‬‬ ‫درباره ی کارکرد رویا را‬
‫‪Sigmund Freud, who‬‬ ‫زیگموند فروید مطرح کرده‬ ‫‪Who‬‬
‫‪proposed that dreams‬‬ ‫است‪.‬فروید گفته بود که رویا‬ ‫‪proposed/‬‬
‫‪provide a 'royal road to a‬‬ ‫"شاهراهی به فهم فعالیت‬ ‫فروید گفته بود‬
‫‪knowledge of the‬‬ ‫های ناخودآگاه ذهن برما می‬
‫می ‪Provide/‬‬
‫‪unconscious activities of‬‬ ‫گشاید"‪.‬‬
‫گشاید‬
‫‪the mind'.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪He believed that dreams‬‬ ‫او معتقد بود که رویا تالشی‬ ‫‪Wish‬‬
‫‪are a disguised attempt at‬‬ ‫نهانی برای ارضای امیال‬ ‫‪fulfilment/‬‬
‫‪wish fulfillment.‬‬ ‫است‪.‬‬ ‫ارضای امیال‬
‫‪124‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪By this he meant that the‬‬ ‫منظور فروید این بود که در‬ ‫‪Touches/‬‬ ‫‪Sexual‬‬
‫‪dream touches on wishes,‬‬ ‫رویا به امیال‪ ،‬نیازها ‪ ،‬یا‬ ‫پرداخته می‬ ‫میل ‪longings/‬‬
‫‪needs or ideas that the‬‬ ‫اندیشه هایی پرداخته می‬ ‫شود‬ ‫جنسی‬
‫‪individual find‬‬ ‫شود که از نظر فرد نامقبول‬
‫‪Have been‬‬ ‫‪Parent of the‬‬
‫‪unacceptable and have‬‬ ‫اند و در نتیجه آنها را به‬
‫‪repressed/‬‬ ‫‪opposite‬‬
‫‪been repressed to the‬‬ ‫ناخود آگاه خود واپس زده‬
‫واپس زده است‬ ‫والد جنس ‪sex/‬‬
‫‪unconscious (for example,‬‬ ‫است(نظیر میل جنسی به‬
‫مخالف‬
‫‪sexual longings for the‬‬ ‫والد جنس مخالف)‪.‬‬
‫‪parent of the opposite‬‬
‫‪sex).‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪These wishes and ideas‬‬ ‫این امیال و افکار‪ ،‬محتوای‬ ‫تشکیل ‪Are/‬‬
‫‪are the latent content of‬‬ ‫پنهان رویا را تشکیل می‬ ‫می دهند‬
‫‪the dream.‬‬ ‫دهند‪.‬‬
‫‪125‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Freud used the metaphor‬‬ ‫فروید تبدیل محتوای پنهان‬ ‫فروید تبدیل‬ ‫ممیزی‪Censor/‬‬
‫‪of a censor to explain the‬‬ ‫رویا به محتوای آشکار‬ ‫محتوای‬
‫‪conversion of latent‬‬ ‫آن(شخصیت ها و وقایعی که‬ ‫پنهان‪/...‬با‬
‫‪content into manifest‬‬ ‫داستان ظاهری رویا را‬ ‫استعاره ی‬
‫‪content (the characters‬‬ ‫تشکیل می دهند) را با‬ ‫ممیزی‪...‬‬
‫‪and events that make up‬‬ ‫استعاره ی ممیزی (سانسور)‬
‫‪the actual narrative of the‬‬ ‫توضیح می داد ‪.‬‬
‫‪dream).‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪In effect, Freud said, the‬‬ ‫فروید می گفت این ممیزی‪،‬‬ ‫‪In effect‬‬ ‫در ‪Avoiding/‬‬
‫‪censor protects the‬‬ ‫فرد به خواب رفته را‬ ‫امان بماند‬
‫‪sleeper, enabling him or‬‬ ‫محافظت کرده ‪،‬قادر می‬
‫‪her to express repressed‬‬ ‫سازد تا تکانه های واپس زده‬
‫‪impulses symbolically‬‬ ‫ی خود را به شکلی نمادین‬
‫‪while avoiding the guilt or‬‬ ‫ابراز کند و در عین حال از‬
‫‪anxiety would occur if‬‬ ‫احساس گناه یا اضطرابی که‬
‫‪they were to appear‬‬ ‫در صورت بروز آنها به‬
‫‪consciously in‬‬ ‫گونه ای هشیارانه وبدون‬
‫‪undisguised form.‬‬ ‫ظاهر مبدل در فرد به وجود‬
‫می آید‪ ،‬درامان بماند‪.‬‬
‫‪126‬‬
‫‪Table 24:Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 3, chapter 6‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Heroin usage:‬‬ ‫مصرف هروئین‪:‬‬ ‫افیونی‪Opiate/‬‬
‫‪Heroin is an opiate that‬‬ ‫هروئین ماده ای افیونی است‬

‫‪can be injected, smoked,‬‬ ‫که می شود آنرا تزریق‬
‫‪or inhaled.‬‬ ‫‪،‬تدخین ‪،‬یا استنشاق کرد‪.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪At first it produces a sense‬‬ ‫با مصرف آن نخست احساس‬ ‫با مصرف‬ ‫‪Produces/‬‬
‫‪0f well-being.‬‬ ‫آسودگی دست می دهد‪.‬‬ ‫دست می دهد‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Experienced users report a‬‬ ‫‪ Special‬گزارش مصرف کنندگان‬ ‫‪ Report/‬در آنها ایجاد‬ ‫شعف‪Thrill/‬‬
‫‪special thrill, or 'rush',‬‬ ‫سابقه دارحاکی از آن است‬ ‫گزارش‪...‬حاکی می شود‬
‫رعشه‪Rush/‬‬
‫‪within a minute or two‬‬ ‫که در عرض یکی دو دقیقه‬ ‫از آن است‬
‫‪after an intravenous‬‬ ‫پس از تزریق داخل‬ ‫‪Intravenous‬‬
‫‪injection.‬‬ ‫وریدی‪،‬احساس شعف یا‬ ‫تزریق ‪injection/‬‬
‫"رعشه"در آنها ایجاد می‬ ‫داخل وریدی‬
‫شود‪.‬‬
‫‪127‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Some describe this‬‬ ‫برخی آن را احساسی بسیار‬
‫‪sensation as intensely‬‬ ‫لذت بخش و شبیه‬
‫‪pleasurable, similar to an‬‬ ‫فارش(ارگاسم یا اوج لذت‬
‫‪orgasm.‬‬ ‫جنسی) می دانند‪.‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Young people who sniff‬‬ ‫جوانانی که هروئین را از‬ ‫از راه ‪Sniff/‬‬
‫‪heroin report that they‬‬ ‫راه بینی مصرف می کنند‪،‬‬ ‫بینی مصرف‬
‫‪forget everything that‬‬ ‫می گویند که با این کار همه‬ ‫می کنند‬
‫‪troubles them.‬‬ ‫ی مشکالت خود را فراموش‬
‫می ‪Report/‬‬
‫می کنند‪.‬‬
‫گویند‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪Following this, the user‬‬ ‫پس از این مرحله ‪،‬مصرف‬ ‫میخ ‪ Fixed/‬مرحله‬
‫‪feels 'fixed' or gratified,‬‬ ‫کننده احساس می کند که‬ ‫شده است‬
‫‪and has no awareness of‬‬ ‫"میخ" شده است یا به حالت‬
‫به ‪Gratified/‬‬
‫‪hunger, pain, or sexual‬‬ ‫ارضا رسیده است و از‬
‫حالت ارضا‬
‫‪urges.‬‬ ‫گرسنگی ‪ ،‬درد ‪ ،‬یا امیال‬
‫رسیده است‬
‫جنسی خود هیچ خبری‬
‫ندارد‪.‬‬
‫‪128‬‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪The person may be‬‬ ‫او ممکن است "چرتش‬ ‫‪ The‬چرتش بگیرد‬
‫‪alternately waking and‬‬ ‫بگیرد" یعنی در همان حال‬ ‫او‪person/‬‬
‫‪drowsing while‬‬ ‫که به آسودگی مشغول‬
‫‪comfortably watching‬‬ ‫تماشای تلوزیون یا خواندن‬
‫‪television or reading a‬‬ ‫کتاب است به تناوب بیدار و‬
‫‪book.‬‬ ‫خواب آلوده شود‪.‬‬
‫‪8th‬‬ ‫‪Unlike a person who is‬‬ ‫مصرف کننده ی هروئین‬ ‫مصرف کننده‬ ‫‪Intoxicated by‬‬ ‫‪Tests of‬‬
‫‪intoxicated by alcohol, a‬‬ ‫برخالف افراد مست‬ ‫هرویین‪/‬بر‬ ‫افراد ‪alcohol/‬‬ ‫‪agility/‬‬
‫‪heroin user can readily‬‬ ‫(مسمومان الکل) ‪،‬آمادگی‬ ‫خالف افراد‬ ‫مست (مسمومان‬ ‫آزمون های‬
‫‪produce skilled responses‬‬ ‫دادن پاسخ هایی ماهرانه به‬ ‫مست‬ ‫الکل)‬ ‫آژیری‬
‫‪to tests of agility and‬‬ ‫آزمون های مربوط به‬
‫‪Tests of‬‬
‫‪intelligence and seldom‬‬ ‫آژیری وهوش را دارد و به‬
‫‪intelligence/‬‬
‫‪becomes aggressive or‬‬ ‫ندرت ممکن است پرخاشگر‬
‫آزمون های هوش‬
‫‪assaultive.‬‬ ‫یا حمله ور شود‪.‬‬
‫‪129‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Pavlov's experiments‬‬ ‫آزمایش های پاولف‬ ‫پژوهشگر‪،‬‬ ‫برای اندازه‬ ‫‪Salivary‬‬
‫گیری‪/...‬محفظه نخست‪ ،‬محفظه‬ ‫غده ی ‪gland/‬‬
‫‪In Pavlov's basic‬‬ ‫در آزمایش اصلی پاولف‬
‫ای‬ ‫ای را با لوله‬ ‫بزاق‬
‫‪experiment, a tube is‬‬ ‫پژوهشگر نخست برای‬
‫ای‪...‬‬
‫‪attached to the dog's‬‬ ‫اندازه گیری جریان بزاق‬
‫‪salivary gland so that the‬‬ ‫سگ ‪،‬محفظه ای را با لوله‬ ‫‪Is‬‬
‫‪flow of salivation can be‬‬ ‫ای به غده ی بزاق سگ‬ ‫‪attached/‬‬
‫‪measured.‬‬ ‫متصل می کند‪.‬‬ ‫متصل می کند‬
‫‪Can be‬‬
‫‪measured/‬‬
‫برای اندازه‬
‫گیری‬
‫‪130‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Then the dog is placed in‬‬ ‫سپس سگ را مقابل ظرفی‬ ‫می ‪Is placed/‬‬
‫‪front of a pan into which‬‬ ‫می نشاند که گرد گوشت به‬ ‫نشاند‬
‫‪meat powder can be‬‬ ‫طور خودکار در آن ریخته‬
‫‪Can be‬‬
‫‪delivered automatically.‬‬ ‫می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪delivered/‬‬
‫ریخته می شود‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪The dog is hungry and‬‬ ‫سگ گرسنه است و ابزار‬ ‫‪When meat‬‬ ‫‪ Is‬ابزار اندازه‬
‫‪when meat powder is‬‬ ‫اندازه گیری ‪،‬ترشح فراوان‬ ‫‪powder is‬‬ ‫‪ registered/‬گیری‪ ،‬فراوان‬
‫‪delivered, salivation is‬‬ ‫بزاق را ثبت می کند‪.‬‬ ‫‪delivered‬‬ ‫ثبت می کند‬
‫‪registered.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪This salivation is an‬‬ ‫این ترشح ‪ ،‬پاسخی غیر‬ ‫‪Unconditioned‬‬

‫‪unconditioned response‬‬ ‫شرطی است‪ :‬پاسخی‬ ‫پاسخ ‪response/‬‬
‫‪(UR): an unlearned‬‬ ‫نیاموخته (طبیعی) که با مزه‬ ‫غیر شرطی‬
‫‪response elicited by the‬‬ ‫ی غذا فرا خوانده می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪taste of the food.‬‬
‫‪131‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪By the same token, the‬‬ ‫به همین ترتیب غذا نیز‬ ‫‪Automatical‬‬ ‫‪Unconditioned‬‬
‫‪food itself is termed the‬‬ ‫‪ ly‬محرک غیرشرطی نامیده می‬ ‫محرک ‪stimulus/‬‬
‫‪unconditioned stimulus‬‬ ‫شود‪:‬محرکی که بدون‬ ‫غیر شرطی‬
‫‪(US): a stimulus that‬‬ ‫هیچگونه شرطی سازی‬
‫‪automatically elicits a‬‬ ‫قبلی‪ ،‬پاسخی را فرا می‬
‫‪respond without prior‬‬ ‫خواند‪.‬‬
‫‪conditioning.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪The researcher can also‬‬ ‫همچنین پژوهشگر می تواند‬

