a

2001 AASHTO Replace f by g

• the distance ahead that the motorist should
be able to see so that the vehicle should be UPHILL → +
able to safely stop DOWNHILL → --
• Reaction Distance (DR) – how far the car
travels in the time it takes the driver to react 2001 AASHTO FORMULAS (LEVEL
to a hazard
SURFACE):
• Braking Distance (DB) – how far the car
travels from the time the brakes are applied ENGLISH METRIC
until it completely stops 1.075V2 0.039V2
DB = DB =
a a
V = mph V = kph
DB = ft DB = m
a = 11.2 ft/s2 a = 3.4 m/s2

EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS:
• V2 = V1 + at

• V22 = V21 + 2ax

1
SSD = DR + DB • x = V1 t + 2
at2

FORCES ACTING ON THE VEHICLE SPEED REDUCTION

BRAKING ON A DOWNGRADE GENERAL ENGLISH METRIC
V21- V22 V21
- V22 V21 - V22
DB = DB = DB =
g(f ± G) 30(f ± G) 254(f ± G)

• the transverse slope provided to

counteract the effect of centrifugal
force
• reduce the tendency of vehicle to overturn to
skid laterally outwards by raising the
pavement outer edge with respect to the
inner edge

PURPOSES OF PROVIDING
DR FORMULAS: SUPERELEVATION IN ROADS
GENERAL ENGLISH METRIC • To counteract the effect of centrifugal
DR = Vt DR = 1.47 Vt DR = 0.278 Vt force acting on the moving vehicle
V = mph V = kph • To prevent the damaging effect on the
V = m/s, ft/s
t = sec t = sec surface of the roads due to improper
t = sec
DR = ft DR = m distribution of load on the roads
• To help the fast-moving vehicles to pass
DB FORMULAS: through a curved path without
GENERAL ENGLISH METRIC overturning or skidding
2 2 • To reduce the maintenance cost of the
V V V2
DB = DB = DB = road on the curved portion
g(f ± G) 30(f ± G) 254(f ± G)
• To ensure the smooth and safe
f = skid
resistance movement of vehicles and passengers on
V = mph V = kph the curved portion of the roads
G = grade
t = sec t = sec
(%)
DR = ft DR = m
g = acc. due
to gravity
 • superelevation obtained here will be very high
and thus it will be very desirable for fast
moving vehicles but is objectionable for slow
moving vehicles
WHEN e = 0:
V2
f=
gR
• frictional force fully counteracts the lateral
force
• may arise when there is no provision of
superelevation like in design of intersections
o results in a very high coefficient of
friction

MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE:

FORCES ACTING ON A VEHICLE ENGLISH METRIC
TRAVELING ON A HORIZONTAL CURVE
V2 V2
SECTION OF A ROAD R= R=
15(e + f) 127(e + f)
R = ft R=m
V = mph V = kph

CENTRIFUGAL RATIO/IMPACT FACTOR:

GENERAL ENGLISH METRIC
V2 V2 V2
IF = IF = IF =
gR 15R 127R

IDEAL ANGLE OF ENBANKMENT:

GENERAL ENGLISH METRIC
V2 V2 V2
tan θ = tan θ = tan θ =
GENERAL FORMULA gR 15R 127R

e = pavement superelevation MAXIMUM SPEED AT WHICH A CAR CAN

(tangent to the angle) ROUND A CURVE WITHOUT SKIDDING:
f = coefficient of side frictional
GENERAL ENGLISH METRIC
V2 force developed between vehicle
e+f= V2 V2 V2
gR tires and road pavement tan(θ+α)= tan(θ+α)= tan(θ+α)=
V = speed of the vehicle gR 15R 127R
R = radius of the curve WHERE:
g = acceleration due to gravity θ = angle of banking
e is + → pavement falls outward the center of the tan α = f
curve
f is + → frictional force on the vehicle acts towards RADIUS OF A CURVE GIVEN ITS DEGREE:
the center of the curve ENGLISH METRIC
5729.578 100(180°) 1145.916 20(180°)
WHEN f = 0: R= = R= =
D πD D πD
V2
e=
gR
• centrifugal force is entirely counteracted by
the superelevation
• a moving vehicle will steer itself about the
superelevation curve once its wheels have
been set on the road track
• it is now called equilibrium
superelevation
o Pressureinner wheels = Pressureouter wheels