Gr. _umhrt`, _.Tg., K._`

Hr`lth Hcl` Gbwhlthr` _._`., K._o

 

Wujuhl Tbkabehjhrhl

Thgh ahc`hl `l` hlgh mhrus khkpu

8)  kbljbehsfhl struftur ukuk hshk hk`li ghl guh fbkulcf`lhl stbrbi`sikbrlyh
1)  kblcfehs`n`fhs`fhl hshk hk`li abrghshrfhl cucus Q
?)  kblcbthmu` nulcs` pblt`lc hshk hk`li ghl ababrhph hshk hk`li thf ukuk yhlc
 pblt`lc
7)  kbljbehsfhl abltuf zw`ttbr`il hshk hk`li
2)  kbkhmhk` furvh t`trhs` hshk hk`li, tbrkhsuf kbkprbg`fs` kuhthl bebftril hshk
hk`li abrghshrfhl furvh tbrsbaut
>)  kbljbehsfhl pbrabghhl s`nht hshk ahsh yhlc g`k`e`f` hshk hk`li

Tblghmueuhl

Tritb`l hghehm pie`kbr hshk hk`li ghl khs`lc-khs`lc rbs`gu hshk hk`li tbrmuaulc
iebm `fhthl fivhebl jbl`s spbs`n`f. (@st`ehm ―rbs`gu‛ kbluljuffhl m`ehlclyh h`r shht hshk hk`li
 abr`fhthl shtu shkh eh`l). Tritb`l ghpht g`pbohm (g`m`grie`s`s) kbljhg` hshk hk`li
 pblyusullyh gblchl abrahch` kbtigb, ghl stug` phe`lc hwhe tblthlc pritb`l abrnifus sbohrh
hehk`hm phgh hshk hk`li abahs yhlc abrhshe ghr` prisbs tbrsbaut. Guh pueum hshk hk`li yhlc
 abrabgh ukuklyh g`tbkufhl ghehk pritb`l. Hshk hk`li yhlc pbrthkh g`tbkufhl hghehm
hsphrhc`l phgh thmul 8=4>. Wmrbil`l hghehm hshk hk`li yhlc tbrhfm`r g`tbkufhl, t`ghf
g``gblt`n`fhs` m`lcch thmul 80?=. _bkuh hshk hk`li kbk`e`f` lhkh ukuk hthu tr`v`he. Thgh
 ababrhph fhsus, lhkh tbrsbaut abrhshe ghr` sukabr shht hshk hk`li tbrsbaut g``siehs`.
Hsphrhc`l pbrthkh fhe` g`tbkufhl phgh hsphrhcus, ghl ceuthkht phgh ceutbl chlguk6 t`ris`l
 pbrthkh fhe` g``siehs` ghr` fbju (lhkhlyh abrhshe ghr` ahmhsh Pulhl` tyris, ―fbju‛6 ghl ce`s`l
(ahmhsh Pulhl` ceyfis, ――khl`s ‛) g`lhkhfhl gbk`f`hl fhrblh rhshlyh yhlc khl`s. 
khl`s‛) khl`s. 

Hshk hk`li Kbk`e`f` _truftur Rkuk

Guh pueum hshk hk`li yhlc ukuk sbohrh fbsbeur umhl

umhl hghehm θ-
θ- hshk hk`li. Kbrbfh
kbk`e`f` cucus fhraifs`e ghl cucus hk`li yhlc tbr`fht phgh htik fhrail yhlc shkh (fhrail
θ) (Chkahr
( Chkahr 8).
8). Kbrbfh abrabgh phgh rhlth` shkp`lc, hthu cucus Q, yhlc kbk`e`f` struftur,

ufurhl ghlhshk
_beh`l 14 kuhthl e`str`f
hk`li yhlc
yhlc abrabgh,
tbehm sbrth
g`fblhe kbkpblchrum`
sbohrh ukuk, hghfbehruthl hshk hk`li
ahlyhf hshk hk`li ghehk h`r.
eh`l yhlc
furhlc ukuk. Ababrhph rbs`gu g`kig`n`fhs` sbtbehm sbauhm pritb`l g`s`ltbs`s6 sbghlcfhl
eh`llyh hghehm hshk hk`li yhlc hgh phgh khfmeuf m`gup lhkul aufhl kbruphfhl filst`tubl
 pritb`l. Hshk-hshk hk`li ghr` pritb`l tbehm g`abr` s`lcfhthl t`ch murun
murun ghl s`kaie shtu murun
8),
(Whabe 8 ), yhlc g`culhfhl sbahch` s`lcfhthl ultuf kbluljuffhl fikpis`s` ghl uruthl hshk-
hshk hk`li yhlc g`pie`kbr`shs` ghehk pritb`l.
 

 
Chkahr 8. _truftur ukuk sbauhm hshk hk`li. _truftur `l` g`culhfhl ultuf sbkuh
hshk hk`li fbouhe` prie`l, hshk hk`li s`fe`f. Cucus Q hthu rhlth` shkp`lc (ulcu), yhlc
 abr`fhthl gblchl fhrail θ (hau-hau)
(hau-hau) abrabgh phgh sbt`hp hshk hk`li. (_ukabr :  Lbesil, G.
E., Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix, K. K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs in
i n a`iombk`stry . Khok`eehl) 

Whabe 8. _`nht ghl Fbtbltuhl yhlc Abrfh`thl gblchl Hshk Hk`li Rkuk yhlc
: Lbesil, G. E., Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix, K. K.
G`tbkufhl phgh Tritb`l. (_ukabr : Lbesil,
(144=). Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs
pr`lo` pebs in a`iombk`stry . Khok`eehl) 
 

Rltuf sbkuh hshk hk`li ukuk fbouhe` ce`s`l, fhrail θ abr`fhthl gblchl bkpht
cucus abrabgh: sbauhm cucus fhraifs`e, sbauhm cucus hk`li, sbauhm cucus Q, ghl sbauhm
ce`s`l, cucus Q hghehm cucus m`gricbl). Fhrail θ kbruphfhl
htik m`gricbl (Chkahr 86 phgh ce`s`l,
 pusht fm`rhe. Fhrblh `fhthl ira`the g` sbf`thr htik fhrail θ 
θ   kbk`e`f` susulhl tbtrhmbgrhe,
bkpht cucus abrabgh ghpht kblbkpht` guh susulhl sphs`he yhlc ul`f sbm`lcch hshk hk`li
kbk`e`f` guh fbkulcf`lhl stbrbi`sikbr. Fhrblh ahyhlchl obrk`llyh t`ghf ghpht
(Chkahr 1
 abrtukpufhl shtu shkh eh`l (Chkahr 1),
), kbrbfh kbkabltuf shehm shtu jbl`s stbrbi`sikbr yhlc
g`sbaut blhlt`ikbr. _bkuh kiebfue yhlc kbk`e`f` pusht fm`rhe abrs`nht ipt`s hft`n, khfsuglyh
kbrbfh ghpht kbkuthr a`ghlc ohmhyh tbrpiehr`shs`.
Chkahr 1. _tbrbi`sikbr`skb phgh θ-hshk
θ -hshk
hk`li. (h) Guh stbrbi`sikbr`skb hehl`l, E-
ghl G-hehl`l, ahyhlchl obrk`llyh t`ghf
ghpht abrtukpufhl shtu shkh eh`l
(blhlt`ikbr). (a, o)  Guh filvbls` abrabgh
ultuf kbluljuffhl filn`curhs` phgh ruhlc
stbrbi`sikbr`skb. Thgh nirkueh pbrspbft`n
(a), `fhthl yhlc abrabltuf tbahe-ebahr
kbkpriybfs`fhl fb gbphl a`ghlc fbrths,
sbghlcfhl `fhthl putus-putus
kbkpriybfs`fhl fb abehfhlc a`ghlc fbrths.
Thgh nirkueh priybfs` (o), `fhthl mir`silthe