‫‪turn on a light in a‬‬ ‫چراغی را در پنجره ای رو‬
‫‪window in front of the‬‬ ‫به روی سگ روشن کند‪.‬‬
‫‪dog.‬‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪This event is called a‬‬ ‫که محرک خنثی نامیده می‬ ‫‪Neutral‬‬
‫)‪neutral stimulus (NS‬‬ ‫شود زیرا باعث ترشح بزاق‬ ‫محرک ‪stimulus/‬‬
‫‪because it doesn't cause‬‬ ‫نمی شود ‪،‬اگر چه ممکن‬ ‫خنثی‬
‫‪salivation-although it may‬‬ ‫است منجر به پاسخ های‬
‫‪of course lead to other‬‬ ‫دیگری در سگ بشود(مانند‬
‫‪responses by the dog‬‬ ‫تکان دادن دم‪،‬پریدن ‪،‬پارس‬
‫‪(such as tail wagging,‬‬ ‫کردن)‪.‬‬
‫‪jumping, and barking).‬‬
‫‪132‬‬
‫‪Table 26: Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph2, chapter 7‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Reinforcement versus‬‬ ‫تقویت در برابر تنبیه‪:‬‬ ‫‪produces‬‬ ‫‪ Produces an‬خاصی‪ ،‬رخ‬ ‫‪Reinforcement‬‬
‫‪punishment‬‬ ‫‪ increase or‬می دهد‬ ‫تقویت‪/‬‬
‫در شرطی سازی‬
‫‪a‬‬
‫‪In instrumental‬‬ ‫ابزاری‪،‬یک واقعه ی‬ ‫‪Punishment/‬‬
‫‪decrease/‬‬
‫‪conditioning, an‬‬ ‫محیطی که به دنبال رفتار‬ ‫تنبیه‬
‫افزایش یا‬
‫‪environmental event that‬‬ ‫خاصی رخ می دهد ‪ ،‬احتمال‬
‫کاهش می دهد‬ ‫‪Instrumental‬‬
‫‪follows behavior produces‬‬ ‫بروز آن رفتار را افزایش یا‬
‫‪conditioning/‬‬
‫‪either an increase or a‬‬ ‫کاهش می دهد‪.‬‬
‫شرطی سازی‬
‫‪decrease in the probability‬‬
‫ابزاری‬
‫‪of that behavior.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Reinforcement refers to‬‬ ‫تقویت به فرآیندی اطالق می‬

‫‪the process whereby the‬‬ ‫شود که طی آن ارائه ی‬
‫‪delivery of a stimulus‬‬ ‫محرکی احتمال بروز‬
‫‪increases the probability‬‬ ‫رفتاری را افزایش دهد‪.‬‬
‫‪of a behavior.‬‬
‫‪133‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Reinforcement can be‬‬ ‫تقویت می تواند با دادن‬ ‫‪Appetitive‬‬
‫‪done by giving an‬‬ ‫محرک مشوق (تقویت مثبت)‬ ‫محرک ‪stimulus/‬‬
‫‪appetitive stimulus‬‬ ‫یا از طریق حذف محرک‬ ‫مشوق‬
‫)‪(positive reinforcement‬‬ ‫بیزاری آور(تقویت منفی)‬
‫‪Positive‬‬
‫‪or by the removal of an‬‬ ‫انجام شود‪.‬‬
‫‪reinforcement/‬‬
‫‪aversive stimulus‬‬
‫تقویت مثبت‬
‫‪(negative reinforcement).‬‬
‫‪Aversive‬‬
‫محرک ‪stimulus/‬‬
‫بیزاری آور‬
‫‪Negative‬‬
‫‪reinforcement/‬‬
‫تقویت منفی‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪In other words, there may‬‬ ‫به عبارت دیگر ممکن است‬ ‫اقتران‬ ‫‪Positive or‬‬
‫‪be either a positive or a‬‬ ‫همایندی و اقتران مثبت یا‬ ‫‪negative‬‬
‫‪negative contingency‬‬ ‫منفی میان رفتار و تقویت‬ ‫‪contingency/‬‬
‫‪between the behavior and‬‬ ‫وجود داشته باشد ‪.‬‬ ‫همایندی و اقتران‬
‫‪reinforcement.‬‬ ‫مثبت یا منفی‬
‫‪134‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪A positive contingency‬‬ ‫تقویت یا همایندی مثبت یعنی‬ ‫‪Is followed‬‬
‫‪means that something is‬‬ ‫اینکه چیزی داده می‬ ‫به ‪by food/‬‬
‫‪given: for example bar‬‬ ‫شود‪:‬مثال فشار میله به‬ ‫دریافت غذا می‬
‫‪pressing is followed by‬‬ ‫دریافت غذا می انجامد‪.‬‬ ‫انجامد‬
‫‪food.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪A negative contingency‬‬ ‫تقویت همایندی منفی یعنی‬ ‫تقویت‬

‫‪means that something is‬‬ ‫آنکه چیزی برطرف می‬
‫‪taken away: for example,‬‬ ‫شود‪:‬مثال فشار میله ‪،‬شوک‬
‫‪bar pressing terminates or‬‬ ‫را برطرف یا تمام می کند‪.‬‬
‫‪prevents shock.‬‬
‫‪135‬‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪Punishment is the‬‬ ‫تنبیه عکس تقویت است‬ ‫‪Positive‬‬
‫‪converse of‬‬ ‫‪:‬احتمال وقوع رفتار را‬ ‫‪punishment/‬‬
‫‪reinforcement: it‬‬ ‫کاهش می دهد ‪،‬و شامل‬ ‫تنبیه مثبت‬
‫‪decreases the probability‬‬ ‫ارائه ی محرک بیزار‬
‫‪Negative‬‬
‫‪of a behavior, and consists‬‬ ‫کننده(" تنبیه مثبت" یا فقط‬
‫‪punishment/‬‬
‫‪of the delivery of an‬‬ ‫"تنبیه") یا حذف محرک‬
‫تنبیه منفی‬
‫‪aversive stimulus (positive‬‬ ‫مشوق(تنبیه منفی یا آموزش‬
‫‪punishment, or simply‬‬ ‫حذفی) است‪.‬‬ ‫‪Omission‬‬
‫‪'punishment') or the‬‬ ‫اموزش ‪training/‬‬
‫‪removal of an appetitive‬‬ ‫حذفی‬
‫‪stimulus (negative‬‬
‫‪punishment or 'omission‬‬
‫‪training').‬‬
‫‪136‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Intrinsic motivation and‬‬ ‫انگیزه ی درونی و یادگیری‬ ‫‪We think‬‬ ‫‪Intrinsic‬‬
‫‪learning‬‬ ‫‪motivation/‬‬
‫در رویکرد شناختی به‬
‫انگیزه ی درونی‬
‫‪In a cognitive approach to‬‬ ‫مطالعه ی انگیزش‪،‬تاکید بر‬
‫‪the study of motivation,‬‬ ‫فهم افراد و تفسیر آنها از‬ ‫یاد ‪Learning/‬‬
‫‪the emphasis is on the‬‬ ‫فعالیت های خودشان‬ ‫گیری‬
‫‪individual's understanding‬‬ ‫است‪:‬چرا کارهای مختلف را‬
‫‪Cognitive‬‬
‫‪and interpretation of their‬‬ ‫انجام می دهیم؟ به عبارت‬
‫‪approach/‬‬
‫‪own actions: why do we‬‬ ‫دیگر انگیزه هایمان را به چه‬
‫رویکرد شناختی‬
‫‪think we do things? In‬‬ ‫چیزی نسبت می دهیم؟‬
‫‪other words: what do we‬‬
‫‪attribute our own‬‬
‫?‪motivations to‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Ask yourself why you are‬‬ ‫همین االن از خودتان بپرسید‬
‫‪studying this chapter,‬‬ ‫که چرا درحال مطالعه ی این‬
‫‪right now.‬‬ ‫فصل هستید‪.‬‬
‫‪137‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Is it because you are‬‬ ‫آیا به این خاطر است که به‬
‫‪interested in the material,‬‬ ‫مطالب آن عالقمندید و‬
‫‪and comprehending it‬‬ ‫فراگیری آن به شما احساس‬
‫‪gives you a sense of‬‬ ‫شایستگی و غرور می دهد؟‬
‫?‪competence and pride‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪If so, you are intrinsically‬‬ ‫اگر این طور است پس این‬
‫‪motivated by these‬‬ ‫احساسات باعث شده که شما‬
‫‪feelings.‬‬ ‫از درون برانگیخته شده‬
‫باشید‪.‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Or perhaps you are‬‬ ‫شاید هم شما این کتاب را به‬
‫‪studying because you‬‬ ‫این خاطر مطالعه می کنید‬
‫‪think it is necessary in‬‬ ‫که فکر می کنید برای داشتن‬
‫‪order to do well on your‬‬ ‫عملکرد خوب در امتحان و‬
‫‪exam and get a good‬‬ ‫گرفتن نمره ی مطلوب در‬
‫‪grade in your course.‬‬ ‫واحد درسیتان ‪،‬الزم است‪.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪If that is the case, you are‬‬ ‫اگر چنین است پس شمارا‬ ‫‪external‬‬ ‫‪You are‬‬ ‫‪Extrinsic‬‬
‫‪extrinsically motivated by‬‬ ‫پاداشی که انتظار دریافتش‬ ‫‪extrinsically‬‬ ‫‪motivation/‬‬
‫‪the external rewards that‬‬ ‫را دارید ‪ ،‬از بیرون‬ ‫شما را از ‪…/‬‬ ‫انگیزه ی بیرونی‬
‫‪you anticipate.‬‬ ‫برانگیخته هستید‪.‬‬ ‫بیرون‪...‬‬
‫‪138‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Short-term memory has‬‬ ‫حافظه ی کوتاه مدت ویژگی‬ ‫‪Short-term‬‬

‫‪the following‬‬ ‫های زیر را دارد‪:‬‬ ‫حافظه ‪memory/‬‬
‫‪characteristics.‬‬ ‫ی کوتاه مدت‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪First, it can be roughly‬‬ ‫نخست اینکه تقریبا می توان‬ ‫(آگاهی)‬ ‫‪Consciousness‬‬
‫‪identified with‬‬ ‫آن را معادل هشیاری (آگاهی‬ ‫هشیاری‪/‬‬
‫;‪consciousness‬‬ ‫)فرض کرد؛یعنی اطالعات‬
‫‪information in short-term‬‬ ‫موجود در حافظه ی کوتاه‬
‫‪memory is information‬‬ ‫مدت اطالعاتی است که به‬
‫‪that you are conscious of.‬‬ ‫آن واقف و آگاه هستید‪.‬‬
‫‪139‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Second, information in‬‬ ‫دوم اینکه اطالعات موجود‬
‫‪short-term memory is‬‬ ‫در حافظه ی کوتاه مدت به‬
‫‪readily accessible; it can‬‬ ‫آسانی در دسترس قرار می‬
‫‪be used as the foundation‬‬ ‫گیرند‪ .‬از این حافظه به‬
‫‪of making decisions or‬‬ ‫عنوان پایه ای برای تصمیم‬
‫‪carrying out tasks in times‬‬ ‫گیری یا انجام کارها در‬
‫‪on the order of seconds or‬‬ ‫زمان های معادل چند ثانیه یا‬
‫‪less.‬‬ ‫کمتر استفاده می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Third, all else being equal,‬‬ ‫سوم اینکه اگر هیچ اقدام‬ ‫‪A period of‬‬ ‫‪All else‬‬
‫‪information in short-term‬‬ ‫دیگری صورت‬ ‫‪being‬‬
‫‪memory will decay-be‬‬ ‫نگیرد‪،‬اطالعات حافظه ی‬ ‫اگر هیچ ‪equal/‬‬
‫‪forgotten-over a period of‬‬ ‫کوتاه مدت ظرف حدود‬ ‫اقدام دیگری‬
‫‪approximately 20 seconds.‬‬ ‫بیست ثانیه زایل خواهند‬ ‫صورت نگیرد‬
‫شد(فراموش می شوند)‪.‬‬
‫‪140‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Fourth, information can‬‬ ‫چهارم‪ ،‬با تمرین می توان‬ ‫‪That is‬‬ ‫‪ If it is‬تمرین‪ ،‬برخی‬
‫‪be prevented from‬‬ ‫مانع از محو اطالعات‬ ‫با ‪ rehearsed/‬اطالعات‬
‫‪decaying if it is rehearsed,‬‬ ‫شد‪:‬تمرین به تکرار چند باره‬ ‫تمرین‬
‫‪that is, repeated over and‬‬ ‫ی برخی اطالعات گفته می‬
‫با تمرین‪/‬می‬
‫‪over (see Sperling, 1967).‬‬ ‫شود(اسپرلینگ‪ 1999،‬را‬
‫توان مانع از‬
‫ببینید)‪.‬‬
‫محو اطالعات‬
‫شد‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪Fifth, information that is‬‬ ‫پنجم‪ ،‬اطالعاتی که تمرین‬ ‫کاری که‬ ‫یعنی‪،/‬‬ ‫‪Elaboration/‬‬
‫‪rehearsed or that‬‬ ‫می شوند یا آنهایی که انواع‬ ‫شرح وبسط‬
‫‪undergoes other forms of‬‬ ‫دیگر پردازش بر آنها انجام‬
‫‪Long-term‬‬
‫‪processing, collectively‬‬ ‫می شود – کاری که در‬
‫مخزن دراز ‪store/‬‬
‫‪known as elaboration (for‬‬ ‫مجموع شرح و بسط نامیده‬
‫مدت‬
‫‪example, being‬‬ ‫می شوند (مثال اینکه به یک‬
‫‪transformed into a suitable‬‬ ‫تصویر بصری مناسب تبدیل‬
‫‪visual image) is‬‬ ‫شوند)‪ -‬از مخزن حافظه ی‬
‫‪transferred from short-‬‬ ‫کوتاه مدت به انبار سوم‬
‫‪term memory into the‬‬ ‫اطالعات یعنی مخزن دراز‬
‫‪third repository of‬‬ ‫مدت منتقل می شوند‪.‬‬
‫‪information, long-term‬‬
‫‪store.‬‬
‫‪141‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Interactions between‬‬ ‫تعامل های بین رمزگذاری و‬ ‫‪Operations‬‬ ‫رمز ‪Encoding/‬‬
‫‪encoding and retrieval‬‬ ‫بازیابی‬ ‫‪carried out‬‬ ‫گذاری‬
‫‪during‬‬
‫‪In describing the encoding‬‬ ‫در توصیف مرحله ی رمز‬ ‫‪Retrieval/‬‬
‫‪encoding/‬‬
‫‪stage, we noted that‬‬ ‫گذاری گفتیم که اگر در حین‬ ‫بازیابی‬
‫اگر در حین این‬
‫‪operations carried out‬‬ ‫این مرحله ‪ ،‬عملیاتی (نظیر‬
‫مرحله‪ ،‬عملیاتی‬
‫‪during encoding, such as‬‬ ‫شرح و بسط دادن) انجام‬
‫انجام شود‬
‫‪elaboration, make‬‬ ‫شود ‪،‬بازیابی آسان تر‬
‫‪retrieval easier.‬‬ ‫صورت خواهد گرفت‪.‬‬ ‫‪Encoding/‬‬
‫این مرحله‬
‫‪142‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Two other encoding‬‬ ‫دوعامل دیگر در رمز‬ ‫‪The context‬‬
‫‪factors also increase the‬‬ ‫گذاری امکان توفیق در‬ ‫‪in which‬‬
‫‪chances of successful‬‬ ‫بازیابی را افزایش می دهد‬ ‫‪information‬‬
‫‪retrieval: (a) organizing‬‬ ‫الف) سازماندهی اطالعات‬ ‫‪is‬‬
‫‪the information at the time‬‬ ‫در هنگام رمزگذاری آنها ‪،‬و‬ ‫‪encoded/‬‬
‫)‪of encoding, and (b‬‬ ‫(ب) مطمئن شدن از مشابهت‬ ‫بافتار رمز‬
‫‪ensuring that the context‬‬ ‫بافتار رمز گذاری و بافتار‬ ‫گذاری‬
‫‪in which information is‬‬ ‫بازیابی اطالعات‪.‬‬
‫‪That in‬‬
‫‪encoded is similar to that‬‬
‫‪which it‬‬
‫‪in which it will be‬‬
‫‪will be‬‬
‫‪retrieved.‬‬
‫‪retrieved/‬‬
‫بافتار بازیابی‬
‫اطالعات‬
‫‪143‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Childhood amnesia‬‬ ‫نسیان خاطرات کودکی‬ ‫‪Suffers‬‬ ‫‪ Experience‬خاطرات‬ ‫نسیان‪Amnesia/‬‬

