ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 1: HUMAN ORGANISM
➢ ANATOMY: investigates body structure;
means to dissect.
➢ PHYSIOLOGY: investigates processes
and functions
➢ HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY: studies human
organism
➢ SYSTMEIC PHYSIOLOGY: study of body
organ-systems [function]
➢ CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY: studies body
cell.
➢ SYSTEMIC ANATOMY: studies body
organ- systems [structure]
➢ REGIONAL ANATOMY: studies body
region
➢ SURFACE ANATOMY: studies external
features ; bone projections
➢ ANATOMICAL IMAGING: using
technologies; x-rays,ultrasound, MRI
IMPORTANCE OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY:
➢ Understand how body:
➢ Respond to stimuli
➢ Environmental changes
➢ Environmental cues
➢ Diseases
➢ Injury
SIX LEVELS FROM CHEMICAL TO ORGANISM:
➢ CHEMICAL: smallest level; atoms,
chemical bonds, molecules
➢ CELLULAR: cells: basic unit of life;
compartment of organelles;
mitochondria, nucleus
➢ TISSUES: group cells with similar
structure and function; epithelial,
connective, muscular and nervous
➢ ORGANS: two or more tissue types
acting together to perform function(s);
stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder,
kidney
➢ ORGAN-SYSTEM: group of organs
contributing to some functions;
digestive system, reproductive system
➢ ORGANISM: all organ systems working
together
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
MAJOR ORGANS OF THE BODY:
➢ BRAIN
➢ SPINAL CORD
➢ LUNG
➢ HEART
➢ PANCREAS
➢ LIVEER
➢ GALLBLADDER
➢ KIDNEY
➢ LARGE INTESTINE
➢ URINARY BLADDER
➢ SPLEEN
➢ KIDNEY
➢ SMALL INTESTINE
ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY:
➢ INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM; skin
➢ SKELETAL SYSTEM; bones
➢ MUSCULAR SYSTEM; muscle
➢ NERVOUS SYSTEM; brain
➢ ENDOCRINE SYSTEM; hormones
➢ CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; heart
➢ LYMPATHIC SYSTEM; immune
➢ RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; lungs
➢ DIGESTIGVE SYSTEM; food intake
➢ URINARY SYSTEM; waste
➢ REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM; female and
male
CHARACTERISTIC OF LIFE
➢ ORGANIZATION: functional
interrelationships bet. parts
➢ METABOLISM: sum of all chemical and
physical changes in sustaining an
organism
➢ RESPONSIVENESS: ability to sense and
respond to environmental changes;
include both internal and external
environments
➢ GROWTH: can increase in size; size of
cells, group of cells, extracellular
materials
➢ DEVELOPMENT: changes in form and
size; changes in cell structure and
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function from generalized to specialized
-differentiation
➢ REPRODUCTION: formation of new cells
and new organism; generation of new
individuals; tissue repair
HOMEOSTASIS:
➢ Maintenance of constant internal
environment despite fluctuations in
both external and internal env.
➢ VARIABLES: measure of body properties
that may change in value; body temp.,
heart rate, BP, blood glucose level,
blood cell counts, respiratory rate
➢ NORMAL RANGE: normal extent of
increase or decrease around set point
➢ SET POINT: normal or average value of
variable; over time body temp.
fluctuates around set point.
➢ NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: main mechanism
used homeostatic regulation; involves
detection of deviation away from set
point and correction: reversal of
deviation away from set point and
normal range
➢ POSITIVE FEEDBACK: mechanisms
occurs when the initial stimulus further
stimulates the response; not directly
use for homeostasis; generally
associated with injury, disease;
childbirth
➢ RECEPTOR: detects changes in variable
➢ CONTROL CENTER: receives receptor
signal; establishes set point; send signal
to effector
➢ EFFECTOR: directly causes change in
variable
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
TERMINOLOGY AND BODY PLAN, DIRECTIONAL
TERM AND REGIONS
➢ ANATOMICAL POSITION: person
standing erect with face and palms
forward; all relational descriptions
based on the anatomical position,
regardless of body orientation
➢ SUPERIOR: above
➢ INFERIOR: below
➢ ANTERIOR: front; ventral
➢ POSTERIOR: back; dorsal
➢ MEDIAL: close to midline
➢ LATERAL: away from midline
➢ PROXIMAL: close to point of
attachment
➢ DISTAL: far from point of attachment
➢ SUPERFICIAL: structure close to surface
➢ DEEP: structure toward interior of the
body
➢ UPPER LIMBS: upper arm, forearm,
wrist, hand
➢ LOWER LIMBS: thigh, lower leg, ankle,
foot
➢ CENTRAL REGION: head, neck, trunk
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BODY PARTS:

➢ FRONTAL; forehead
➢ ORBITAL; eyes ➢ OCCIPITAL; base of skull
➢ NASAL; nose ➢ NUCHAL; back of neck
➢ ORAL; mouth ➢ CRANIAL; skull
➢ OTIC; ears ➢ ACROMIAL; point of shoulder
➢ BUCCAL; cheeks ➢ SCAPULAR; shoulder blade
➢ MENTAL; chin ➢ VERTEBRAL; spinal column
➢ CERVICAL; neck ➢ OLECRANON; point of elbow
➢ CLAVICULAR; collarbone ➢ DORSUM; back of the hand)
➢ AXILLARY; armpit ➢ LUMBAR; loin
➢ BRACHIAL; arm ➢ SACRAL; between hips
➢ ANTECUBITAL; front elbow ➢ GLUTEAL; buttock
➢ ANTEBRACHI; forearm ➢ PERINEAL; perineum
➢ PECTORAL; chest ➢ POPLITEAL; hollow behind knee
➢ STERNAL; breastbone ➢ SURAL; calf
➢ MAMMARY; breast ➢ PLANTAR; sole
➢ ABDOMINAL; abdomen ➢ CALCANEAL; heel
➢ UMBILICAL; navel
➢ PELVIC; pelvis SUBDIVSION OF ABDOMEN:
➢ INGUINAL; groin
➢ PUBIC; genital
➢ CARPAL; wrist
➢ PALMAR; palm
➢ DIGITAL; fingers
➢ COXAL; hip
➢ FEMORAL; thigh
➢ PATELLAR; kneecap
➢ CURAL; leg
➢ TALUS; ankle
➢ DORSUM; top of foot ➢ QUADRANT:
➢ DIGITAL; toes ➢ RIGHT UPPER
➢ LEFT UPPER
➢ RIGHT LOWER

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➢ LEFT LOWER BODY CAVITIES:

➢ REGION
➢ RIGHT HYPOCHRONDRIAC
➢ EPIGASTRIC
➢ LEFT HYPOCHONDRIAC
➢ RIGHT LUMBAR
➢ UMBILICAL
➢ LEFT LUMBAR
➢ RIGHT ILIAC
➢ HYPOGASTRIC
➢ LEFT ILIAC

BODY PLANES:

➢ DORSAL BODY CAVITY: encloses the

➢ SAGITTAL PLANE: separates the body
into right and left parts
➢ MEDIAN PLANE: a sagittal plane along
the midline that divides body into equal
left and right halves
➢ TRANSVERSE PLANE: horizontal plane
that separates the body into superior
and inferior parts
➢ FRONTAL PLANE: vertical plane that
separates the body into anterior and
posterior part
organs of the nervous system
➢ CRANIAL CAVITY: contains the brain
➢ VERTEBRAL CANAL: contains the spinal
cord
➢ VENTRAL BODY CAVITY: contains the
majority of internal organ (viscera);
thoracic and abdominopelvic
➢ ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY: divided into
abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity
➢ THORACIC CAVITY: space within chest
wall and diaphragm; heart, lungs,
thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
➢ MEDIASTINUM: space between lungs
➢ ABDOMINAL CAVITY: space between
diaphragm and pelvis
➢ PELVIC CAVITY: space within pelvis
SEROUS MEMBRANE:
➢ VISCERAL SEROUS MEMBRANE: covers
organs
➢ PARIETAL SEROUS MEMBRANE: lines
the wall of the cavities
➢ CAVITY: a fluid-filled space between the
membrane
➢ VISCERAL PERICARDIUM: covers heart
➢ PARIETAL PERICARDIUM: thick, fibrous
➢ PERICARDIAL CAVITY: reduces friction
➢ VISCERAL PLEURA: covers lungs
➢ PARIETAL PLEURA: lines inner wall of
thorax

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➢ PLUERAL CAVITY: reduces friction

➢ VISCERAL PERITONEUM: covers,
anchors organ
➢ PARIETAL PERITONEUM: lines inner
wall of abdominopelvic cavity
➢ PERITONEAL CAVITY: reduces friction

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CHAPTER 2: THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