g`hsuks`fhl fb gbphl a`ghlc fbrths, `fhthl

vbrt`fhe g`hsuks`fhl fb abehfhlc a`ghlc
fbrths. Lhkul, nirkueh priybfs` sbr`lc
g`culhfhl sbohrh t`ghf rbsk` ghl t`ghf sbeheu
g`khfsugfhl ultuf kblcchkahrfhl sbauhm
filn`curhs` stbrbif`k`h spbs`n`f. (_ukabr :
 Lbesil, G. E., Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix, K.
K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs in
a`iombk`stry. Khok`eehl) 
Khok`eehl) 

 Likblfehtur fmusus tbehm g`fbkahlcfhl ultuf kblbltufhl filn`curhs` kutehf

bkpht suast`tubl htik fhrail hs`kbtr`f. Filn`curhs` kutehf cueh sbgbrmhlh ghl hshk hk`li
g`abghfhl kbljhg` s`stbk G, E (Chkahr
(Chkahr ??),
), abrghshrfhl filn`curhs` kutehf t`ch fhrail cueh
ce`sbrhegbm`gh, sbauhm filvbls` g`usuefhl iebm Bk`e N`sombr phgh thmul 8=08. (N`sombr thmu
cucus hph yhlc abrhgh g` sbf`thr fhrail hs`kbtr`f
hs`kbt r`f ce`sbrhegbm`gh lhkul kblbahf filn`curhs`
kutehflyh6 g`h kblbahf fb fhlhl, yhlc fbkug`hl g`filn`rkhs` iebm hlhe`s`s g`nrhfs` s`lhr x).
Rltuf sbkuh sblyhwh fm`rhe, stbrbi`sikbr`skb kbk`e`f` sbauhm filn`curhs` yhlc
 abrmuaulchl gblchl E-ce`sbrhegbm`gh yhlc g`gbsh`l sbahch` E , ghl stbrbi`sikbr`skb yhlc
 abrmuaulchl gblchl G-ce`sbrhegbm`gh yhlc g`gbsh`l sbahch` G.

Cucus nulcs` E-hehl`l g`oioiffhl gblchl cucus nulcs` phgh E-ce`sbrhegbm`gh

E-ce`s brhegbm`gh gblchl
ohrh kblsbjhjhrfhl cucus nulcs` tbrsbaut yhlc ghpht g`pbrtufhrfhl shtu shkh eh`l kbeheu` shtu
ehlcfhm rbhfs` f`k`h
f`k`h yhlc sbgbrmhlh. Cucus fhraifs`e phgh E-hehl`l phgh phgh fhrail fm`rhe
kblbkpht` pis`s` yhlc shkh sbpbrt` cucus hegbm`g phgh E-ce`sbrhegbm`gh, fhrblh sbauhm
hegbm`gh g`filvbrs` kbljhg` sbauhm cucus fhraifs`e kbeheu` shtu thmhp ifs`ghs`. Thgh zhkhl
ebvirithtir`  (kbkuthr a`ghlc ohmhyh
ghmueu, fbk`r`phl hlthrh gbsh`l E ghl G g`culhfhl ultuf ebvirithtir`
tbrpiehr`shs` fb f`r`) ghl gbfstririthtir` (kbkuthr a`ghlc ohmhyh fb fhlhl). Lhkul, t`ghf
sbkuh E-hshk hk`li hghehm ebvirithtir`, ghl filvbls` yhlc g`tuljuffhl phgh chkahr ?
g`autumfhl ultuf kblobchm pitbls` hka`cu tblthlc filn`curhs` kutehf. Gblchl filvbls`
 

N`sombr, E ghl G kbrujuf mhlyh phgh filn`curhs` kutehf bkpht suast`tubl g` sbf`thr fhrail
fm`rhe, aufhl s`nht ipt`s kiebfue.

E-Ce`sbrhegbm`gh G-Ce`sbrhegbm`gh

E-Hehl`l G-Hehl`l

Chkahr ?. Muaulchl stbr`f stbrbi`sikbr`skb hehl`l gblchl filn`curhs` kutehf E-

ghl G-ce`sbrhegbm`gh. Thgh nirkueh pbrspbft`n `l`, fhrail-fhrail g`tue`s sbohrh vbrt`fhe,
gblchl htik fm`rhe phgh pusht. Fhrail-fhrail phgh kiebfue-kiebfue `l` g`abr` likir kueh`
ghr` fhrail hegbm`gh hthu fhraifs`e tbrk`lhe (kbrhm), 8 fb ? ghr` hths fb ahwhm sbpbrt`
g`tuljuffhl phgh chkahr. Fbt`fh g`chkahrfhl sbpbrt` ohrh `l`, cucus Q hshk hk`li (phgh
fhsus `l` cucus kbt`e phgh hehl`l) sbeheu g` ahwhm fhrail θ. E-hshk
E -hshk hk`li hghehm cucus θ- θ-
G- hshk hk`li hghehm cucus θ-hk`li
hk`li g` sbabehm f`r`, ghl G-hshk θ -hk`li g` sbabehm fhlhl. (_ukabr :
 Lbesil, G. E., Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix, K. K. (144=).  Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs a `iombk`stry .
pr`l o`pebs in a`iombk`stry
Khok`eehl)

_ihe Eht`mhl 8

8.  O`true`l yhlc g``siehs` ghr` sbkhlcfh kbk`e`f` struftur sbpbrt` g` ahwhm `l`. Hphfhm
tbrkhsuf G- hthu E- hshk hk`li9 Jbehsfhl

1.  _truftur hshk hk`li `siebus`l hghehm sbahch` abr`fut

h.  Abrhph ahlyhf pusht fm`rhe yhlc g`k`e`f`9

 a.  Abrhph ahlyhf `sikbr ipt`slyh9
o.  Chkahrfhl nirkueh pbrspbft`n sbkuh `sikbr ipt`s `siebus`l!
 

Rkphl Ahe`f

h. Obf jhwhahl sihe phgh Fulo` Jhwhahl

 a. J`fh l`eh` hlgh eba`m ghr` shkh gblchl 32% hlgh
hlgh g`lyhthfhl eueus.
o. J`fh l`eh` abeuk kbkblum` sthlghr fbeueushl, khfhl pbehjhr` fbkahe` tip`f `l` ghl
fbrjhfhl fbkahe` eht`mhl sihe.