‫‪is at its‬‬
‫‪One of the most striking‬‬ ‫یکی از جالب ترین جنبه‬
‫پر ‪richest/‬‬
‫‪aspects of human memory‬‬ ‫های حافظه ی انسان نوعی‬
‫تجربه ترین‬
‫‪is that everyone suffers‬‬ ‫نسیان خاص در همه ی افراد‬
‫‪from a particular kind of‬‬ ‫است‪ :‬تقریبا هیچ کس وقایع‬
‫‪amnesia: virtually no one‬‬ ‫سالهای نخست زندگی اش را‬
‫‪recall events from the first‬‬ ‫به یاد نمی آورد در حالی که‬
‫‪years of life, even though‬‬ ‫این دوره پرتجربه ترین‬
‫‪this is the time when‬‬ ‫دوره ی عمر است‪.‬‬
‫‪experience is at its richest.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪This curious phenomenon‬‬ ‫این پدیده ی جالب را نخستین‬ ‫‪Was‬‬

‫‪was first discussed by‬‬ ‫بار فروید (‪ )1921‬مطرح‬ ‫‪discussed/‬‬
‫‪Freud (1905), who called‬‬ ‫کرد و آن را نسیان یا‬ ‫مطرح کرد‬
‫‪it childhood amnesia.‬‬ ‫یادزدودگی کودکی نامید‪.‬‬
‫‪144‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Word units‬‬ ‫واحد های واژه ای‬ ‫آنچه‬ ‫به هنگام گوش‬ ‫واج‪Phonemes/‬‬
‫کردن کالم‪/‬واج‬
‫‪We typically perceive‬‬ ‫آنچه معموال به هنگام گوش‬
‫نیست‪ ،‬بلکه‬
‫‪words, not phonemes,‬‬ ‫کردن کالم درک می کنیم‬
‫واژه است‬
‫‪when we are listening to‬‬ ‫واج نیست ‪،‬بلکه واژه است‪.‬‬
‫‪speech.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Unlike phonemes, words‬‬ ‫واژه برخالف واج‪،‬معنا‬

‫‪carry meaning.‬‬ ‫دارد‪.‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪However, they are not the‬‬ ‫اما واژه تنها واحد کوچک‬ ‫واژه‪They/‬‬
‫‪only smallish linguistic‬‬ ‫زبانی نیست که معنا را می‬
‫‪units that convey‬‬ ‫رساند‪.‬‬
‫‪meaning.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Suffixes such as ly or‬‬ ‫پسوندهایی نظیر "انه" و‬ ‫انه‪Ly/‬‬

‫‪prefixes such as un also‬‬ ‫پیشوندهایی نظیر"نا" نیز‬
‫نا‪Un/‬‬
‫‪carry meaning.‬‬ ‫معنا دارند‪.‬‬
‫‪145‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪They can be added to‬‬ ‫می توان آنها را به واژه ها‬ ‫‪Can be‬‬
‫‪words to form more‬‬ ‫افزود و واژه های پیچیده‬ ‫می ‪added/‬‬
‫‪complex words with‬‬ ‫تری با معانی متفاوت‬ ‫توان افزود‬
‫‪different meanings, as‬‬ ‫ساخت‪ ،‬چنان که "نا" و‬
‫‪Are‬‬
‫‪when un and ly are added‬‬ ‫"انه" را میتوان به واژه ی‬
‫می ‪added/‬‬
‫‪to 'time' to form‬‬ ‫"باور" افزود و واژه ی‬
‫توان افزود‬
‫‪'untimely'.‬‬ ‫"ناباورانه" را ساخت‪.‬‬
‫باور‪Time/‬‬
‫‪Untimely/‬‬
‫ناباورانه‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪The term morpheme is‬‬ ‫هر واحد زبانی کوچکی که‬ ‫‪Used to‬‬ ‫هر واحد زبانی‬ ‫‪Morpheme/‬‬
‫‪used to refer to any small‬‬ ‫حامل معنایی باشد تکواژ (یا‬ ‫کوچکی‪/...‬تکوا‬ ‫تکواژ‬
‫‪linguistic unit that carries‬‬ ‫واژک) خوانده می شود‪.‬‬ ‫ژ خوانده می‬
‫‪meaning.‬‬ ‫شود‬
‫خوانده ‪Refer/‬‬
‫می شود‬
‫‪146‬‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪Morphological rules state‬‬ ‫قواعد صرفی یا تکواژ‬ ‫‪How‬‬ ‫‪Morphological‬‬
‫‪how morphemes can be‬‬ ‫شناختی روش ترکیب‬ ‫‪morphemes‬‬ ‫قواعد ‪rules/‬‬
‫‪combined to form words.‬‬ ‫تکواژها برای ساختن واژه‬ ‫‪can be‬‬ ‫صرفی یا تکواژ‬
‫را بیان می کند‪.‬‬ ‫‪combined/‬‬ ‫شناختی‬
‫روش ترکیب‬
‫تکواژ ها‬
‫‪147‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪The building blocks of‬‬ ‫سنگ بناهای تفکر‬ ‫‪Can be‬‬
‫‪thought‬‬ ‫‪conceived/‬‬
‫تفکر را می توان "زبان‬
‫می توان تلقی‬
‫‪Thought can be conceived‬‬ ‫ذهن" تلقی کرد‪.‬‬
‫کرد‬
‫‪of as a 'language of the‬‬
‫‪mind'.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Actually, there may be‬‬ ‫در واقع ‪ ،‬ممکن است بیش‬
‫‪more than one such‬‬ ‫از یک زبان وجود داشته‬
‫‪language.‬‬ ‫باشد‪.‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪One mode of thought‬‬ ‫یک شکل فکر‪،‬جریان جمله‬ ‫‪Correspond‬‬

‫‪corresponds to the stream‬‬ ‫هایی است که ما "در ذهن‬ ‫‪to, seem‬‬
‫‪of sentences that we seem‬‬ ‫خود می شنویم"‬
‫‪to 'hear in our mind'.‬‬
‫‪148‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪It is referred to as‬‬ ‫و به آن فکر گزاره ای می‬ ‫‪Is‬‬ ‫‪Propositional‬‬
‫‪propositional thought‬‬ ‫گویند ‪ ،‬زیرا گزاره یا قضیه‬ ‫می ‪referred/‬‬ ‫فکر ‪thought/‬‬
‫‪because it expresses a‬‬ ‫ای را بیان می کند‪.‬‬ ‫گویند‬ ‫گزاره ای‬
‫‪proposition or claim.‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Another mode, imaginal‬‬ ‫شکل دیگر‪ ،‬یعنی فکر‬ ‫یعنی‪ ،‬خاصه‬ ‫‪Imaginal‬‬
‫‪thought, corresponds to‬‬ ‫تصویری ‪،‬با انگاره ها‬ ‫انگاره های‬ ‫فکر ‪thought/‬‬
‫‪images, which we can see‬‬ ‫(تصویر های ذهنی) خاصه‬ ‫بصری‬ ‫تصویری‬
‫‪in our minds.‬‬ ‫انگاره های بصری که می‬
‫انگاره ‪Images/‬‬
‫توانیم در ذهن خود "ببینیم"‬
‫ها‬
‫مرتبط است‪.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪Research on thinking in‬‬ ‫در تحقیقات انجام شده بر‬ ‫در‬ ‫‪has‬‬
‫‪adults has emphasized‬‬ ‫تفکر بزرگساالن بر این دو‬ ‫‪emphasized/‬‬
‫‪these two modes,‬‬ ‫شکل به ویژه شکل گزاره ای‬ ‫تأکید شده است‬
‫‪particularly the‬‬ ‫تاکید شده است‪.‬‬
‫‪propositional mode.‬‬
‫‪149‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Deductive reasoning‬‬ ‫استدالل قیاسی‬ ‫‪According‬‬ ‫‪ Deductive‬محال باشد که‬

‫معتقدند‪to/‬‬ ‫‪ reasoning/‬نتیجه ی آن‬
‫‪Logical rules‬‬ ‫قواعد منطق‬
‫استدالل قیاسی نادرست باشد‬
‫‪According to logicians,‬‬ ‫منطق دانان معتقدند که قوی‬
‫‪Deductive‬‬
‫‪the strongest arguments‬‬ ‫ترین برهان آن است که‬
‫اعتبار ‪validity/‬‬
‫‪demonstrate deductive‬‬ ‫اعتبار قیاسی داشته باشد ‪،‬‬
‫قیاسی‬
‫‪validity, meaning that it is‬‬ ‫یعنی اگر مقدمات استدالل‬
‫‪impossible for the‬‬ ‫درست باشند محال باشد که‬
‫‪conclusion of the‬‬ ‫نتیجه ی آن نادرست‬
‫‪argument to be false if its‬‬ ‫باشد(اسکیرمس ‪.)1999 ،‬‬
‫‪premises are true‬‬
‫‪(Skyrms, 1986).‬‬
‫‪150‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Consider the following‬‬ ‫نمونه ای از چنین استداللی‬ ‫‪Consider‬‬
‫‪example:‬‬ ‫از این قرار است‪:‬‬ ‫‪the‬‬
‫‪following‬‬
‫‪(a) If it's raining, I'll take‬‬ ‫الف )اگر باران ببارد ‪ ،‬چتر‬
‫‪example/‬‬
‫‪an umbrella.‬‬ ‫برخواهم داشت‪.‬‬
‫نمونه ای از‬
‫‪(b) It's raining.‬‬ ‫ب)دارد باران می بارد‪.‬‬ ‫چنین استداللی‬
‫‪I Therefore I'll take an‬‬ ‫از این قرار‬
‫پ)پس چتر برخواهم داشت‪.‬‬
‫‪umbrella.‬‬ ‫است‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪This is an example of a‬‬ ‫این نمونه ای از استنباط‬ ‫‪Syllogism/‬‬

‫‪syllogism, which contains‬‬ ‫قیاسی است که شامل دو‬ ‫استنباط قیاسی‬
‫‪two premises and a‬‬ ‫مقدمه و یک نتیجه است‪.‬‬
‫‪conclusion.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Whether or not the‬‬ ‫‪ Whether or‬مطابق قواعد منطق ‪ ،‬درستی‬ ‫‪ Conclusion‬درستی و‬
‫‪conclusion is true or not‬‬ ‫‪ not,‬و نادرستی نتیجه تابع درستی‬ ‫‪ is true or‬نادرستی‬
‫‪follows logically from the‬‬ ‫و نادرستی آن دو مقدمه‬ ‫‪logically,‬‬ ‫درستی و ‪not/‬‬
‫‪two premises according to‬‬ ‫است‪.‬‬ ‫‪deductive‬‬ ‫نادرستی نتیجه‬
‫‪the rules of deductive‬‬
‫‪logic.‬‬
‫‪151‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Hunger is affected in two‬‬ ‫دست کاری دو بخش از‬ ‫‪ways‬‬ ‫‪Hunger is‬‬ ‫جانبی‪Lateral/‬‬ ‫‪Hypothala‬‬
‫‪dramatically different‬‬ ‫بخش های هیپوتاالموس‪،‬‬ ‫‪affected in‬‬ ‫‪mus/‬‬
‫‪Ventromedial/‬‬
‫‪ways by manipulations of‬‬ ‫یعنی هیپوتاالموس جانبی‬ ‫‪two‬‬ ‫هیپوتاالموس‬
‫بطنی‪-‬داخلی‬
‫‪two parts of the‬‬ ‫(قسمت هایی که در دو‬ ‫‪dramatically‬‬
‫‪hypothalamus: the lateral‬‬ ‫طرف واقع اند) و‬ ‫‪different‬‬
‫‪hypothalamus (the parts‬‬ ‫هیپوتاالموس بطنی‪-‬داخلی‬ ‫دو تاثیر ‪ways/‬‬
‫‪on each side) and the‬‬ ‫(قسمتهای تحتانی و میانی)‪،‬‬ ‫کامال متفاوت‬
‫‪ventromedial‬‬ ‫دو تاثیر کامال متفاوت بر‬ ‫بر احساس‬
‫‪hypothalamus (the lower‬‬ ‫احساس گرسنگی می گذارد‪.‬‬ ‫گرسنکی می‬
‫‪['ventral'] and middle‬‬ ‫گذارد‬
‫‪['medial'] portion).‬‬
‫یعنی‪:/‬‬
‫‪152‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Destruction of the lateral‬‬ ‫تخریب هیپوتاالموس جانبی‬ ‫‪ Recovers‬مؤثر است‬ ‫‪Lateral‬‬
‫‪hypothalamus produces an‬‬ ‫‪ ،‬فقدان کامل گرسنگی را به‬ ‫‪and‬‬ ‫‪hypothalamic‬‬
‫‪apparent total lack of‬‬ ‫طور آشکار ایجاد می کند‪،‬‬ ‫‪compensate‬‬ ‫‪syndrome/‬‬
‫‪hunger, at least until the‬‬ ‫که حداقل تا زمان پیدایش‬ ‫‪/‬پیدایش‬ ‫نشانگان‬
‫‪rest of the brain recovers‬‬ ‫تغییرات جبرانی در سایر‬ ‫تغییرات‬ ‫هیپوتاالموسی‬
‫‪and compensates‬‬ ‫بخش های مغز ‪ ،‬موثر‬ ‫جبرانی‬ ‫جانبی‬
‫‪(Teitelbaum &Epstein,‬‬ ‫است(تیتلباوم و اپشتاین ‪،‬‬
‫‪1962). This phenomenon‬‬ ‫‪.)1992‬این پدیده را نشانگان‬
‫‪is called the lateral‬‬ ‫هیپوتاالموسی جانبی می‬
‫‪hypothalamic syndrome.‬‬ ‫نامند‪.‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Animals that have had‬‬ ‫حیواناتی که ضایعه های‬