BASIC CHEMISTRY
➢ MATTER: anything that occupies space
and has mass (solid, liquid and gas)
➢ MASS: amount of the matter in an
object
➢ WEIGHT: gravitational force acting on
object
➢ ELEMENT: simplest form of matter
➢ ATOMS: smallest particle of an element ➢ POLAR COVALENT BONDS: form when
➢ PROTON: positive charge there is an unequal sharing of electron
➢ NEUTRON: neutral charge between atoms of the bond
➢ ELECTRON: negative charge
➢ ATOMIC NUMBER: the number of
protons in each atom
➢ MASS NUMBER: the number of protons
and neutrons in each atom
➢ CHEMICAL BONDS: occur when
outermost electron is transferred or
shared; ionic, covalent, hydrogen
➢ IONS: charged atom formed because of
donation or gain of an electrons
➢ IONIC BONDING: occurs when there is
➢
an attraction between two oppositely ➢ POLAR MOLECULES: have an
charged ions asymmetrical electrical charge
➢ NON-POLAR MOLECULES: have a
symmetrical electrical charge, electrons
are shared equally.
➢ MOLECULES: 2 or more atoms
chemically combined
➢ COMPOUND: chemical combination of
2 or more different types of atoms
➢ INTEMOLECULAR FORCES: weak charge
attractions between separate molecules
➢ COVALENT BONDING: occurs when or between ions and molecules
atoms share one or more pair of
electrons
➢ HYDROGEN BONDING: forms when
positive end of one polar molecule is
weakly attracted to the negative polar

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end of another polar molecule; weaker
bond
➢ DISSOCIATION: when ionic compounds
dissolve in water they dissociate from
each other; can be called electrolytes.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
➢ Occur when there is a formation or
breaking of chemical bonds bet. Atoms,
ions, molecule, or compounds
➢ REACTANTS: substance that enter into
the reaction
➢ PRODUCTS: substance that result from
the reaction
➢ SYNTHESIS REACTION: build a new
molecule; energy requiring
➢ DECOMPOSITION REACTION: break
down molecule; energy releasing
➢ EXCHANGE REACTION: combination of
synthesis and decomposition
➢ REVERSIBLE REACTION: occur when the
reaction can run in the opposite
direction, so that products are
converted back to the original
reactants.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ EQUILIBRIUM: when the rate of
product formation is equal to the rate
of reactant formation
ENERGY
➢ Capacity to do work
➢ WORK: is the moving matter
➢ KINETIC ENERGY: energy in motion
➢ POTENTIAL ENERGY: stored energy
➢ CHEMICAL ENERGY: form of potential
energy story in chemical bonds
➢ CATALYST: increases the rate of
reaction without itself being changed or
depleted
➢ ENZYME: protein catalyst; work by
lowering energy of activation
➢ CONCENTRATION: within limits the
higher the concentration the faster the
rate
➢ TEMPERATURE: within limits the higher
the temperature the faster the rate
➢ ACID: a proton H+ donor; pH below 7
➢ BASE: a proton H+ acceptor; pH above 7
ORGANIC VS INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
➢ ORGANIC: study of carbon-containing
substances
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➢ INORGANIC: deals with those ➢ UNSTURATED: one or more covalent

substances that do not contain carbon bonds between carbons
➢ EXCEPTION: some carbon containing ➢ PROTEINS: contains C,H,O,N; 20
compounds are not organic in that they different naturally occurring amino
do not also contain hydrogen acids; amino acids are not stored so
➢ OXYGEN: small, nonpolar and inorganic daily supply is required; amino acids
molecule contain an amine group and carboxyl
➢ CARBON DIOXIDE: inorganic molecule group; used to make skin, hair, nails and
composed one carbon atom bound two muscles; part of hemoglobin molecule;
oxygen atoms act as an enzyme; immune system
➢ WATER: polar molecule composed of function; muscle contractions
two hydrogen atoms bound to an ➢ PROTEIN DENAURATION: occurs when
oxygen atom by polar covalent; the hydrogen bonds that maintain
stabilizes body temperature, protects shape of protein are broken and protein
the body, required for many chemical becomes nonfunctional ; can be caused
reactions by high temp and/or improper pH
➢ HYDROPHILIC: attracted to water ➢ NUCLEIC ACID: composed of C,H,O,N,P;
➢ HYDROPHOBIC: not attracted to water nucleotides are the building blocks
➢ ORGANIC MOLECULES: carbon’s ability ➢ ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE: important
to form a covalent bond with other organic molecule found in all living
atoms makes it possible the formation organism; often called as the energy
of large, diverse, complicated molecules currency of cells because its capable of
for life both storing and providing energy
➢ CARBOHYDRATES: contains
Carbon,Hydrogen and Oxygen; broken
down to provide energy;
➢ MONOSACCHARIADES: building blocks;
simple sugar
➢ DISACCHARIDE: 2 sugars; sucrose,
lactose
➢ POLYSACCHARIDE: many sugars; starch,
grain, vegetables
➢ GLYCOGEN: main storage form of
glucose in human
➢ STARCH: and cellulose are important
polysaccharides found in plants; used to
make ATP
➢ LIPIDS: contains Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen; insoluble in water; fats,
cholesterol, triglycerides; long term
energy storage; insulates against heat
loss; protective cushion for organs CHAPTER 3: CELL STRUCTURE AND THEIR
➢ SATURATED: single covalent bond FUNCTIONS
between carbon atoms