Hshk Hk`li ghpht G`fehs`n`fhs`fhl abrghshrfhl Cucus Q

Tblcbthmuhl tblthlc s`nht-s`nht f`k`h hshk hk`li ukuk hghehm `lt` tblthlc
 pbkhmhkhl a`if`k`h. Wip`f `l` ghpht g`sbgbrmhlhfhl gblchl ohrh kbkahc` hshk hk`li fb
( Whabe 8),
ghehk e`kh fbeikpif uthkh abrghshrfhl s`nht-s`nht cucus Q (Whabe 8), fmususlyh piehr`ths,
hthu fboblgbrulchl ultuf abr`ltbrhfs` gblchl h`r phgh pM a`ieic`s (kblgbfht` pM 3,4).
Tiehr`ths cucus Q shlcht abrvhr`hs`, ghr` lilpiehr ghl m`grinia`f (t`ghf ehrut ghehk h`r)
h`r ) m`lcch
shlcht piehr ghl m`grin`e`f (ehrut ghehk h`r). Ababrhph hshk hk`li sbg`f`t sue`t ultuf
g`fhrhftbr`shs` hthu t`ghf sbsuh`
s bsuh` gblchl sbauhm fbeikpif, tbruthkh ce`s`l, m`st`g`l, ghl s`stb`l.
Tblbkphthllyh phgh fbeikpif-fbeikpif tbrtbltu g`ghshrfhl phgh sbjukehm pbrt`kahlchl,
 aufhl mhe yhlc hasieut.

_truftur 14 hshk hk`li ukuk g`tuljuffhl phgh Chkahr 77,, ghl ababrhph
s`nht-s`nhtlyh tbrohltuk phgh Whabe 8.
8. G` ghehk khs`lc-khs`lc fbeikpif tbrghpht crhghs`
 piehr`ths, ufurhl ghl abltuf cucus
cucus Q.
 

 
Chkahr 7. Guh pueum hshk hk`li ukuk pritb`l. Qukus struftur kbluljuffhl
fbhghhl `il`shs` yhlc kblgik`lhs` phgh pM 3,4. Ahc`hl yhlc g`hrs`r whrlh kbrhm kugh
hghehm cucus Q. Shehupul cucus Q phgh m`st`g`l t`ghf abrkuhthl, l`eh`  pF h sbgbk`f`hl fbo`e
lhkul ahc`hl s`cl`n`fhl cucus `l` abrkuhthl pis`t`n phgh pM 3,4. (_ukabr :  Lbesil, G. E.,
Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix, K. K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs
pr`lo`p ebs in a`iombk`stry . Khok`eehl) 

Lilpiehr, Cucus He`nht`f Q

Cucus Q phgh fbeikpif hshk hk`li `l` abrs`nht lilpiehr ghl m`grinia`f. Qhlth`
shkp`lc hehl`l, vhe`l, ebus`l ghl `siebus`l oblgbrulc kbkabltuf fehstbr g` ghehk pritb`l ghl
kblstha`efhl struftur pritb`l kbeheu` `ltbrhfs` m`grinia`f. Ce`s`l kbk`e`f` struftur phe`lc
sbgbrmhlh. Shehupul hshk-hshk hk`li tbrsbaut kughm g`fbeikpiffhl ghehk hshk hk`li
lilpiehr, rhlth` shkp`lc yhlc shlcht fbo`e t`ghf abrfiltr`aus` phgh `ltbrhfs` m`grinia`f.
Kbt`il`l, shehm shtu ghr` guh hshk hk`li yhlc kblchlgulc suenur, kbk`e`f` cucus t`ibtbr
 phgh rhlth` shkp`lclyh. Trie`l kbk`e`f` sbauhm rhlth` shkp`lc he`nht`f gblchl struftur s`fe`f
yhlc fmhs. Cucus hk`li sbfulgbr (`k`li) rbs`gu prie`l g`thmhl ghehk filnirkhs` fhfu yhlc
kblcurhlc` nebfs`a`e`ths strufturhe ahc`hl pie`pbpt`gh yhlc kblchlgulc prie`l.
 

Cucus Q Hrikht`f

Nbl`ehehl`l, t`ris`l, ghl tr`ptinhl, ghl rhlth` shkp`lc hrikht`flyh abrs`nht lilpiehr
(m`grinia`f). _bkuh ahc`hl ghpht abrfiltr`aus` phgh `ltbrhfs` m`grinia`f. Cucus m`grifs`e
 phgh t`ris`l ghpht kbkabltuf `fhthl m`gricbl. Cucus tbrsbaut kbruphfhl cucus nulcs` yhlc
 pblt`lc phgh ababrhph blz`k. W`ris`l ghl tr`ptinhl sbohrh s`cl`n`fhl eba`m piehr ghr`phgh
nbl`ehehl`l, fhrblh hghlyh cucus m`grifs`e phgh t`ris`l ghl l`tricbl phgh o`lo`l `lgie tr`ptinhl.

Wr`ptinhl ghl t`ris`l, ghl phgh t`lcfht yhlc jhum eba`m rblghm, nbl`ehehl`l, kblybrhp
(Chkahr 2
s`lhr uetrhv`iebt (Chkahr 2).
). Mhe `l` kbljbehsfhl fhrhftbr`st`f fuht ghehk kblybrhp ohmhyh
iebm sbahc`hl abshr pritb`l phgh phljhlc cbeikahlc 1=4 lk, sbauhm s`nht yhlc g`bfspei`ths`
iebm phrh pblbe`t` ghehk fhrhftbr`shs` pritb`l.

Chkahr 2. Tblybrhphl s`lhr uetrhv`iebt iebm hshk hk`li hrikht`f (_ukabr : Lbesil,
:  Lbesil, G. E.,
Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix, K. K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs
pr`lo`p ebs in a`iombk`stry . Khok`eehl) 
 

Tiehr, Cucus Q W`ghf Abrkuhthl

Cucus Q phgh hshk hk`li g` fbeikpif `l` eba`m kughm ehrut ghehk h`r, hthu eba`m
m`grin`e`f, ghr`phgh hshk-hshk hk`li lilpiehr, fhrblh kbk`e`f` cucus nulcs` yhlc
kbkabltuf `fhthl m`gricbl gblchl h`r. Fbeikpif hshk hk`li `l` kbe`put` sbr`l, trbil`l,
s`stb`l, hsphrhc`l, ghl ceuthk`l. Tiehr`ths sbr`l ghl trbil`l g`sukahlcfhl iebm cucus
m`grifs`elyh, sbghlcfhl phgh hsphrhc`l ghl ceuthk`l g`sukahlcfhl iebm cucus hk`gh. _`stb`l
hghehm shehm shtu pblcbouhe`hl fhrblh piehr`thslyh, g`sukahlcfhl iebm cucus suen`gr`e yhlc
oufup sbgbrmhlh. _`stb`l kbruphfhl hshk ebkhm ghl ghpht kbkabltuf `fhthl m`gricbl yhlc
ebkhm gblchl ifs`cbl hthu l`tricbl.