‫‪small lesions made in‬‬ ‫کوچکی در هیپوتاالموس‬
‫‪their lateral hypothalamus‬‬ ‫جانبی آنها ایجاد کرده اند‪،‬‬
‫‪may simply ignore food.‬‬ ‫غذارا کامال نادیده میگیرند ‪.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪They may even reject it as‬‬ ‫و حتی طوری آنرا طرد می‬
‫‪though it tasted bad (for‬‬ ‫کنند که گویی مزه ی بدی‬
‫‪example, they may‬‬ ‫دارد (مثال حالت چهره شان‬
‫‪grimace and vigorously‬‬ ‫تغییر می کند و غذا را به‬
‫‪spit it out).‬‬ ‫شدت تف می کنند)‪.‬‬
‫‪153‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪Unless they are fed‬‬ ‫این حیوانات اگر به طور‬
‫‪artificially, they will‬‬ ‫مصنوعی تغذیه نشوند ‪،‬انقدر‬
‫‪starve to death.‬‬ ‫به خود گرسنگی می دهند تا‬
‫بمیرند‪.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪Nearly the exact opposite‬‬ ‫تقریبا عکس این الگوی‬ ‫‪Is seen‬‬ ‫بر اثر ضایعه‬ ‫‪Ventromedial‬‬
‫‪pattern of behaviour is‬‬ ‫رفتاری بر اثر ضایعه ی‬ ‫ی هیپوتاالموس‬ ‫‪hypothalamic‬‬
‫‪seen with the‬‬ ‫هیپوتاالموس بطنی‪-‬داخلی‬ ‫بطنی‪-‬داخلی‬ ‫‪syndrome/‬‬
‫‪ventromedial‬‬ ‫ایجاد می شود که نشانگان‬ ‫ایجاد می شود ‪،‬‬ ‫نشانگان‬
‫‪hypothalamic syndrome.‬‬ ‫هیپوتاالموسی بطنی‪-‬داخلی‬ ‫نام دارد‬ ‫هیپوتاالموسی‬
‫نام دارد‪.‬‬ ‫بطنی‪-‬داخلی‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪Lesions of the‬‬ ‫ضایعات هیپوتاالموس‬

‫‪ventromedial‬‬ ‫بطنی‪-‬داخلی موجب اشتهای‬
‫‪hypothalamus produce‬‬ ‫سیری ناپذیر می شوند‪.‬‬
‫‪extreme appetites.‬‬
‫‪154‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Anorexia and bulimia‬‬ ‫بی اشتهایی عصبی و جوع‬ ‫‪Problem‬‬ ‫‪ Has‬فراوان ترین‪،‬‬ ‫بی ‪Anorexia/‬‬
‫‪ surfaced/‬ما‪ ،‬دو‬ ‫اشتهایی عصبی‬
‫‪Although obesity is the‬‬ ‫با اینکه چاقی شایع ترین و‬
‫وجود دارد‬
‫‪most common eating‬‬ ‫فراوان ترین مشکل تغذیه ای‬ ‫جوع‪Bulimia/‬‬
‫‪problem, the opposite‬‬ ‫ماست ‪ ،‬عکس آن هم به دو‬
‫‪problem has also surfaced‬‬ ‫شکل ‪ ،‬بی اشتهایی عصبی و‬
‫‪in the form of anorexia‬‬ ‫جوع وجود دارد‪.‬‬
‫‪nervosa and bulimia.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Anorexia nervosa is an‬‬ ‫بی اشتهایی عصبی نوعی‬ ‫و‪،/‬‬ ‫عصبی‪Nervosa/‬‬
‫‪eating disorder‬‬ ‫اختالل خوردن است که‬
‫اختالل‪Disorder/‬‬
‫‪characterized by extreme,‬‬ ‫مشخصه ی آن کاهش وزن‬
‫‪self-imposed weight loss,‬‬ ‫تعمدی و شدید است‪،‬به‬
‫‪such that an individual‬‬ ‫طوریکه وزن فرد به کمتر‬
‫‪weighs less than 85 per‬‬ ‫از ‪ %91‬حداقل وزن طبیعی‬
‫‪cent of his/her expected‬‬ ‫مورد انتظار می رسد‪.‬‬
‫‪minimum normal weight.‬‬
‫‪155‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Some anorexics in fact‬‬ ‫در واقع وزن برخی از افراد‬
‫‪weigh less than 50 per‬‬ ‫بی اشتها از ‪ %12‬وزن‬
‫‪cent of their normal‬‬ ‫طبیعی هم کمتر است‪.‬‬
‫‪weight.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪Bulimia is an eating‬‬ ‫مشخصه ی جوع (پرخوری‬ ‫‪is an eating‬‬ ‫‪ Characteriz‬پرخوری‬ ‫‪Control/‬‬
‫‪disorder characterized by‬‬ ‫مرضی ) حمله های تکراری‬ ‫‪disorder,‬‬ ‫مشخصه‪ ed/‬مرضی‪ ،‬ایجاد‬ ‫خودگردانی‬
‫‪recurrent episodes of‬‬ ‫شکم بارگی (مصرف سریع‬
‫‪fasting and‬‬
‫‪binge-eating (rapid‬‬ ‫مقدار زیادی غذا در مدتی‬
‫‪excessive‬‬
‫‪consumption of a large‬‬ ‫محدود همراه بااحساس فقدان‬
‫‪exercise‬‬
‫‪amount of food in a‬‬ ‫خودگردانی) و به دنبال ان‬
‫‪discrete period of time‬‬ ‫اقدام به تخلیه شدید از طریق‬
‫‪coupled with a sense of‬‬ ‫ایجاد استفراغ و مصرف‬
‫‪lack of control), followed‬‬ ‫مسهل برای پاکسازی بدن از‬
‫‪by attempts to purge the‬‬ ‫غذای اضافی است‪.‬‬
‫‪excess by means of‬‬
‫‪vomiting, laxative use, or‬‬
‫‪fasting and excessive‬‬
‫‪exercise.‬‬
‫‪156‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪The influence of‬‬ ‫این اثر آندروژن که‬ ‫‪Far beyond‬‬ ‫وضعیت‬ ‫‪Extend/‬‬ ‫کالبد ‪Anatomy/‬‬ ‫‪Androgen/‬‬
‫‪androgen, called‬‬ ‫آندروژنی شدن خوانده می‬ ‫محدود نیست‬ ‫شناختی‬ ‫آندروژن‬
‫‪androgenisation, extends‬‬ ‫شود ‪ ،‬فقط به وضعیت کالبد‬ ‫‪androgenis‬‬
‫‪far beyond anatomy.‬‬ ‫شناختی محدود نیست‪.‬‬ ‫‪ation/‬‬
‫آندروژنی‬
‫شدن‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪After it has moulded the‬‬ ‫آندروژن پس از آنکه دستگاه‬ ‫دستگاه ‪Genitals/‬‬
‫‪genitals, androgen begins‬‬ ‫تناسلی خارجی را شکل داد‪،‬‬ ‫تناسلی خارجی‬
‫‪to operate on the brain‬‬ ‫بر یاخته های مغز هم تاثیر‬
‫‪Brain‬‬
‫‪cells.‬‬ ‫می نهد‪.‬‬
‫یاخته های ‪cells/‬‬
‫مغز‬
‫‪157‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Studies with rats provide‬‬ ‫از بررسی های انجام شده بر‬ ‫انجام شده‪،‬‬ ‫در موش‪/‬و نیز‬ ‫جنین‪Foetus/‬‬
‫‪evidence that prenatal‬‬ ‫موش ها شواهد مستقیمی‬ ‫حاکی از آنکه‬ ‫انسان‬
‫‪androgen changes the‬‬ ‫بدست آمده است حاکی از‬
‫‪volume and detailed‬‬ ‫آنکه آندروژن پیش از تولد ‪،‬‬
‫‪structure of cells in the‬‬ ‫حجم و جزییات ساختمانی‬
‫‪foetus's hypothalamus, an‬‬ ‫یاخته ها را در هیپوتاالموس‬
‫‪organ that regulates‬‬ ‫جنین تغییر می دهد و این‬
‫‪motivation in humans as‬‬ ‫عضوی است که انگیزش را‬
‫‪well as in rats (Money,‬‬ ‫در موش و نیز انسان تنظیم‬
‫‪1987).‬‬ ‫می کند(مانی‪.)1999،‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪These effects of androgen‬‬ ‫این آثار آندروژن اساسا مغز‬ ‫‪Higher‬‬ ‫همچون تمایل‬ ‫‪Aggressivenes‬‬
‫‪essentially masculinize‬‬ ‫را مردانه می کنند و میتوانند‬ ‫‪levels‬‬ ‫به پرخاشگری‪/‬‬ ‫تمایل به ‪s/‬‬
‫‪the brain and may be‬‬ ‫مسئول ایجاد صفات یا رفتار‬ ‫که ماه ها یا‬ ‫پرخاشگری‬
‫‪responsible for some‬‬ ‫های مردانه ای همچون‬ ‫سالها بعد پیدا‬
‫‪masculine traits and‬‬ ‫تمایل به پرخاشگری باشند‬ ‫می شود‬
‫‪behaviours that appear‬‬ ‫که ماه ها یا سالها بعد پیدا‬
‫‪months or years later,‬‬ ‫می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪such as higher levels of‬‬
‫‪aggressiveness.‬‬
‫‪158‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Typically, an emotion‬‬ ‫‪ A person's‬معموالً فرایند هیجانی با‬ ‫فرایند‪ ،‬ارزیابی‬ ‫‪Cognitive‬‬
‫‪begins with a cognitive‬‬ ‫‪ assessment‬ارزیابی شناختی شروع می‬ ‫شناختی در‬ ‫‪appraisal/‬‬
‫‪appraisal, a person's‬‬ ‫شود‪ .‬ارزیابی شناختی در‬ ‫واقع‪ ،‬می دهد‬ ‫ارزیابی شناختی‬
‫‪assessment of the personal‬‬ ‫واقع معنایی شخصی است‬
‫هیجان‪Emotion/‬‬
‫‪meaning of his or her‬‬ ‫که فرد به موقعیت فعلی خود‬
‫‪current circumstances (see‬‬ ‫می دهد (ر‪.‬ک شکل ‪.)1-11‬‬
‫‪figure 11.1).‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪This appraisal process is‬‬ ‫این فرایند ارزیابی اغلب به‬ ‫اغلب به عنوان‬
‫‪considered the first‬‬ ‫عنوان مؤلفه اول هر هیجان‬
‫‪component of an emotion.‬‬ ‫تلقی می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪159‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Cognitive appraisals, in‬‬ ‫از سوی دیگر ارزیابی های‬ ‫‪Loosely‬‬
‫‪turn, trigger a cascade of‬‬ ‫شناختی سلسله ای از پاسخها‬ ‫‪connected/‬‬
‫‪responses that represent‬‬ ‫را بر می انگیزند که خود‬ ‫کم وبیش با‬
‫‪other loosely connected‬‬ ‫معرف مؤلفه های دیگر‬ ‫یکدیگر مرتبط‬
‫‪components of an‬‬ ‫هیجان هستند و کم وبیش با‬ ‫اند‬
‫‪emotion.‬‬ ‫یکدیگر مرتبط اند‪.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪The component that we‬‬ ‫مؤلفه ای که اغلب برای ما‬ ‫‪ We‬یعنی‬
‫‪most frequently recognise‬‬ ‫آشناست‪ ،‬تجربه ذهنی هیجان‬ ‫‪recognise/‬‬
‫‪is the subjective‬‬ ‫است‪-‬یعنی حالت عاطفی یا‬ ‫برای ما‬
‫‪experience of the‬‬ ‫حال و هوای احساسی که هر‬ ‫آشناست‬
‫‪emotion-the affective state‬‬ ‫هیجان با خود به همراه می‬
‫‪That‬‬
‫‪or feeling tone that‬‬ ‫آورد‪.‬‬
‫‪colours‬‬
‫‪colours your private‬‬
‫‪your private‬‬
‫‪experience.‬‬
‫‪experience/‬‬
‫هر هیجان با‬
‫خود به همراه‬
‫می آورد‪.‬‬
‫‪160‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪A third and closely related‬‬ ‫‪ Includes‬مؤلفه سوم که ارتباط‬ ‫‪ Closely‬با بقیه‪ ،‬چنین‬ ‫‪Thought-‬‬
‫‪component includes‬‬ ‫نزدیکی با بقیه دارد‪ ،‬گرایش‬ ‫که ‪ related/‬گرایشی‪ ،‬فرد‬ ‫‪action‬‬
‫‪thought-action tendencies-‬‬ ‫به عمل و فکر معین است‪.‬‬ ‫ارتباط نزدیکی‬ ‫‪tendencies/‬‬
‫‪urges to think and act in‬‬ ‫چنین گرایشی فرد را وادار‬ ‫با بقیه دارد‬ ‫گرایش به عمل و‬
‫‪certain ways.‬‬ ‫به اندیشیدن و اقدام در جهتی‬ ‫فکر معین‬
‫معین می کند‪.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪When something sparks‬‬ ‫مثالا وقتی چیزی عالقه شما‬ ‫مطالب بیشتری‬
‫‪your interest, for instance,‬‬ ‫را بر می انگیزد‪ ،‬دوست‬ ‫یاد بگیرید‪/‬از‬
‫‪you want to explore it and‬‬ ‫دارید درباره آن مطالب‬ ‫آن سر در‬
‫‪learn more about it.‬‬ ‫بیشتری یاد بگیرید و از آن‬ ‫بیاورید‬
‫سر در بیاورید‪.‬‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪When someone angers‬‬ ‫وقتی کسی شما را عصبانی‬ ‫‪ Tempted/‬بر افروخته‬
‫‪you, you may be tempted‬‬ ‫می کند ممکن است‬ ‫بخواهید شده‪ ،‬خشونت‬
‫‪to act aggressively, either‬‬ ‫برافروخته شده‪ ،‬بخواهید‬
‫‪physically or verbally.‬‬ ‫دست به خشونت یا‬
‫پرخاشگری بدنی یا کالمی‬
‫بزنید‪.‬‬
‫‪161‬‬
‫‪8th‬‬ ‫‪A forth component‬‬ ‫‪ Includes‬چهارمین مؤلفه هیجان‪ ،‬پاسخ‬ ‫ارتباط دارند‪،‬‬ ‫‪Autonomic‬‬
‫‪includes internal bodily‬‬ ‫های جسمانی درونی هستند‪،‬‬ ‫دستگاه عصبی‬ ‫‪nervous‬‬
‫‪changes, especially those‬‬ ‫به ویژه آنهایی که با دستگاه‬ ‫خود مختار‬ ‫دستگاه ‪system/‬‬
‫‪of the autonomic nervous‬‬ ‫عصبی خود مختار ارتباط‬ ‫عصبی خودمختار‬
‫‪system, the division of the‬‬ ‫دارند‪ .‬دستگاه عصبی خود‬
‫‪Peripheral‬‬
‫‪peripheral nervous system‬‬ ‫مختار بخشی از دستگاه‬
‫‪nervous‬‬
‫‪that controls the heart and‬‬ ‫عصبی محیطی است که قلب‬
‫دستگاه ‪system/‬‬
‫‪other smooth muscles.‬‬ ‫و عضالت صاف بدن را‬
‫عصبی محیطی‬
‫کنترل می کند‪.‬‬
‫‪9th‬‬ ‫‪When you are afraid, for‬‬ ‫‪ In your‬مثال وقتی می ترسید‪ ،‬بر اثر‬ ‫بر اثر فعال‬
‫‪example, your heart may‬‬ ‫‪ chest‬فعال شدن دستگاه عصبی‬ ‫شدن دستگاه‬
‫‪pound in your chest, and‬‬ ‫خود مختار‪ ،‬قلبتان به تپش‬ ‫عصبی خود‬
‫‪your palms may sweat.‬‬ ‫می افتد و کف دستتان عرق‬ ‫مختار‬
‫می کند‪.‬‬
‫‪162‬‬
‫‪10th‬‬ ‫‪A fifth component of an‬‬ ‫پنجمین مؤلفه هیجان‪ ،‬حاالت‬ ‫‪includes‬‬ ‫یعنی‬ ‫در می ‪Move/‬‬ ‫‪Facial muscle‬‬
‫‪emotion includes facial‬‬ ‫چهره است‪ ،‬یعنی عمل‬ ‫آورند‬ ‫‪movements/‬‬
‫‪muscle movements, the‬‬ ‫ماهیچه های صورت که‬ ‫حاالت چهره‬
‫‪muscle actions that move‬‬ ‫بخش های مختلف صورت‬
‫‪facial landmarks in‬‬ ‫را به شکل های خاصی در‬
‫‪particular ways that create‬‬ ‫می آورند تا آن چه معموال به‬
‫‪what is commonly called‬‬ ‫عنوان ابراز چهره ای‬
‫‪a facial expression.‬‬ ‫شناخته می شود‪ ،‬به وجود‬
‫آید‪.‬‬
‫‪163‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Themes and dimensions of‬‬ ‫درون مایه ها و ابعاد‬ ‫درون ‪Themes/‬‬
‫‪appraisals‬‬ ‫ارزیابی ها‬ ‫مایه ها‬
‫‪The model of emotion‬‬ ‫مدلی از هیجان که در شکل‬