Hsphrhc`l ghl ceuthk`l hghehm hk`gh guh hshk hk`li eh`llyh yhlc juch g`tbkufhl
ghehk pritb`l-hsphrtht ghl ceuthkht- yhlc khlh hsphrhc`l ghl ceuthk`l kughm g`m`grie`s`s
iebm hshk hthu ahsh. _`stb`l kughm g`ifs`ghs` ultuf kbkabltuf hshk hk`li g`kbr yhlc
 abr`fhthl sbohrh fivhebl yhlc g`sbaut s`st`l, g` khlh guh kiebfue s`stb`l hthu rbs`gu
(Chkahr >).
g`muaulcfhl iebm `fhthl g`suen`gh (Chkahr >). Qbs`gu yhlc g`muaulcfhl iebm g`suen`gh shlcht
m`grinia`f (lilpiehr). @fhthl g`suen`gh kbkh`lfhl pbrhl yhlc shlcht pblt`lc ghehk ahlyhf
struftur pritb`l gblchl ohrh kbkabltuf `fhthl fivhebl hlthrh ahc`hl-ahc`hl sbauhm kiebfue
 pie`pbpt`gh hthu hlthrh guh rhlth` pie`pbpt`gh yhlc abrabgh.

Chkahr >. Tbkabltufhl rbvbrs`aeb   `fhthl g`suen`gh kbeheu` rbhfs` ifs`ghs` guh kiebfue
s`stb`l (_ukabr : Lbesil,
: Lbesil, G. E., Ebml`lcbr,
Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix, K. K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs

in a`iombk`stry. Khok`eehl) 
Cucus Q Abrkuhthl Tis`t`n (Ahsh)

_bahc`hl abshr cucus Q m`grin`e`f abrkuhthl pis`t`n hthu lbcht`n. Hshk hk`li yhlc
kbk`e`f` kuhthl pis`t`n yhlc s`cl`n`fhl phgh cucus Q-lyh phgh pM 3,4 hghehm e`s`l, kbk`e`f`
sbauhm cucus hk`li pr`kbr fbguh phgh pis`s` β cucus he`nht`flyh6 hrc`l`l, kbk`e`f` sbauhm
cucus cuhl`g`uk yhlc abrkuhthl pis`t`n6 ghl m`st`g`l yhlc kbk`e`f` sbauhm cucus `k`ghzie
hrikht`f. _bahch` shtu-shtulyh hshk hk`li ukuk yhlc kbk`e`f` rhlth` shkp`lc tbr`il`shs`
gblchl l`eh` pF h kblgbfht` lbtrhe, m`st`g`l kulcf`l abrkuhthl pis`t`n (abltuf tbrpritil`shs`)
hthu t`ghf abrkuhthl phgh pM 3,4. Qbs`gulyh kbknhs`e`ths` ahlyhf rbhfs` fhthe`s blz`k gblchl
ohrh abrt`lghf sbahch` gilir pritil hthu hfsbptir.

Cucus Q Abrkuhthl Lbcht`n (Hshk)

Guh hshk hk`li yhlc kbk`e`f` cucus Q ghl kuhthl tithe lbcht`n phgh pM 3,4 hghehm
hsphrtht ghl ceuthkht, fbguhlyh kbk`e`f` sbauhm cucus fhraifs`e fbguh.  
 

Hshk Hk`li Whf Rkuk Juch Kbk`e`f` Nulcs` yhlc Tblt`lc

_beh`l 14 hshk hk`li ukuk, pritb`l kulcf`l kblchlgulc rbs`gu yhlc g`abltuf
( Chkahr
kbeheu` kig`n`fhs` rbs`gu ukuk yhlc tbehm tbrchaulc g` ghehk sbauhm pie`pbpt`gh (Chkahr
3h).
3h ). Hshk-hshk hk`li thf ukuk `l` hlthrh eh`l 7-m`grifs`prie`l, sbauhm turulhl prie`l, ghl
2-m`grifs`e`s`l, g`turulfhl ghr` e`s`l. 7-m`grifs`prie`l g`tbkufhl ghehk pritb`l g`lg`l sbe
tukaumhl sbghlcfhl fbguhlyh g`tbkufhl ghehk fiehcbl, pritb`l abrsbrht ghr` jhr`lchl `fht.
>- L 
 L -kbt`ee`s`l
-kbt`ee`s`l hghehm pblyusul k`is`l, pritb`l filtrhft`e itit. Hshk hk`li thf ukuk yhlc
 pblt`lc eh`llyh ο-fhraifs`ceuthkht,
ο-fhraifs`ceuthkht, g`tbkufhl ghehk pritrika`l pritb`l pbkabfu ghrhm ghl
kblc`fht Oh1+ sbahch` ahc`hl nulcs` a`ieic`slyh. Hshk
 phgh pritb`l tbrtbltu eh`llyh yhlc kblc`fht
hk`li yhlc eba`m fikpebfs hghehm gbskis`l, sbauhm
sb auhm turulhl bkpht rbs`gu  Eys yhlc
g`tbkufhl phgh behst`l pritb`l abrsbrht.

_beblis`stb`l hghehm mhe fmusus. Qbs`gu hshk hk`li ehlcfh `l` g`khsuffhl sbehkh
s`ltbs`s pritb`l ghr`phgh g`auht kbeheu` sbauhm kig`n`fhs` pist-s`ltbs`s. Hshk hk`li `l`
kblchlgulc sbebl`uk, aufhllyh suenur s`stb`l. G`turulfhl ghr` s`stb`l, sbeblis`stb`l hghehm
filst`tubl ghr` sbg`f`t pritb`l tbehm g`fbthmu`.

Ababrhph rbs`gu hshk hk`li ghehk sbauhm pritb`l kulcf`l g`kig`n`fhs` sbkblthrh
ultuf kblcuahm nulcs` pritb`l. Tblhkahmhl nisnir`e, kbt`e, hsbt`e, hgbl`e`e, HGT-r`ais`e, hthu
cucus eh`llyh kbljhg` rbs`gu hshk hk`li tbrtbltu ghpht kbl`lcfhtfhl hthu kblurulfhl
( Chkahr 3a
hft`v`ths sbauhm pritb`l (Chkahr 3a).
). Nisnir`ehs` hghehm sbauhm kig`n`fhs` pblchturhl
ukuk. Kig`n`fhs` fivhebl sbahch` strhtbc` pblchturhl sbauhm pritb`l g`ahmhs eba`m gbth`e g`
 aha eh`llyh.

_bf`thr ?44 hshk hk`li thkahmhl tbehm g`tbkufhl g` ghehk sbe. Kbrbfh kbk`e`f`
 abrahch` nulcs` lhkul t`ghf sbkuhlyh kbruphfhl filst`tubl pritb`l. Irl`t`l ghl o`truee`l
3o)) kbk`e`f` ohththl fmusus fhrblh kbrbfh hghehm `ltbrkbg`bt fulo` (kbthaie`t)
(Chkahr 3o
ghehl a`is`ltbs`s hrc`l`l ghl s`feus urbh.
 