‫‪presented in figure 11.1 is‬‬ ‫‪ 11-1‬نشان داده شد‪ ،‬با اکثر‬
‫‪consistent with various‬‬ ‫نظریه های ارزیابی هیجان‬
‫‪appraisal theories of‬‬ ‫همخوان است‪.‬‬
‫‪emotion.‬‬
‫‪164‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪All appraisal theories are‬‬ ‫‪ Appraisal,‬تمام این نظریه ها مثل هم‬ ‫بر ‪Arousal/‬‬
‫‪alike in that they suggest‬‬ ‫معتقدند ارزیابی افراد از‬ ‫انگیختگی‬
‫‪Current‬‬
‫‪that people's appraisals of‬‬ ‫موقعیت ها (نه ارزیابی‬
‫‪Physiological/‬‬
‫‪their current‬‬ ‫هایشان از برانگیختگی‬
‫تنکرد شناختی‬
‫‪circumstances (not their‬‬ ‫تنکردشناختی) باعث تجربه‬
‫‪appraisals of‬‬ ‫ی ذهنی هیجان‪ ،‬برانگیختگی‬
‫)‪physiological arousal‬‬ ‫مرتبط با آن‪ ،‬وسایر مؤلفه‬
‫‪lead to the subjective‬‬ ‫های واکنش هیجانی می‬
‫‪experience of emotion, the‬‬ ‫شود‪.‬‬
‫‪arousal associated with it,‬‬
‫‪and other components of‬‬
‫‪the emotional response.‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Yet various appraisal‬‬ ‫‪ Various,‬با این حال نظریه های‬ ‫‪Conceptuali‬‬
‫‪theories differ in how they‬‬ ‫‪ how they‬ارزیابی در مفهوم پردازی‬ ‫مفهوم ‪ze/‬‬
‫‪conceptualize the‬‬ ‫فرایند ارزیابی با یکدیگر‬ ‫پردازی‬
‫‪appraisal process.‬‬ ‫تفاوت دارند‪.‬‬
‫‪165‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪These theories can be‬‬ ‫‪ Often based‬این نظریه ها را می توان به‬ ‫‪Can be‬‬ ‫‪minimalist‬‬
‫)‪divided in to (1‬‬ ‫‪ on‬دو دسته تقسیم کرد‪ )1‬نظریه‬ ‫می ‪divided/‬‬ ‫‪appraisal‬‬
‫‪minimalist appraisal‬‬ ‫های ارزیابی حداقلی که‬ ‫توان تقسیم کرد‬ ‫نظریه ‪theories/‬‬
‫‪theories, which reduce the‬‬ ‫تعداد ابعاد ارزیابی را به‬ ‫های ارزیابی‬
‫‪Differences‬‬
‫‪number of appraisal‬‬ ‫حداقلی از درون مایه های‬ ‫حداقلی‬
‫‪among‬‬
‫‪dimensions to minimum,‬‬ ‫اصلی کاهش می دهند و(‪)2‬‬
‫‪emotions/‬‬ ‫‪dimensional‬‬
‫‪often based on‬‬ ‫نظریه های ارزیابی ابعادی‬
‫هیجان های‬ ‫‪appraisal‬‬
‫‪fundamental themes, and‬‬ ‫که طیفی از ابعاد ارزیابی را‬
‫مختلف‬ ‫نظریه ‪theories/‬‬
‫‪(2) dimensional appraisal‬‬ ‫مشخص می کنند که به نظر‬
‫های ارزیابی‬
‫‪theories, which identify a‬‬ ‫می رسد برای تبیین هیجان‬
‫ابعادی‬
‫‪range of appraisal‬‬ ‫های مختلف کافی باشند‪.‬‬
‫‪dimensions thought to be‬‬
‫‪sufficient to account for‬‬
‫‪differences among‬‬
‫‪emotions.‬‬
‫‪166‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Cultural differences‬‬ ‫‪ The values‬تفاوت های فرهنگی‬ ‫‪ Have‬فرهنگ های‬

‫‪associated‬‬ ‫‪mostly‬‬
‫‪Psychologists studying‬‬ ‫روان شناسانی که به مطالعه‬
‫‪with‬‬ ‫‪focused‬‬
‫‪cultural differences in‬‬ ‫ی تفاوت های فرهنگی در‬
‫بیشتر ‪on/‬‬
‫‪emotion have mostly‬‬ ‫هیجان می پردازند‪ ،‬بیشتر‬
‫تمرکزشان بر‬
‫‪focused on how the values‬‬ ‫تمرکزشان بر این است که‬
‫این است‬
‫‪associated with‬‬ ‫چگونه فرهنگ های جمع‬
‫‪collectivism and‬‬ ‫گرا و فرد گرا تجارب‬ ‫‪Collectivis‬‬
‫‪individualism shape‬‬ ‫هیجانی را شکل می دهند‪.‬‬ ‫جمع گرا‪m/‬‬
‫‪emotional experiences.‬‬
‫‪Individualis‬‬
‫فرد گرا‪m/‬‬
‫‪167‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Recall from chapter 1 that‬‬ ‫‪ fundamental‬از فصل اول به خاطر دارید‬ ‫‪Collectivism/‬‬
‫‪collectivism refers to‬‬ ‫که گفتیم جمع گرایی به‬ ‫جمع گرایی‬
‫‪cultures that emphasize‬‬ ‫فرهنگ هایی اشاره دارد که‬
‫‪Individualism/‬‬
‫‪the fundamental‬‬ ‫بر ارتباط و وابستگی افراد‬
‫فرد گرایی‬
‫‪connectedness and‬‬ ‫تأکید دارند و فرد گرایی به‬
‫‪interdependence among‬‬ ‫فرهنگ هایی اشاره می کند‬
‫‪people, and individualism‬‬ ‫که بر جدایی و استقالل افراد‬
‫‪refers to cultures that‬‬ ‫تأکید می کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪emphasize the‬‬
‫‪fundamental separateness‬‬
‫‪and independence of‬‬
‫‪individuals.‬‬
‫‪168‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Other psychologists,‬‬ ‫با وجود این‪ ،‬برخی از روان‬ ‫‪Question‬‬ ‫‪general‬‬
‫‪however, question‬‬ ‫شناسان دیگر وجود این نوع‬ ‫‪whether‬‬ ‫‪intelligence/‬‬
‫‪whether there is such a‬‬ ‫"هوش عمومی" را زیر‬ ‫‪there is such‬‬ ‫هوش عمومی‬
‫‪thing as 'general‬‬ ‫سؤال می برند‪.‬‬ ‫‪a thing as‬‬
‫‪intelligence'.‬‬ ‫‪'general‬‬
‫'‪intelligence‬‬
‫وجود این نوع ‪/‬‬
‫"هوش‬
‫عمومی" را‬
‫زیر سؤال می‬
‫برند‪.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪They believe that‬‬ ‫آنها اعتقاد دارند که آزمون‬ ‫نسبتا ً مستقل از‬
‫‪intelligence tests sample a‬‬ ‫های هوش از تعدادی توانایی‬ ‫یکدیگر‪/‬نمونه‬
‫‪number of mental abilities‬‬ ‫های هوشی نسبتا ً مستقل از‬ ‫گیری می کنند‬
‫‪that are relatively‬‬ ‫یکدیگر‪ ،‬نمونه گیری می‬
‫‪independent of one‬‬ ‫کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪another.‬‬
‫‪169‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Raymon cattell‬‬ ‫ریموند کتل هوش عمومی را‬ ‫‪fluid‬‬
‫‪subdivided general‬‬ ‫به هوش سیال (توانایی تفکر‬ ‫‪intelligence/‬‬
‫‪sent‬‬ ‫‪English‬‬
‫‪intelligence‬‬ ‫‪into fluid‬‬ ‫‪Persian‬‬
‫مسئله در‬ ‫منطقی و حل‬ ‫‪omission‬‬ ‫‪addition‬‬ ‫‪substitution‬‬ ‫‪Breach of‬‬ ‫‪ Covert‬سیال‬
‫هوش‬ ‫‪Overt‬‬
‫‪intelligence, the ability to‬‬ ‫موقیت های جدید حتی بدون‬ ‫‪TL System‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬
‫‪crystallized‬‬
‫‪think logically and solve‬‬ ‫دانش قبلی قابل توجه در‬
‫‪problems in novel‬‬ ‫مورد آن موقیت) و هوش‬
‫هوش متبلور‬
‫‪situations, even without‬‬ ‫متبلور (توانایی استفاده از‬
‫‪much knowledge of the‬‬ ‫دانش‪ ،‬مهارت ها‪ ،‬وتجربه‬
‫‪situation, and crystallized‬‬ ‫کسب شده) تقسیم می کند‪.‬‬
‫‪intelligence, the ability to‬‬
‫‪use one's acquired‬‬
‫‪knowledge, skills, and‬‬
‫‪experience.‬‬
‫‪170‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Sternberg's triarchic‬‬ ‫نظریه سه وجهی استرنبرگ‬ ‫انواع ‪They/‬‬ ‫‪analytical‬‬
‫‪theory‬‬ ‫مختلف هوش‬ ‫‪intelligence/‬‬
‫رابرت استرنبرگ (‪)2211‬‬
‫هوش تحلیلی‬
‫)‪Robert Sternberg (2011‬‬ ‫قبول دارد که هوش انواع‬
‫‪agrees that there are‬‬ ‫متعددی دارد‪ ،‬اما طبق‬ ‫‪creative‬‬
‫‪multiple types of‬‬ ‫نظریه سه وجهی استرنبرگ‬ ‫‪intelligence/‬‬
‫‪intelligence, but‬‬ ‫انواع مختلف هوش در سه‬ ‫هوش خالقانه‬
‫‪Sternberg's triarchic‬‬ ‫مقوله جای می گیرند‪ :‬هوش‬
‫‪practical‬‬
‫‪theory argues that they‬‬ ‫تحلیلی‪ ،‬هوش خالقانه‪ ،‬و‬
‫‪fall into three categories:‬‬ ‫هوش عملی‪.‬‬
‫هوش عملی‬
‫‪analytical intelligence,‬‬
‫‪creative intelligence, and‬‬
‫‪practical intelligence.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Analytical intelligence‬‬ ‫هوش تحلیلی شامل توانایی‬

‫‪includes the abilities to‬‬ ‫های شناسایی و ارزیابی‬
‫‪identity and evaluate a‬‬ ‫مشکل و برنامه ریزی و‬
‫‪problem, and plan and‬‬ ‫نظارت بر پیشرفت خود به‬
‫‪monitor your progress‬‬ ‫سوی راه حل است‪.‬‬
‫‪toward a solution.‬‬
‫‪171‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪This is the type of‬‬ ‫این همان نوعی از هوش‬
‫‪intelligence that tests like‬‬ ‫است که آزمون هایی مانند‬
‫‪the Stanford-Binet and‬‬ ‫استنفورد‪-‬بینه و‬
‫‪WAIS tend to measure.‬‬ ‫اندازه گیری می کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪172‬‬
‫‪TL‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬ ‫‪translation‬‬
‫‪System‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Heritability‬‬ ‫‪ Than others‬وراثت پذیری‬ ‫‪to what extent‬‬ ‫‪Heritability/‬‬

‫‪do some‬‬ ‫وراثت پذیری‬
‫‪We are now prepared to‬‬ ‫حال آماده آن هستیم که سؤال‬
‫‪students do‬‬
‫‪ask the 'genetics' question:‬‬ ‫مربوط به "وراثت شناسی"‬ ‫وراثت ‪Genetics/‬‬
‫‪better on the‬‬
‫‪to what extent do some‬‬ ‫را مطرح کنیم‪ :‬بهتر بودن‬ ‫شناسی‬
‫بهتر بودن ‪exam/‬‬
‫‪students do better than‬‬ ‫نمره های برخی از‬
‫نمره های برخی‬
‫‪others on the exam‬‬ ‫دانشجویان تا چه حد به علت‬
‫از ‪...‬‬
‫‪because they are‬‬ ‫بیشتر بودن توانایی وراثتی‬
‫?‪genetically more capable‬‬ ‫آنها است؟‬ ‫‪they are‬‬
‫‪genetically‬‬
‫‪more‬‬
‫بیشتر ‪capable/‬‬
‫بودن توانایی‬
‫وراثتی آنها‬
‫‪173‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪To put it another way,‬‬ ‫‪ among‬به بیان فنی تر چه سهمی از‬ ‫‪To put it‬‬
‫‪what percentage of the‬‬ ‫پراکنش نمره های امتحان‬ ‫‪another‬‬
‫‪variance in exam scores is‬‬ ‫محصول تفاوت های وراثتی‬ ‫به بیان فنی ‪way/‬‬
‫‪accounted for by genetic‬‬ ‫دانشجویان است؟‬ ‫تر‬
‫‪differences among the‬‬
‫‪Is accounted‬‬
‫?‪students‬‬
‫محصول‪for/‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪In general, the percentage‬‬ ‫به طور کلی درصد پراکنش‬ ‫‪ In any‬آن ها‪ ،‬مختلف‬
‫‪of the variance in any trait‬‬ ‫یک صفت در افراد مختلف‬ ‫یک صفت‪trait/‬‬
‫‪that is accounted for by‬‬ ‫یک جمعیت را که بر اثر‬
‫در افراد مختلف‬
‫‪genetic differences among‬‬ ‫تفاوت های وراثتی آن ها پیدا‬
‫یک جمعیت‪/‬که بر‬
‫‪the individuals in a‬‬ ‫شود‪ ،‬درجه وراثتی بودن آن‬
‫اثر تفاوت های‬
‫‪population is the trait's‬‬ ‫صفت یا وراثت پذیری می‬
‫وراثتی پیدا شود‬
‫‪heritability.‬‬ ‫نامند‪.‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪(Heritability is different‬‬ ‫‪( which‬وراثت پذیری با وراثت‬ ‫وراثت‬ ‫وراثت‪Heredity/‬‬

‫‪from heredity, which is‬‬ ‫تفاوت دارد؛ وراثت فرایندی‬
‫‪the process by which‬‬ ‫است که والدین از طریق آن‬
‫‪parents pass on traits to‬‬ ‫خصوصیات خود را به‬
‫)‪their offspring.‬‬ ‫فرزندانشان انتقال می دهند)‪.‬‬
‫‪174‬‬
‫‪5th‬‬ ‫‪The more individual‬‬ ‫هرچه تفاوت های فردی در‬
‫‪differences on a trait are‬‬ ‫یک صفت بیشتر به علت‬
‫‪due to genetic differences,‬‬ ‫تفاوت های وراثتی باشد‪،‬‬
‫‪the closer the heritability‬‬ ‫وراثت پذیری به ‪%122‬‬
‫‪is to 100 percent.‬‬ ‫نزدیک تر می شود‪.‬‬
‫‪6th‬‬ ‫‪For example, height is‬‬ ‫‪ Its‬مثالً وراثت پذیری قد که‬ ‫وراثت پذیری‬
‫‪heavily influenced by‬‬ ‫عمیقا ً تحت تأثیر عوامل‬
‫‪genetics: its heritability‬‬ ‫وراثتی است‪ ،‬در مطالعات‬
‫‪ranges from about 85 to‬‬ ‫مختلف ‪ 91‬تا ‪ 91‬درصد‬
‫‪95 percent across different‬‬ ‫بوده است‪.‬‬
‫‪studies.‬‬
‫‪7th‬‬ ‫‪Note that this does not‬‬ ‫توجه داشته باشید که این‬
‫‪mean that any one gene‬‬ ‫بدان معنی نیست که یک ژن‬
‫‪accounts for 85 to 95 per‬‬ ‫واحد ‪ %91‬تا ‪ %91‬تغییر‬
‫‪cent of the variability in‬‬ ‫پذیری در قد را تبیین می‬
‫‪height: most human‬‬ ‫کند‪ :‬اغلب ویژگی های‬
‫‪characteristics are‬‬ ‫انسانی تحت تأثیر ژن های‬
‫‪influenced by many genes‬‬ ‫زیادی هستند که هر کدام‬
‫‪that each exert a small‬‬ ‫تأثیر اندکی اعمال می کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪effect.‬‬
‫‪175‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫?‪How many traits‬‬ ‫چه تعداد صفت؟‬ ‫صفت‪Trait/‬‬
‫‪Still, 4500 traits is an‬‬ ‫هنوز تعداد ‪ 4122‬صفت‬

‫‪unwieldy number, so‬‬ ‫عدد بسیار بزرگی است و به‬
‫‪researchers have‬‬ ‫همین دلیل محققان سعی کرده‬
‫‪attempted to group these‬‬ ‫اند این صفات را به تعداد‬
‫‪traits into a small number‬‬ ‫کوچک تری از طبقات‬
‫‪of categories of traits that‬‬ ‫مشتمل بر صفاتی که به طور‬
‫‪are typically related to‬‬ ‫معمول با یکدیگر ارتباط‬
‫‪each other.‬‬ ‫دارند‪ ،‬گروه بندی کنند‪.‬‬
‫‪176‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪They do this by obtaining‬‬ ‫آنها این کار را با بدست‬ ‫با لحاظ‪On/‬‬ ‫‪Factor‬‬
‫‪ratings of individuals on‬‬ ‫آوردن درجه بندی هایی از‬ ‫تحلیل ‪analysis/‬‬
‫‪these traits and then‬‬ ‫افراد با لحاظ صفات و سپس‬ ‫عاملی‬
‫‪looking at the correlations‬‬ ‫بررسی همبستگی های میان‬
‫‪among these ratings with‬‬ ‫این درجه بندی ها با‬
‫‪a statistical procedure‬‬ ‫راهکاری آماری موسوم به‬
‫‪called factor analysis.‬‬ ‫تحلیل عاملی انجام می دهند‪.‬‬
‫‪3th‬‬ ‫‪Different researchers have‬‬ ‫محققان مختلف در مورد‬

‫‪reached varying‬‬ ‫تعداد نهایی دسته های صفات‬
‫‪conclusions about the‬‬ ‫مورد نیاز برای درک‬
‫‪ultimate number of trait‬‬ ‫شخصیت انسان به نتایج‬
‫‪categories needed to‬‬ ‫متفاوتی دست پیدا کرده اند‪.‬‬
‫‪capture human‬‬
‫‪personality.‬‬
‫‪177‬‬
‫‪4th‬‬ ‫‪British psychologist Hans‬‬ ‫روانشناسی انگلیسی به نام‬ ‫به نام‬ ‫‪introversion-‬‬
‫‪Eysenck (1953) used‬‬ ‫هانس آیزنک (‪ )1911‬درجه‬ ‫‪extroversion/‬‬
‫‪psychiatrists' ratings of‬‬ ‫بندی روانپزشکان از‬ ‫درون گرایی‪-‬برون‬
‫‪patients' characteristics to‬‬ ‫خصوصیات بیماران را به‬ ‫گرایی‬
‫‪arrive at two personality‬‬ ‫کار گرفت و به دو عامل‬
‫‪neuroticism/‬‬
‫‪factors: introversion-‬‬ ‫شخصیتی رسید‪ :‬درون‬
‫روان نژندی گری‬
‫‪extroversion and‬‬ ‫گرایی‪-‬برون گرایی و روان‬
‫‪neuroticism.‬‬ ‫نژندی گری (نوروتیسیزم)‬
‫‪178‬‬
‫‪Table 43:Overtly erroneous errors and translation type of paragraph 2, chapter 13‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪The psychoanalytic‬‬ ‫رویکرد روانکاوانه‬ ‫‪psychoanalyti‬‬

‫‪approach‬‬ ‫‪c‬‬
‫زیگموند فروید‪ ،‬بانی نظریه‬
‫‪approach/‬‬
‫‪Sigmund Freud, the‬‬ ‫ی روانکاوی ‪،‬چهره ی‬
‫رویکرد‬
‫‪creator of psychoanalytic‬‬ ‫محوری در نظریه های‬
‫روانکاوانه‬
‫‪theory, is a central figure‬‬ ‫شخصیت است‪.‬‬
‫‪in theories of personality.‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪Freud divided personality‬‬ ‫فروید شخصیت را به سه‬ ‫‪Interact/‬‬ ‫نهاد‪Id/‬‬

‫‪into three major systems‬‬ ‫سامانه ی عمده تقسیم کرد که‬ ‫تعامل‬
‫خودساره‪Ego/‬‬
‫‪that interact to govern‬‬ ‫از تعامل آنها رفتار انسان‬
‫تنظیم ‪Govern/‬‬
‫‪human behaviour: the id,‬‬ ‫تنظیم می شود‪ :‬نهاد(اید) ‪،‬‬ ‫‪Superego/‬‬
‫می شود‬
‫‪the ego, and superego.‬‬ ‫خودساره (ایگو) ‪ ،‬و‬ ‫فراخود‬
‫فراخود(سوپرایگو)‬
‫‪179‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Finally, in addition to‬‬ ‫سرانجام اینکه ژنسانه ی‬ ‫خود نیز‬

‫‪being correlated with the‬‬ ‫کودک ‪،‬عالوه بر آنکه با‬
‫‪environment, a child‬‬ ‫محیط همبستگی دارد‪ ،‬خود‬
‫‪genotype shapes the‬‬ ‫نیز به طرق مشخصی محیط‬
‫‪environment in certain‬‬ ‫را شکل می دهد(بوچارد‪،‬‬
‫‪ways (Bouchard, 2004).‬‬ ‫‪.)2224‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪In particular, the‬‬ ‫محیط به ویژه از طریق سه‬ ‫‪Reactive/‬‬

‫‪environment becomes a‬‬ ‫گونه تعامل تابع شخصیت‬ ‫واکنشی‬
‫‪function of the child's‬‬ ‫کودک می شود ‪ :‬تعامل‬
‫‪Evocative/‬‬
‫‪personality through three‬‬ ‫واکنشی ‪ ،‬برانگیزاننده و‬
‫برانگیزاننده‬
‫‪forms of interaction:‬‬ ‫پیش کنشی ‪.‬‬
‫‪reactive, evocative, and‬‬ ‫پیش ‪Proactive/‬‬
‫‪proactive.‬‬ ‫کنشی‬
‫‪180‬‬
‫‪1th‬‬ ‫‪Optimism/pessimism‬‬ ‫خوش بینی‪/‬بدبینی‬ ‫‪Tend to‬‬ ‫‪Bright/‬‬ ‫‪Optimism/‬‬

‫خوشایند‬ ‫خوش بینی‬
‫‪People who remain‬‬ ‫کسانی که در مواجهه با‬
‫‪resilient when faced with‬‬ ‫فشار روانی تاب آور می‬ ‫‪Pessimism/‬‬
‫‪stress tend to be‬‬ ‫مانند ‪ ،‬افرادی خوش بین‬ ‫بدبینی‬
‫‪optimistic- they believe‬‬ ‫هستند‪ -‬آنها اعتقاد دارند که‬
‫فشار ‪Stress/‬‬
‫‪that they can get through‬‬ ‫از عهده ی این تجربه بر می‬
‫روانی‬
‫‪this experience and the‬‬ ‫آیند و آینده ی آنها به طور‬
‫‪future will generally be‬‬ ‫کلی خوشایند خواهد بود‪.‬‬
‫‪bright.‬‬
‫‪181‬‬
‫‪2th‬‬ ‫‪On the other hand, people‬‬ ‫از سوی دیگر افرادی که‬ ‫‪Tend to‬‬ ‫این افراد‬
‫‪prone to pessimism, who‬‬ ‫مستعد بدبینی هستند ‪ ،‬معموال‬
‫‪tend to see negative‬‬ ‫رویداد های منفی را تقصیر‬
‫‪events as their fault and‬‬ ‫و کوتاهی خود تلقی می کنند‬
‫‪likely to have wide-‬‬ ‫که ممکن است پیامدهای‬
‫‪ranging future‬‬ ‫زیادی برای آینده ی آنها‬
‫‪consequences, are more‬‬ ‫داشته باشند‪ .‬این افراد به‬
‫‪likely to crumble and give‬‬ ‫احتمال زیاد در برابر فشار‬
‫‪up in response to stress‬‬ ‫روانی خرد می شوند و از پا‬
‫;‪(Carver et al., 2010‬‬ ‫می افتند(کارول و همکاران‬
‫‪Rasmussen et al., 2009).‬‬ ‫‪2212،‬؛ راسموسن و‬
‫همکاران ‪.)2229،‬‬
‫‪182‬‬
The frequency of occurrences of each type of overtly erroneous errors and each type of
overt and covert translation was calculated as follows:
Table 46: Categories of translation types and their percentage
Type of Translation Number Percentage

overt translation 10 7%
covert translation 154 94%
total 164 100%
Above table shows the number of overt and covert translations and their percentage of
technical words of the psychological text. It is resulted that 94% of technical words have been
translated in covert type and 7% of them have been translated in overt type.
Figure 4.1 shows the result of analysing in a chart. In this chart, vertical line represents
the percentage of translation types of technical words, and horizontal line indicates the type of
translation according to House (1997) model.
183
Figure 1: Categorization of Translation's Type in Technical Words
The next table shows the total number of errors and their percentage:
Table 47: Categories of Overtly Erroneous Errors and their Percentage
Overtly erroneous errors Numbers Percentage