 
Chkahr 3. Hshk hk`li thf ukuk. (h) Cucus nulcs`
bfstrh g`thkahmfhl kbeheu` rbhfs` kig`n`fhs` yhlc
g`tuljuffhl gblchl whrlh kbrhm. Gbskis`l g`abltuf
kbeheu` bkpht rbs`gu Eys (rhlth` fhrail g`whrlh` kbrhm
tbrhlc). Tblcculhhl likir hthu murun Pulhl` phgh
lhkh g` struftur `l` kbluljuffhl htik fhrail yhlc
g`uahm. (a) Kig`n`fhs` rbvbrs`aeb hshk hk`li yhlc
tbre`aht ghehk pblchturhl hft`v`ths pritb`l. (o) Irl`tm`l
ghl o`truee`l yhlc t`ghf ghpht g`tbkufhl ghehk pritb`l,
hghehm `ltbrkbg`bt ghehk a`is`ltbs`s hrc`l`l ghl s`feus
: Lbesil, G. E., Ebml`lcbr,
urbh. (_ukabr : Lbesil, Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix,
Oix,
K. K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs in a`iombk`stry
a`iombk`stry.
Khok`eehl) 
 

Hshk Hk`li ghpht Abrt`lghf sbahch` Hshk ghl Ahsh

Cucus hk`li ghl fhraifs`e phgh hshk hk`li, sbrth

sbrt h cucus Q tbr`il`shs` phgh ababrhph
hshk hk`li, abrnulcs` sbahch` hshk ghl ahsh ebkhm. Fbt`fh hshk hk`li yhlc fbfurhlchl
cucus Q tbr`il`shs`, g`ehrutfhl ghehk h`r phgh pM lbtrhe, hshk hk`li tbrsbaut abrabltuf `il
g`piehr g` ghehk ehruthl, hthu zw`ttbr`il (ahmhsh Jbrkhl ultuf ―`il m`ar`gh‛), yhlc ghpht
 abrt`lghf sbahch` hshk hthu ahsh (Chkahr =). =). _blyhwh yhlc kbk`e`f` fbguh s`nht tbrsbaut
(hshk-ahsh) abrs`nht hknitbr`f ghl sbr`lc g`sbaut sbahch` hknie`t (ghr` ―bebftrie`t hknitbr‛).
_bauhm kilihk`li kilif hraifs`e
hraifs`e θ-hshk
θ-hshk hk`li sbgbrmhlh, oiltimlyh hehl`l, hghehm hshk
g`prit`f fbt`fh tbrpritilhs` sbkpurlh6 kbk`e`f` guh cucus, cucus -OIIM ghl cucus -LM ?+,
ghl ghpht kblcmhs`efhl pritil:

Chkahr =. Abltuf lil`il`f ghl zw`ttbr`il`f hshk hk`li (_ukabr : Lbesil,

: Lbesil, G. E.,
Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix, K. K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs
pr`lo`pe bs in a`iombk`stry . Khok`eehl)
 

_ihe Eht`mhl 1

8.  Thgh pM yhlc shkh gblchl t`t`f `sibebftr`f hehl`l, kuhthl tithe hehl`l hghehm lie. Guh
struftur ghpht g`chkahrfhl yhlc kbk`e`f` kuhthl tithe lie, lhkul abltuf gik`lhl
hehl`l phgh p@ hghehm zw`ttbr`il

h.  Kblchph hehl`l gik`lhl abrabltuf sbahch` zw`ttbr`il ghr`phgh t`ghf abrkuhthl
shkh sbfhe` phgh t`t`f p@
 a.  Hph ahc`hl ghr` hehl`l yhlc ghehk abltuf t`ghf abrkuhthl shkh sbfhe` phgh t`t`f
 p@9 Abr`fhl hehshl!

Rkphl Ahe`f

h. Obf jhwhahl sihe phgh Fulo` Jhwhahl

 a. J`fh l`eh` hlgh eba`m ghr` shkh gblchl 32% hlgh
hlgh g`lyhthfhl eueus.
o. J`fh l`eh` abeuk kbkblum` sthlghr fbeueushl, khfhl pbehjhr` fbkahe` tip`f `l` ghl
fbrjhfhl fbkahe` eht`mhl sihe.
Hshk Hk`li Kbk`e`f` Fhrhftbr`st`f Furvh W`trhs`

W`trhs` hshk-ahsh kbe`ahtfhl pblhkahmhl abrthmhp hthu pblcm`ehlchl pritil.

Chkahr 0 kbluljuffhl furvh t`trhs` abltuf g`prit`f ce`s`l. Guh cucus tbr`il`shs` ce`s`l, cucus
fhraifs`e ghl cucus hk`li, g`t`trhs` gblchl ahsh fuht sbpbrt` LhIM. Teit kbk`e`f` guh thmhp
yhlc abrabgh, sbsuh` gblchl gbpritilhs` guh cucus yhlc abrabgh phgh ce`s`l. Khs`lc-khs`lc
thmhp kblybruph` abltuf furvh t`trhs` hshk kiliprit`f, oiltimlyh hshk hsbtht, ghl ghpht
g`hlhe`s`s gblchl ohrh yhlc shkh. Thgh pM yhlc shlcht rblghm, spbs` `il`f ce`s`l yhlc phe`lc
gik`lhl hghehm abltuf tbrpritilhs` sbeurumlyh, +M? L-OM1-OIIM. Thgh thmhp pbrthkh t`trhs`,
cucus -OIIM ce`s`l fbm`ehlchl pritil. Thgh t`t`f tblchm thmhp `l`, tbrghpht filsbltrhs`
bqu`kiehr spbs` gilir pritil (+M? L-OM1-OIIM) ghl hfsbptir pritil ( +M? L-OM1-OII-).
_bpbrt` ghehk t`trhs` hshk ebkhm, t`t`f `lnebfs` tbrohph` phgh t`t`f tblchm `l` g` khlh pM shkh
gblchl pF h cucus tbrpritilhs` yhlc
yhlc g`t`trhs`. Rltuf ce`s`l, pM phgh t`t`f tblchm hghehm 1,?7,
 jhg` cucus -OIIMlyh kbk`e`f`  pF h  (tbrtue`s pF 8 phgh Chkahr 0) 0) sbabshr 1,?7. _hht t`trhs`
ce`s`l abrehljut, t`t`f pblt`lc eh`llyh tbrohph` phgh pM 2,03. W`t`f `l` hghehm t`t`f `lnebfs`
eh`llyh , g` khlh pbebphshl pritil pbrthkh phgh ghshrlyh sbebsh` ghl pbebphshl pritil fbguh
 ahru shjh g`kueh`. Thgh pM `l` ce`s`l fbahlyhfhl hgh ghehk abltuf `il g`piehr (zw`ttbr`il)
+
M? L-OM1-OII-. F`th sbah`flyh fbkahe` kbly`khf tblthlc hrt` t`t`f `lnebfs` phgh furvh
t`trhs` (tbrtue`s p@ phgh Chkahr 0
0).
).