Omissions 191 31%
Additions 205 33%
Substitutions 226 36%
Total 622 100%
By analysing 40 paragraphs and 622 cases of mismatches, it is resulted that 31% of
errors were of omission, 33% of errors were of addition, and 36% of errors were of
substitution. Errors related to the Breach of the Target Language category was only one case
so, the researcher ignored it.
Figure 4.2 shows the results of this analysis. The vertical line represents the percentage
of overtly erroneous errors devoted to each category, and the horizontal line indicates the
mismatches of denotative meaning between source and target text.
184
‫‪Figure 2: Categorization of Overtly Erroneous Errors‬‬
‫‪4.4.3 Comparison of Original and Translation‬‬
‫‪Mismatches on the following dimensions were discovered as a result of the analysis of‬‬
‫‪TT and the comparison of ST and TT.‬‬
‫‪Field‬‬
‫‪Lexical mismatches:‬‬
‫)‪a‬‬ ‫‪There are numerous substitutions for and changes of equivalents of words, phrases,‬‬
‫پا به جهان می ‪ enter the word:‬مطابق ‪sentences and verbs e.g. in paragraph 1: holds:‬‬
‫باید یک جلسه ی مطلع ‪ , in paragraph 3: must be debriefed:‬در دفاع از ‪ supported:‬گذارند‬
‫‪ in paragraph 8: dilemmas:‬اطالعاتی نادرست داشته باشند ‪ deceiving them:‬سازی گذاشته شود‬
‫‪.‬روان پزشکی ‪, and in paragraph 9: mental disorders:‬معماهایی‬
‫)‪b‬‬ ‫‪use of synonyms and additions which are not captured in the source text e.g. in‬‬
‫‪paragraph 3: if participants are given a surprise quiz they did not expect:‬‬
‫اگر از این افراد "امتحان غیر منتظره ای به عمل آید‪ ،‬یعنی وازه هایی پرسیده شود که به آنها داده نشده بود‬
‫‪185‬‬
Participants must be debriefed about it as soon as possible afterwards:
‫ باید هرچه زودتر یک جلسه ی مطلع سازی گذاشته‬،‫برای شرکت کنندگان پس از اینکه در آن شرکت کردند‬
.‫شود‬
In paragraph 10: they cause no pain: ‫ کار گذاشتن این ریزاکترودها هیچ دردی ایجاد نمی کند‬and
in paragraph 18: the person may be alternately waking and drowsing while
comfortably watching television or reading a book: ‫او ممکن است "چرتش بگیرد" یعنی در‬
.‫همان حال که به آسودگی مشغول تماشای تلویزیون یا خواندن کتاب است به تناوب بیدار و خواب آلوده شود‬
c) Omission of words and phrases in translation e.g. in paragraph 9: babies in this
category often show contradictory behaviours: ‫این بچه ها اغلب رفتارهای متناقضی از خود‬
‫نشان می دهند‬, in paragraph 10: a typical single-cell recording experiment: ‫یکی از‬
‫ آزمایشهای نوعی در این زمینه‬, and in paragraph 19: the dog is hungry and when meat
powder is delivered, salivation is registered: ‫سگ گرسنه است و ابزار اندازه گیری ترشح‬
.‫فراوان بزاق را نشان می دهد‬
Textual mismatches:
No mismatch is found.
Syntactic mismatches:
a) replacement of passive voices by active voices e.g. are inserted: ‫ کار می گذارند‬are
connected: ‫ وصل می کنند‬have been repressed: ‫واپس زده است‬
b) the change of sentence structures with initial phrases and use of Persian sentence
structures e.g. in paragraph 2 unlike the nineteenth century version, however, the
contemporary cognitive approach is not based on introspection:
.‫ مبتنی بر درون نگری نیست‬،‫اما شناخت گرایی جدید بر خالف گونه ی قرن نوزدهمی شناخت گرایی‬
And in paragraph 3: like the principle of minimal risk, informed consent is not always
easy to implement: ‫اصل رضایت آگاهانه هم مثل اصل حداقل خطر همیشه به راحتی قابل اجرا نیست‬
Tenor
Social role relationship
Syntactic mismatch:
186
a) Lack of personal pronouns i.e. in some cases personal pronouns are omitted e.g. in
paragraph 2: we can study mental processes in an objective fashion:
.‫می توان فرآیندهای روانی را به گونه ای عینی مطالعه کرد‬
And in paragraph 6: that we describe above: ‫که پیش تر توصیف شد‬
b) The translation is often more impersonal through the omission of personal

pronouns.
Mode
No mismatches not found.
Overtly erroneous errors:
As implied above, there are some mismatches of the denotative meanings of ST and TT
items:
Addition and omission:
For example in paragraph 33: how the values associated with collectivism and
individualism shape emotional experiences:
.‫چگونه فرهنگ های جمع گرا و فرد گرا تجارب هیجانی را شکل می دهند‬
In paragraph 2: In making these interpretations, cognitive psychologists have often

relied on an analogy between the mind and a computer:
.‫روانشناسان شناختی برای چنین تفاسیری اغلب به شباهت ذهن با رایانه تکیه می کنند‬
In paragraph 31: When you are afraid, for example, your heart may pound in your chest,
and your palms may sweat:
.‫ قلبتان به تپش می افتد و کف دستتان عرق می کند‬،‫ بر اثر فعال شدن دستگاه عصبی خود مختار‬،‫مثال وقتی می ترسید‬
And in paragraph 9: Because some babies did not seem to fit any of this categories,
studies have included a fourth category, disorganized:
‫ در بررسی های بعدی دسته ی چهارمی نیز مطرح‬،‫از آنجا که برخی از کودکان در هیچ یک از این طبقات نمی گنجند‬
.‫شده که بچه های نابسامان خوانده می شوند‬
Substitution:
187
For example in paragraph 3: The reasons to keeping them in ignorance-or deceiving
them: ‫یا اطالعاتی نادرست داشته باشند‬-‫چرا می بایست برخی مسائل را ندانند‬
In paragraph 36 to what extent do some students do better than others on the exam because
they are genetically more capable:
‫بهتر بودن نمره های برخی از دانشجویان تا چه حد به علت بیشتر بودن توانایی وراثتی آنها است؟‬
And in paragraph 23: ensuring that the context in which information is encoded is
similar to that in which it will be retrieved:
.‫مطمئن شدن از مشابهت بافتار رمز گذاری و بافتار بازیابی اطالعات‬
The table 4.46 shows the results of source text and target text profiles side by side
comparison:
Table 48: Source text and target text profile comparison
Source Text Profile Target Text Profile

Subject Matter: Scientific Subject Matter: Scientific
Field
Social Action: Specialized Social Action: Specialized
Authors' Provenance and Stance: Translator's Provenance Stance:

Unmarked Contemporary Educated middle-
tenor Psychiatrist and university instructor
class Standard American
English/psychologist and university
instructor.
Social Role Relationship: Social Role Relationship:
Asymmetry Asymmetry
Social Attitude: Formal Social Attitude: Formal
Mode Medium: Medium:

Simple: written to be read Simple: written to be read
Participation: Participation:
Simple: monologue Simple: monologue
Genre Psychology Psychology
188
Function Ideational and Interpersonal Ideational and Interpersonal
4.4.4 Statement of Quality
The analysis of original and translation along the situational dimensions has revealed a
number of mismatches along the dimensions of FIELD and TENOR, and a consequent change
of the interpersonal functional component. There were also a large number of overt errors that
affected the ideational component and the transmission of information. On Field the passive
voices were substituted with active voices which changed the interpersonal functional
component somehow. Foregrounded phrase structures were not kept and in some cases,
lexical items, phrases, verbs and sentences not rendered with the same care and attention.
These mismatches detract from the text's ideational functional component. On Tenor, the
interpersonal functional component was changed because the impersonality characterizing of
the original's social role relationship is often more through the omission of personal pronouns.
Although, there were a number of dimensional mismatches in the translation, but Genre
remained unchanged.
The greater amount of loss was due to overt errors that affected the ideational component and
the transmission of information. As aforementioned, a total number of 622 overt errors were
identified. out of this number, 226 errors (about 36%) belonged to substitution which was the
largest group of overt errors. omission and addition allocated 191 and 205 errors (about 31%
and 33%) respectively. Errors related to the Breach of the Target Language category was only
one case so, the researcher ignored it. Overt errors of substitutions were assumed as major
errors which caused by wrong selections and wrong combinations in translation. This type of
errors was due to the fact that wrong equivalents were selected in translation. Omissions and
additions were equal approximately. Omissions were occurred because the translator
189
intentionally or unintentionally missed and omitted several parts of the text. Additions caused
more clarification and explicitness in the text.
From this configuration of mismatches, it became clear that the interpersonal functional
component of source text's function and, its ideational functional component have been
violated. Since these violations are small the Persian translation of "Atkinson and Hilgard's
Introduction to Psychology" is of a high quality.
To answer question one and determine the type of translation, the criteria and features
needed for covert translation should be considered. According to house (1997) a covert
translation is not tied to the source language and culture. An original text and its covert
translation should be equivalent at the levels of Genre and individual textual function. At the
levels of language/text and register they need not be equivalent i.e. the original can be
manipulated using a cultural filter. In this research, the translation text is not tied to the source
text because the meaning is transferred pragmatically and, it is not completely semantically
transferred. In several cases, the translator has manipulated the text using shifts, additions,
omissions and substitutions. The author's style has not been paid so much attention. In despite
of these changes, the Genre and Function of the original have been kept. The translator has
applied a cultural filter to some parts of translation to make it easier for readers to understand
this difficult scientific text. Moreover, according to table (4. 46) and figure (4.1) most of the
technical words of the text have translated covertly. Consequently it is concluded that the
Persian translation of "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology" is a covert
translation.
To answer question two, it can be said that the application of the House's model to the corpus
of this study and evaluating the quality of this translation text based on this model proved that
it is applicable for assessing the quality of the Persian translation of psychological texts. Also,
190
‫‪another research has conducted by Javad Heidary. He applied House's model on a‬‬
‫‪psychological text namely "Synopsis of Psychiatry" written by Sadock (as a scientific or‬‬
‫‪technical text) based on Baker's taxonomy of grammar and vocabulary within scientific or‬‬
‫‪technical text. He concluded that this psychological text was translated overtly. However,‬‬
‫‪according to House's model any type of scientific text should be translated covertly (Heidary,‬‬
‫‪2011).‬‬
‫‪191‬‬
‫‪CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION‬‬
‫‪192‬‬
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The current chapter first presents a brief summary of the research and then discusses the
results of data analysis. Moreover, implications of this research will be presented and finally
the researcher demonstrates some suggestions for further research.
5.2 SUMMARY AND RESULTS

In this research, the House's translation quality assessment model was applied on a scientific
book in the genre of psychology. The text is written by American psychologists, Susan Nolen-
Hoexema et.al. and Iranian psychiatrist, Hasan Rafiee with cooperation of Mojtabe delir has
translated it. The following questions have been answered by doing this research.
1. Is the Persian translation of the "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology"

covert, considering House's model of translation quality assessment?
2. Is House's translation quality assessment model applicable for assessing the quality of
the Persian translation of psychological texts?
1. The Persian translation of "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology" is