Whmhp fbguh t`trhs` sbsuh` gblchl pbebphshl pritil ghr` cucus -LM?+ ce`s`l. pM phgh
t`t`f tblchm thmhp `l` hghehm 0,>4, shkh gblchl pF h (pF 1 tbrtue`s phgh Chkahr 0
0)) ultuf cucus
+
-LM? . W`trhs` phgh ghshrlyh sbebsh` phgh pM sbf`thr 81, g` khlh abltuf ce`s`l yhlc
kblgik`lhs` hghehm M1 L-OM1-OII-.
 

 
Chkahr 0. W`trhs` 4,8 K ce`s`l phgh 12 iO. _pbs` `il`f yhlc kblgik`lhs` phgh t`t`f fulo`
t`trhs` g`tuljuffhl phgh crhn`f. Fithf a`ru kugh yhlc tbrebthf phgh p F 8 ; 1.?7 ghl pF 1 ; 0,>4
kblc`lg`fhs`fhl ghbrhm fbfuhthl aunnbr tbrt`lcc`. Ohththl : 8 bfu`vhebl IM - ; 4,8 K LhIM
: Lbesil, G. E., Ebml`lcbr,
yhlc g`thkahmfhl. (_ukabr : Lbesil, Ebml`lcbr, H. E., & Oix, K. K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr
a`io mbk`stry. Khok`eehl) 
 pr`lo`pebs in a`iombk`stry

Ghr` furvh t`trhs` ce`s`l, f`th ghpht kbkpbriebm ababrhph `lnirkhs`

` lnirkhs` pblt`lc. Tbrthkh,
mhe `l` kbkabr`fhl sbauhm pblcufurhl fuhlt`tht`n khs`lc-khs`lc
kh s`lc-khs`lc pF h guh cucus `il`shs`: 1,?7
+
ultuf cucus -OIIM ghl 0,>4 ultuf cucus -LM? . _bahch` ohththl cucus fhraifs`e ce`s`l 844
fhe` eba`m hshk (eba`m kughm tbr`il`shs`) ghr`phgh cucus fhraifs`e hshk hsbtht yhlc kbk`e`f`
 pF h  sbabshr 7,3>- l`eh` pF h  g` khlh rhth-rhth sbauhm cucus fhraifs`e abr`fhthl phgh
m`grifhrail he`nht`f yhlc t`ghf tbrsuast`tus`. L`eh` p F h ce`s`l abrcbsbr g`sbahafhl iebm tiehfhl
hlthrh pritil yhlc tbrebphs gblchl cucus hk`li abrkuhthl pis`t`n yhlc abrhgh g` gbfhtlyh
 phgh θ-htik fhrail, sbpbrt` g`gbsfr`ps`fhl phgh Chkahr 84. 84. Kuhthl abrehwhlhl phgh
zw`ttbr`il yhlc g`mhs`efhl kblstha`efhl. Gbk`f`hl pueh, l`eh` p F h cucus hk`li phgh ce`s`l
 abrcbsbr fb ahwhm rbeht`n tbrmhghp rhth-rhth pF h sbauhm cucus hk`li. Bnbf `l` g`sbahafhl iebm
bebftrilbcht`v`ths htik-htik ifs`cbl phgh cucus fhraifs`e, yhlc oblgbrulc kblhr`f bebftril-
be bftril-
bebftril fb hrhmlyh, kbl`lcfhtfhl fboblgbrulchl cucus hk`li ultuf kbebphsfhl sbauhm
 pritil. Jhg`, cucus θ-hk`li
θ-hk`li kbk`e`f` l`eh` pF h eba`m rblghm ghr`phgh hk`lh he`nht`f sbpbrt`
(Chkahr 84).
kbt`ehk`l (Chkahr 84). _`lcfhtlyh, l`eh` pF h cucus nulcs` shlcht g`pblchrum` iebm
e`lcfulchl f`k`hlyh, sbauhm nblikblh sbr`lcfhe` g`bfspeirhs` phgh s`s` hft`n blz`k ultuf

kbkprikis`fhl kbfhl`skb rbhfs` yhlc g`sbsuh`fhl gblchl ah`f abrchltulc phgh pbrcbsbrhl
pbrcbsbr hl
l`eh` pF h cucus gilir hthu hfsbptir pritil rbs`gu spbs`n`f.
 

 
: Lbesil, G. E., Ebm
Chkahr 84. Bnbf e`lcfulchl f`k`h phgh l`eh` p F h (_ukabr : Lbesil, Ebml`lcbr,
l`lcbr, H. E.,
& Oix, K. K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr pr`lo`pebs
pr`lo`pe bs in a`iombk`stry . Khok`eehl) 

@lnirkhs` fbfuhthl
tbrsbaut kbk`e`f` fbguh yhlc a`shg`
aunnbr f`th
guhghphtfhl
ahc`hl. ghr`
_hehmfurvh t`trhs`rbeht`n
shtulyh ce`s`lgblchl
hghehm ahc`hl
hshk hk`li
ghthr
furvh, kbebahr f`rh-f`rh 8 pM ul`t g` fbguh s`s` phgh p F h 1,?7, kblc`lg`fhs`fhl ahmwh ce`s`l
hghehm aunnbr yhlc ah`f phgh pM tbrsbaut. S`ehyhm aunnbr eh`llyh hghehm abrpusht sbf`thr pM
0,>4. (_bahch` ohththl, ce`s`l aufhl aunnbr yhlc ah`f phgh pM oh`rhl `ltrhsbeuehr hthu ghrhm,
sbf`thr 3,7. Thgh rblthlc aunnbr ce`s`l, pbrshkhhl Mblgbrsil-Mhssbeahom ghpht g`culhfhl
ultuf kblcm`tulc pripirs` spbs` gilir pritil ghl hfsbptir pritil ce`s`l yhlc g`autumfhl
ultuf kbkauht sbauhm aunnbr phgh pM yhlc g``lc`lfhl.

Furvh W`trhs` Kbkprbg`fs` Kuhthl Bebftril Hshk Hk`li

@lnirkhs` pblt`lc eh`llyh yhlc a`sh g`ghphtfhl ghr` furvh t`trhs` hshk hk`li hghehm
muaulchl hlthrh kuhthl tithelyh gblchl pM ehruthl. Thgh pM 2,03, t`t`f `lnebfs` hlthrh guh
thmhp phgh furvh t`trhs` ce`s`l g`gik`lhs` iebm abltuf g`piehr, tbr`il`shs` sbkpurlh lhkul
(Chkahr 0).
t`ghf kbk`e`f` kuhthl tithe (Chkahr 0). pM fhrhftbr`st`f g` khlh kuhthl bebftril tithelyh lie
g`sbaut t`t`f `sibebftr`f hthu pM `sibebftr`f, g`s`lcfht p@. Rltuf ce`s`l yhlc t`ghf kbk`e`f`
cucus tbr`il`shs` phgh rhlth` shkp`lclyh, t`t`f `sibebftr`flyh hghehm rhth-rhth hr`tkht`fh guh
l`eh` pF h :

_bahch` auft` g` Chkahr 0,

0, ce`s`l kbk`e`f` kuhthl tithe lbcht`n phgh pM g` hths p@
ghl hfhl abrcbrhf fb hrhm bebftrigh pis`t`n (hligh) fbt`fh g`tbkphtfhl phgh sbauhm kbghl
bebftr`f. Thgh pM g` ahwhm p@, ce`s`l kbk`e`f` kuhthl tithe pis`t`n ghl hfhl abrcbrhf fb hrhm
bebftrigh lbcht`n (fhtigh). _bkhf`l abshr sbe`s`m pM phgh ehruthl ce`s`l gblchl t`t`f
t`t` f `sibebftr`f,
sbkhf`l abshr kuhthl bebftril tithe kiebfue ce`s`l. _bahch` oiltim phgh pM 8,4 sbahc`hl abshr
+
ce`s`l kuloue gblchl abltuf M? L-OM1-OIIM gblchl kuhthl tithe sbabshr 8,4. Thgh pM
1,?7, tbrghpht ohkpurhl +M? L-OM1-OIIM ghl +M? L-OM1-OII- gblchl jukehm yhlc shkh
 

 ahlyhf sbrth kuhthl tithe sbabshr 4,2. Whlgh ghl abshrhl kuhthl tithe hshk hk`li phgh
 abrahch` pM ghpht g`prbg`fs` gblchl ohrh yhlc shkh.

Hshk Hk`li Kbk`e`f` Tbrabghhl _`nht Hshk Ahsh

_`nht yhlc shkh-shkh g`k`e`f` iebm ahlyhf hshk hk`li kbkulcf`lfhl ababrhph
 pblybgbrmhlhhl tblthlc pbr`ehfu hshk-ahsh kbrbfh. Tbrthkh, sbkuh hshk hk`li gblchl shtu
cucus θ-hk`li, shtu cucus θ-fhraifs`e, ghl cucus Q yhlc t`ghf tbr`il`shs` kbk`e`f` furvh
t`trhs` yhlc kblybruph` ce`s`l (Chkahr 0). Hshk hk`li `l` shlcht k`r`p lhkul l`eh` pF h t`ghf
`gblt`f: pF h cucus -OIIM phgh rblthlc 8,= shkph` 1,7, ghl p F h cucus -LM?+ phgh rblthlc
=,= m`lcch 88,4 (Whabe 8). Tbrabghhl l`eh` p F h  `l` kbluljuffhl e`lcfulchl f`k`h yhlc
g`sbahafhl iebm cucus Q. Fbguh, hshk hk`li gblchl cucus Q tbr`il`shs` kbk`e`f` furvh t`trhs`
yhlc eba`m fikpebfs, gblchl t`ch thmhp yhlc kbluljuffhl t`ch thmhp fbkulcf`lhl `il`shs`6
sbm`lcch kbk`e`f` t`ch l`eh` p F h. Whmhp thkahmhl phgh t`trhs` cucus Q tbr`il`shs`
kblcchaulcfhl ababrhph thmhphl ultuf t`trhs` cucus θ- θ-fhraifs`e, t`trhs` θ-hk`li,
θ-hk`li, hthu
fbguhlyh. Furvh t`trhs` ultuf guh hshk hk`li t`pb `l`, ceuthkht ghl m`st`g`l, g`tuljuffhl phgh
Chkahr 88, sbg`f`t eba`m rblghm ghr`phgh ce`s`l. Mhe `l` fhrblh hghlyh guh cucus fhraifs`e
yhlc (l`eh` rhth-rhth pF h sbabshr ?,11)
?,11) abrfiltr`aus` phgh kuhthl tithe -8 yhlc kblstha`efhl
+8 yhlc g`sukahlc iebm cucus hk`li. Gbk`f`hl pueh, l`eh` p@ m`st
m`st`g`l,
`g`l, gblchl guh cucus yhlc
 abrkuhthl pis`t`n fbt`fh tbrpritilhs`, sbabshr 3,20 (l`eh` rhth-rhth pF h  cucus hk`li ghl

`k`ghzie), eba`m t`lcc` ghr`phgh ce`s`l.

Chkahr 88. Furvh t`trhs` (h) ceuthkht ghl (a) m`st`g`l. L`eh` p F h cucus Q g`tuljuffhl
: Lbesil, G. E., Ebml`lc
gblchl pF Q (_ukabr : Lbesil, Ebml`lcbr,
br, H. E., & Oix, K. K. (144=). Ebml`lcbr
a`io mbk`stry. Khok`eehl) 
 pr`lo`pebs in a`iombk`stry

_bahch`khlh yhlc tbehm g`uthrhfhl sbabeuklyh, g` ahwhm fbhghhl ukuk gblchl

 phphrhl abahs ghl tbraufh m`lcch e`lcfulchl ehruthl, mhlyh m`s`t`g`l yhlc kbk`e`f` sbauhm
cucus Q (pF h ; >,4) sbm`lcch kbk`e`f` fbfuhthl aunnbr yhlc s`cl`n`fhl kblgbfht` pM lbtrhe
yhlc a`hshlyh g`tbkufhl phgh oh`rhl `ltrhsbeuehr ghl bfstrhsbeuehr
bfstrhsbeueh r phgh sbahc`hl abshr mbwhl
ghl ahftbr` (Whabe 8).
 

_ihe Eht`mhl ?

8.  844 kE ehruthl 4,8 K ce`s`l phgh pM 8,31 g`t`trhs` gblchl 1K ehruthl LhIM.
 pM g`hkht` ghl mhs`elyh g`peit sbpbrt` phgh crhn`f g` ahwhm `l`. W`t`f pblt`lc
pblt`lc
shht t`trhs` g`tuljuffhl iebm @ shkph` ^. Rltuf khs`lc-khs`lc
khs`lc-khs `lc pbrlyhthhl (h)
shkph` (i), `gblt`n`fhs` t`t`f pblt`lc yhlc sbsuh` phgh t`trhs` ghl abr`fhl
hehshllyh
+

h.   Ce`s`l
 a. Kuhthlsbahc`hl abshr ghehk
tithe rhth-rhth abltuf +8/1
ce`s`l hghehm spbs` M? L-OM1-OIIM
o.  _bphrum cucus hk`li tbrpritilhs`
g.   pM shkh gblchl pF h cucus fhraifs`e
b.   pM shkh gblchl pF h cucus hk`li tbrpritilhs`
n.  Ce`s`l kbk`e`f` fhphs`ths aunnbr khfs`kuk
c.  Kuhthl tithe rhth-rhth ce`s`l hghehm lie
m.  Cucus fhraifs`e tbehm g`t`trhs` sbeurumlyh (t`t`f bfu`vhebl pbrthkh)
`.  Ce`s`l g`t`trhs` sbeurumlyh (t`t`f bfu`vhebl fbguh)
 j.  _pbs` yhlc gik`lhl hghehm +M? L-OM1-OII- 
f.  Kuhthl tithe rhth-rhth ce`s`l hghehm -8
e.  Ce`s`l sbahc`hl abshr ghehk abltuf ohkpurhl 24:24 +M? L-OM1-OIIM ghl
+
M? L-OM1-OII- 
k.  @l` hghehm t`t`f `sibebftr`f
l.  @l` hghehm hfm`r t`trhs`
i.  @l` hghehm ghbrhm pM tbrauruf ultuf fbfuhthl aunnbr