covert.
Three paragraphs of eighteen chapters from the source text were selected. Then their
paralleled translation was drawn from the target text. According to House, translation is the
recontextualization of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically
equivalent text in second language. The first requirement for this equivalence is that a
translation has a function equivalent to that of its original (House, 2001a). House defines
function as the application of the text in a particular context of situation. This function is
consisted of two basic functional components: the ideational and interpersonal functional
components and, these two components have to be kept equivalent in translation. The
function of a text can be determined by opening up the linguistic material (the text) in terms
193
of a set of situational dimensions. Therefore, in order to achieving text function the context of
situation or situational dimensions were considered in this research. To do so, based on the
model, the researcher made a source text profile in such a way that register (field, tenor and
mode) in all 56 selected paragraphs of the source text was analysed through the situational
dimensions which consist of dimensions of language use and dimensions of language users.
As aforementioned, field refers to subject matter and social action. Tenor refers to participant
relationship including author's provenance and stance, social role relationship and social
attitude and mode refers to medium and participation (simple/complex). The third level of
House's model, genre, was identified via the register analysis. Thus, the individual textual
function of source text was determined. The same process was done for the target text i.e. the
textual profile of the translated text was made in order to identification the target textual
function.
In house model, the function of original is taken as the norm against which the translation is
measured; the degree to which the textual profile and function of the translation match the
profile and function of the original is the degree to which the translation is adequate in
quality. In this research, the analysis of individual dimensions of source text revealed that the
function of the scientific text in the genre of psychology consists of two components: the
ideational and the interpersonal. Although the ideational functional component is strongly
marked, the interpersonal one is present at the text. In generally, the careful choice of
technical lexical items, impersonality of the relationship between the addressee and addresser,
the formal style of the text, the monologues nature of the text and the sort of medium as
"written to be read" support the ideational component of the text's function whereas, the
presence of short clauses with simple structures, absence of colloquial lexical items,
interjections and contractions feed into the interpersonal functional component of source text.
194
After evaluating the relative match between original and translation, numerous mismatches
were discovered. The mismatches observed in situational dimensions which is called covertly
erroneous errors and also the mismatches in lexical and syntactical as overtly erroneous errors
were found. The change of equivalents of lexical items, verbs, phrases and sentences and also
the change of foregrounded phrasal structures affected the ideational functional component of
target text. The interpersonal functional component of the target text was affected by the
omission of personal pronouns and replacement of passive voice by active one. In addition,
there were a large number of overt errors i.e. omissions, additions and substitutions that
affected the ideational functional component and the transmission of information. In general,
both the ideational functional component and the interpersonal one have been influenced to
some extent.
Since "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology" is a scientific text, based on
House it should be translated covertly. Therefore, the criteria and features needed for covert
translation have been considered. According to house (1997) a covert translation is not tied to
the source language and culture. An original text and its covert translation should be
equivalent at the levels of Genre and individual textual function. At the levels of
language/text and register they need not be equivalent i.e. the original can be manipulated
using a cultural filter. In this research, the translation text is not tied to the source text because
the meaning is transferred pragmatically and, it is not completely semantically transferred. In
several cases, the translator has manipulated the text using shifts, additions, omissions and
substitutions. The author's style has not been paid so much attention. As mentioned above
some changes are seen in field and tenor. Thus, the translation has changed at the level of
language/text and register. In despite of these changes, the Genre and Function of the original
have been kept i.e. both original and its translation have psychological genre and informative
195
function. The translator has applied a cultural filter to some parts of translation to make it
easier for readers to understand this difficult scientific text. Moreover, according to table (4.
46) and figure (4.1) most of the technical words of the text have translated covertly.
Consequently it is concluded that the Persian translation of "Atkinson and Hilgard's
Introduction to Psychology" is a covert translation.
2. House's translation quality assessment model is applicable for assessing the
quality of the Persian translation of psychological texts.
The application of the House's model to the corpus of this study evaluating the quality
of this translation text based on this model and determining its mismatches and errors proved
that it is applicable for assessing the quality of the Persian translation of psychological texts.
Also, another research has conducted by Javad Heidary. He applied House's model on a
psychological text namely "Synopsis of Psychiatry" written by Sadock (as a scientific or
technical text) based on Baker's taxonomy of grammar and vocabulary within scientific or
technical text. He concluded that this psychological text was translated overtly. However,
according to House's model any type of scientific text should be translated covertly (Heidary,
2011).
5.3 CONCLUSION
The obtained results from the data analysis revealed that the Persian translation of
"Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology" is adequate according the House's
model. Since scientific texts are classified under the covert translation of House's translation
quality assessment model, the results fulfilled the House's covert translation criteria and it is
proved that the Persian translation of "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology" is
a covert translation. This result was achieved by the comparison analysis of source and target
196
text situational dimensions. Consequently, it demonstrated that House's model is applicable in
Persian translation quality assessment of psychological texts.
5.4 IMPLICATIONS
This research attempted to apply House's translation quality assessment model on a
scientific book in the genre of psychology. The superiority of this model comparing other
models is the need for reading source text in advance and identification of what needs to be
preserved in target text. In addition, it takes into account both macro- and micro-level
phenomena and it includes not only textual and situational aspects but also cultural ones.
Also, it combines qualitative with quantitative analysis.
This evaluation recognized the problematic areas including mismatches and errors in
this particular translation so, the finding of this study can help translators to identify and avoid
mistakes and errors in translation process. The editors of translation can also recognise these
errors in translation of scientific texts and remove them in the process of reviewing and
editing translation. In addition to student communities which are the largest audiences of the
translated psychological texts, today these texts have also attracted many laymen. This
research with identifying the problems of translation of these texts can help students and
laymen. Moreover, the evaluators and teachers can gain benefit from the results of the present
study in assessing the translation of psychological texts and other text types. The possible
results of this study, hopefully, can be used in the process of learning /teaching translation by
the instructors and the learners. The findings of the current study are hoped to be of help to
translators who want to work in the field of psychological texts' translation to improve the
quality of their translation. It is also hoped that this study provides a common yardstick and
model to evaluate the quality of translation by translators and raters.
197
In this study, the researcher encountered some problems in the analysis process. The
most important problem was in related to sentences including overtly erroneous errors,
because there is not any classification between translator's strategy and overtly erroneous
errors or any kind of mismatches in House's model. Thus, the identification of mismatches
which happened consciously i.e. by the translator or those unconsciously was a difficult task
and is vague in the model. In other words, in overtly erroneous errors in category denotative
meaning, it is not clear what kind of errors can be as addition, omission or substitution,
because an ungrammatical structure in breaches of the target language system category can be
a kind of wrong selection and may be happened by the translator's decision in order to change
the form in the translation text. It can be concluded that the model is ambiguous to some
extent on semantic and textual aspects. The mismatches achieved from their analysis, thus,
needs to be more explicit. House's translation quality assessment consisted of several different
parts and it took into account almost all aspects of translation therefore, in this study,
analysing a number of paragraphs for both source and target texts took so much time and it is
another problem of the model.
5.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

This study examined House's translation quality assessment model on a psychological
text. For further research, the quality of translation of "Atkinson and Hilgard's Introduction to
Psychology" can be assessed by means of the other models of translation quality assessment
and the results can be compared with those ones of this study. In addition, other types of text
with different genres can be assessed with house's model. "Atkinson and Hilgard's
Introduction to Psychology" is an academic book, other psychological books which are more
common can be assessed with this model.
198
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‫‪203‬‬
‫دانشگاه آزاد اسالمی‬
‫واحد بندر عباس‬
‫دانشکده علوم انسانی‬
‫پایان نامه برای دریافت درجه کارشناسی ارشد (‪)M.A‬‬
‫رشته‪ :‬مترجمی زبان انگلیسی‬
‫عنوان‪:‬‬
‫ارزیابی کیفیت ترجمه متون آکادمیک روان شناسی بر اساس مدل جولیان هاوس‬
‫استاد راهنما‪:‬‬
‫دکتر وفا نادرنیا‬
‫نگارنده‪:‬‬
‫زهرا غفارنژاد‬
‫بهار ‪3169‬‬
‫أ‬
‫ب‬
‫ج‬
‫د‬
‫معاونت پژوهش و فن آوری‬
‫به نام خدا‬

‫با یاری از خداوند سبحان و اعتقاد به این که عالم محضر خداست و هواره ناظر براعمال انسان و به منظور پاس‪-‬‬
‫داشت مقام بلند دانش و پژوهش و نظر به اهمیت جایگاه دانشگاه در اعتالی فرهنگ وتمدن بشری‪ ،‬ما دانشجویان و‬
‫اعضای هیئت علمی واحدهای دانشگاه آزاد اسالمی متعهد می گردیم اصول زیر را در انجام فعالیت های پژوهشی‬
‫مد نظر قرار داده و از آن تخطی نکنیم‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬اصل حقیقتجویی‪ :‬تالش در راستای پی جویی حقیقت و وفاداری به آن و دوری از هرگونه پنهان سازی‬
‫حقیقت‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬اصل رعایت حقوق‪ :‬التزام به رعایت کامل حقوق پژوهشگران و پژوهیدگان( انسان‪ ،‬حیوان و نبات) وسایر‬
‫صاحبان حق‪.‬‬
‫‪ -3‬اصل مالکیت مادی و معنوی ‪ :‬تعهد به رعایت کامل حقوق مادی و معنوی دانشگاه وکلیه همکاران‬
‫پژوهش‪.‬‬
‫‪ -4‬اصل منافع ملی ‪ :‬تعهد به رعایت مصالح ملی و در نظر داشتن پیشبرد و توسعه کشوردر کلیه همکاران‬
‫پژوهش‪.‬‬
‫‪ -5‬اصل رعایت انصاف و امانت ‪ :‬تعهد به اجتناب از هرگونه جانب داری غیرعلمی و حفاظت اموال‪،‬‬
‫تجهیزات و منابع در اختیار‪.‬‬
‫‪ -6‬اصل رازداری ‪ :‬تعهد به صیانت از اسرار و اطالعات محرمانه افراد‪ ،‬سازمان ها و کشور و کلیه افراد‬
‫ونهادهای مرتبط با تحقیق‬
‫‪ -7‬اصل احترام‪ :‬تعهد به رعایت حریمها وحرمتها در انجام تحقیقات ورعایت جانب نقد و خودداری از‬
‫هرگونه حرمتشکنی‪.‬‬
‫‪ -8‬اصل ترویج ‪ :‬تعهد به رواج دانش واشاعه نتایج آن به همکاران علمی و دانشجویان به غیر از مواردی که‬
‫منع قانونی دارد‪.‬‬
‫‪ -9‬اصل برائت‪ :‬التزام به برائت جویی از هرگونه رفتار غیر حرفهای و اعالم موضع نسبت به کسانی که حوزه‬
‫علم وپژوهش را به شائبه های غیرعلمی می آالیند‪.‬‬
‫ه‬
‫چکیده‬
‫ارزیابی کیفیت ترجمه یکی از جنبه های الینفک مطالعات ترجمه می باشد‪ .‬در طول سالهای اخیر مطالعات‬
‫مربوط به ارزیابی کیفیت ترجمه رشد چشمگیری داشته است‪ .‬مدلهای مختلف ارزیابی کیفیت ترجمه به‬
‫عرصه ظهور آمده اند که مدل ارزیابی کیفیت ترجمه ی جولیان هاوس امیدوارکننده ترین می باشد و می‬
‫تواند در ژانرهای مختلف به کار گرفته شود‪ .‬هدف این پژوهش به کار گیری مدل هاوس روی یک ترجمه‬
‫ی فارسی در ژانر روان شناسی با عنوان زمینه ی روان شناسی اتکینسون و هیلگارد و ارزیابی کیفیت آن می‬
‫باشد‪ .‬از آنجا که در مدل هاوس متون علمی در مجموعه ی ترجمه ها ی پنهان طبقه بندی می شوند بنابراین‬
‫متن منتخب باید به صورت پنهان ترجمه شود تا این فرضیه را ثابت کرده و به سؤاالت پژوهش پاسخ دهد‪.‬‬
‫به منظور تحقق این هدف در ابتدا پنجاه و چهار پاراگراف از متن مبدأ و ترجمه های آن از متن مقصد‬
‫انتخاب شدند‪ .‬بر اساس مدل هاوس نمای متن مبدأ در قالب مجموعه ای از ابعاد موقعیتی ایحاد گردید‪ .‬این‬
‫نمای متنی‪ ،‬نقش متن مبدأ را مشخص کرد که شامل دو مؤلفه ی انگاره ای و میان فردی آن نقش و ژانر آن‬
‫می باشد‪ .‬نما‪ ،‬ژانر و نقش متن مبدأ نیز با همین روش مشخص شد و در پایان این مؤلفه ها مورد مقایسه‬
‫قرار گرفت‪ .‬نتیجه این مقایسه نشان داد که مؤلفه انگاره ای و میان فردی بواسطه تغییرات ترجمه تحت تاثیر‬
‫قرار گرفتند اما متون مبدأ و مقصد در سطوح ژانر و کارکرد متنی فردی معادل هستند‪ .‬بعالوه‪ ،‬ثابت شد که‬
‫این ترجمه از نوع پنهان بوده ‪ ،‬و مترجم آگاهانه یا ناخودآگاه فیلتر فرهنگی را بکار برده است‪ .‬نتایج‬
‫همچنین نشان داد که این مدل برای ارزیابی کیفیت ترجمه فارسی متون روان شناسی قابل استفاده می باشد‪.‬‬
‫و‬

Translation Quality Assessment of Academic Psychological Text Based On Juliane

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Translation Quality Assessment of Academic Psychological Text Based On Juliane

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‫‪MA in English Translation‬‬

‫‪Bandar Abbas Azad University‬‬

‫‪M.A. in English Translation Studies‬‬

‫‪Translation Quality Assessment of Academic Psychological Text based on Juliane‬‬

‫‪Vafa Nadernia, Ph.D.‬‬

‫‪My lovely children‬‬

‫‪My reverent parents‬‬

readers of present research.

source text function -consisting of an ideational and an interpersonal functional component-

human life throughout history. As Miremadi (2003) believes, translation is a means to an

various fields. Increasing improvements in knowledge, culture, technology, industry and

trading have enhanced the need for translation.

basis of a theory of translation and translation criticism" (2001 b, p.127).

difficulty associates with translation evaluation is its very subjectivity.

House "Evaluating the quality of a translation presupposes a theory of translation. Thus

different ways of assessing it" (1997, p.1) .

She stated that her view is a part of discourse based view.

This research focuses on the translation of an academic psychological text, as a

assessing these translations.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

in one language is re-contextualized in another language. In addition to linguistic factors, a

such a complex phenomenon (House, 1997).

same message accurately, naturally and clearly.

translation is something that has to be discussed (Newmark, 1988). According to above

translation criticism or assessment (House, 2001).

Judgments on the quality of a translation depend on a variety of factors: the translator's

and make the task of criticism difficult (House, 2001).

To fulfill such a difficult task, a reliable framework or in other word a model of

the two functional components (House, 2009b).

study this science .

Delir. The researcher selected this translation to discover if it is a covert translation.

focused on the quality assessment of an academic psychological text.

the instructors and the learners.

of translation by translators and raters.

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTION

covert, considering House's model of translation quality assessment?

the Persian translation of psychological texts?

1.6 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

quality assessment (TQA) is "the systematic evaluation of a TT (target text) by comparison

with a ST (source text).

House's model: This model is based on Holliday's systematic functional theory. It

translation (Munday, 2012, p.140).

degrees of "generality", "specificity' or 'granularity' in lexical items according to rubrics of

specialized, general, and popular (House, 2001, p.248).

different styles (formal, consultative and informal) (House, 2001, p.248).

must overtly be a translation not a ''second original'' (House, 1997, p.66).

Covert translation: A covert translation is a translation which enjoys the status of an

original source text in the target culture (House, 1997, p.69).

1.7 LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS

communication" (Munday, 2012, p.10).

range of translated works.

encyclopedias and new courses on translation in universities offer evidence of international

interest in translation studies, therefore, evidence of the interest in translation is everywhere

theoretical approaches to translation quality assessment as the review of literature. The

2.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF TRANSLATION STUDIES

translation studies", which published and widely read in 1988.

theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense

translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generation of

Dryden (1631-1700) whose trichotomy on translation types (metaphrase, paraphrase and

imitation) make big strides (Ghanooni, 2012).

(Venuti, 2004, p.74).

deconstructionist translators. In the 1940s to1950s, the prevalent concept is "translatability".