1.  Khs`lc-khs`lc cucus tbr`il`shs` sbauhm hshk hk`li ghpht hgh phgh shehm shtu
 abltuf, abrkuhthl hthu lbtrhe. Kuhthl bebfril phgh cucus
cucus nulcs` g`abghfhl
 abrghshrfhl muaulchl hlthrh pF h ghl pM ehruthl. Muaulchl `l` g`jbehsfhl iebm
 pbrshkhhl Mblgbrsil-Mhssbeaheom.
h.  M`st`g`l kbk`e`f` t`ch cucus nulcs` tbr`il`shs`. Wue`sfhl pbrshkhhl

fbsbt`kahlchl ultuf t`ch `il`shs` ghl tbltufhl pF h yhlc tbpht phgh khs`lc-
khs`lc `il`shs`. Chkahr struftur m`st`g`l phgh khs`lc-khs`lc fbhghhl
 

`il`shs`. Abrhph kuhthl tithe kiebfue m`st`g`l phgh khs`lc-khs`lc fbhghhl

`il`shs`9
 a.  Chkahr struftur yhlc gik`lhl phgh fbhghhl `il`shs` m`st`g`l phgh pM 8, 7,
=, ghl 81. Tbrmht`fhl ahmwh fbhghhl `il`shs` ghpht g`pbrf`rhfhl gblchl ohrh
kbkpbrehfufhl t`hp cucus tbr`il`shs` sbohrh tbrp`shm.
o.  Abrhph kuhthl tithe m`st`g`l phgh pM 8, 7, =, ghl 819 Rltuf khs`lc-khs`lc
 pM, hfhlfhm m`st`g`l abrcbrhf fb
fb hligh (+) hthu fhtigh (-) fbt`fh
g`tbkphtfhl g` kbghl e`str`f9
Rkphl Ahe`f
h. Obf jhwhahl sihe phgh Fulo` Jhwhahl
 a. J`fh l`eh` hlgh eba`m ghr` shkh gblchl 32% hlgh g`lyhthfhl
g`lyhthfhl eueus.
o. J`fh l`eh` abeuk kbkblum` sthlghr fbeueushl, khfhl pbehjhr` fbkahe` tip`f `l` ghl
fbrjhfhl fbkahe` eht`mhl sihe.
 

Fulo` Jhwhahl
_ihe Eht`mhl 8
8.  Cucus θ-hk`li (-LM?+) abrhgh
  g` s`s` fhlhl sbm`lcch hshk hk`li
tbrsbaut tbrkhsuf G-hshk hk`li.
1.  h. 1

 a. 7

o.  

_ihe Eht`mhl 1

8.  h. _hht g`ehrutfhl ghehk h`r phgh pM lbtrhe, cucus hk`li ghl fhraifs`e
 phgh hehl`l hfhl tbr`il`shs` sbm`lcch kbkabltuf `il g`piehr hthu g`sbaut
g`sbaut
zw`ttbr`il, yhlc ghpht abrnulcs` sbahch` hshk ghl ahsh ebkhm

 a. Qhlth`
Qhlth` shkp`lclyh yhlc kbruphfhl cucus
cucus kbt`e. Fhrblh cucus kbt`e
 abrs`nht lilpiehr sbm`lcch t`ghf tbr`il`shs` phgh t`t`f `sibebftr`f.

_ihe Eht`mhl ?

8.  h : @,
@, fhrblh t`t`f `l` kbruphfhl
kbruphfhl pM yhlc shlcht rblghm, spbs` `il`f yhlc
 phe`lc gik`lhl hghehm abltuf `il tbrpritilhs` sbeurumlyh

 a. : @@, phgh t`t`f `l` tbrghpht ohkpurhl +M? L-OM1-OIIM (kuhthl tithe
+8) ghl +M? L-OM1-OII- (kuhthl tithe 4) gblchl jukehm yhlc shkh
sbm`lcch kuhthe tithe rhth-rhth hghehm +8/1

o : @^, phgh t`t`f `l` tbrghpht ohkpurhl +M? L-OM1-OII- ghl M1 L-OM1-

OII- ghehk jukehm yhlc shkh
 

g : @@,
@@, t`t`f `l` kbruphfhl t`t`f tblchm yhlc g`ohph` fbt`fh cucus -OIIM
g`tr`trhs` hthu fbm`ehlchl pritil.

@^, t`t`f `l` kbruphfhl t`t`f tblchm yhlc g`ohph` fbt`fh cucus -LM?+ 
b : @^,
g`tr`trhs` hthu fbm`ehlchl pritil.

n : @@ ghl @^, fhrblh ghbrhm `l`

`l` kbruphfhl
kbruphfhl ahc`hl ghthr furvh, kbebahr
f`rh-f`rh 8 pM ul`t g` fbguh s`s`

c : @@@, kbruphfhl t`t`f `sibebftr`f. _pbs` yhlc kblgik`lhs` hghehm

+
M? L-OM1-OII- 

m : @@@, spbs` gik`lhl phgh t`t`f `l` hghehm +M? L-OM1-OII- 

` : ^, spbs` gik`lhl phgh t`t`f `l` hghehm M1 L-OM1-OII- 

 j : @@@, `il ghehk abltuf tbrpritilhs` sbeurumly

sbeurumlyhh fhrblh ghehk pM shlcht
rblghm

f : @, spbs` yhlc gik`lhl hghehm M1 L-OM1-OII- 

e : @@, phgh t`t`f `l` sbahc`hl -OIIM fbm`ehlchl pritil sbm`lcch

tbrghpht ohkpurhl bqu`kiehr +M? L-OM1-OIIM ghl +M? L-OM1-OII- 

k : @@@, spbs` yhlc gik`lhl hghehm +M? L-OM1-OII- 

l : ^, cucus hk`li tbrpritilhs` yhlc sbeurumlyh kblchehk` pbebphshl

 pritil sbeurumlyh

i : @@@, kbruphfhl ahc`hl furvh

furvh yhlc
yhlc phe`lc ourhk, pblhkahmhl
pblhkahmhl sbg`f`t
hshk hthu ahsh hfhl kughm kblccbsbr pM

1. h.

8,=1 >,4 0,83

 

 a ghl o.

Tbrcbrhfhl
m`st`g`l fbt`fh
 pM _truftur Kuhthl Withe
g`tbkphtfhl g`
kuhthl e`str`f

8 +1 fhtigh

7 +8 fhtigh

= 4 W`ghf abrcbrhf

81 -8 hligh