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CELL STRUCTURE
➢ ORGANELLES: specialized structures in
cells that perform specific functions
➢ CYTOPLASM: jelly-like substance that
holds organelles
➢ CELL MEMBRANE: termed as the
plasma membrane; encloses the
cytoplasm; outermost component of a
cell; materials are intracellular and
extracellular; acts as selective barrier;
fluid mosaic model; contains
phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins and
carbohydrates
➢ NUCLEUS: large organelles located near
the center of the cell; contains nuclear
pores where materials can pass into or
out of the nucleus; bounded by nuclear
envelope
➢ CENTRIOLES AND CENTROSOME:
involved in process of mitosis, where
microtubule formation occurs
➢ RIBOSOME: components are produced
in the nucleolus; where proteins are
produced
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ ROUGH AND SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM: involved in protein and
lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification
and it stores calcium ions
➢ CYTOSKELETON: gives internal
framework to the cell; consist of protein
structures called microtubules; hollow
structure formed from protein subunits,
support the cytoplasm of cells and
forming essential components of
organelles such as cilia and flagella,
microfilaments; small fibrils forming
support for cytoplasm, enables the
muscle cells to shorten or contract and
intermediate filaments; formed from
protein that are smaller in diameter
than microtubules but larger in
diameter than microfilaments, provide
mechanical support to cell
➢ PHAGOCYTIC VESICLE:
➢ LYSOSOME: contain variety of enzymes
that function as intercellular digestive
system; membrane-bound vesicle
➢ PEROXISOME: small membrane-bound
vesicles containing enzymes that break
down fatty acids, amino acids, and
hydrogen peroxide
➢ MITOCHONDRION: small organelle
responsible for producing considerable
amount of ATP
➢ MICROVILLI: specialized extension of
cell membrane that are supported by
microfilaments; abundant on the
surface of cells that lines organs in
which absorption is an important
function
➢ GOLGI APPARATUS: collects, modifies,
packages and distributes proteins and
lipid manufactured by the ER
➢ CILIA: project from the surface of
certain cells, responsible for movement
of materials over the top of cells such as
mucus
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➢ FLAGELLA: similar with cilia but are ➢ DIFFUSION: movement of substance in

much longer, usually occur only one per a solution down to concentration
cell gradient; from higher concentration to
lower concentration
FUNCTIONS OF CELL:
➢ Smallest units of life
➢ Cell metabolism and energy use
➢ Synthesis of molecules
➢ Communication
➢ Reproduction and Inheritance

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

➢ Cell membrane has selective
permeability which allows only certain
➢ CONCENTRATION GRADIENT:
substances to pass in and out of the cell
difference in the concentration of a
➢ Enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are
solute in a solvent; steeper when the
found in higher concentrations inside
concentration difference is larger
the cells
and/or the distance is small
➢ Sodium, calcium and chloride are found
➢ OSMOSIS: diffusion of water across
in higher concentration outside the cells
selectively permeable membrane;
CELL MEMBRANE PASSAGE: exerts osmotic pressure a force
➢ Some substances can pass directly required to prevent movement of water
through the cell membrane’s across cell membrane
phospholipid bilayer
➢ Some substances must pass through
protein channels
➢ Route of transport through the
membrane depends on the size, shape
and charge of the substance
➢ Some substance requires carrier
molecules to transport them across the
cell membrane
➢ Some requires a vesicular transport
across the membrane; the vesicle must
fuse with the cell membrane for
transport
➢ PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT:
does not require the cell to expand
➢ HYPOTONIC: lower concertation of
energy; diffusion, osmosis, and
solutes and higher concentration of
facilitated diffusion
water; causes swelling
➢ ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT: does
➢ HYPERTONIC: has a lower solute
not require the cell to expend energy,
concentration and higher water
usually in the form of ATP; active
concentration than the surrounding
transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis and exocytosis

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solution; will result in cell shrinkage or gradient established by active

crenation transport; no additional energy is
➢ ISOTONIC: has the same solute required; cotransport; moves in the
concentration inside and outside of the same direction; countertransport;
cells; cell will neither shrink or swell moves in a opposite direction
➢ FACILITATED DIFFUSION: carrier
mediated transport process that moves
substance across the cell membrane
from a high concentration to low
concentration area.
➢ LEAK CHANNELS: constantly allow ions
to pass through
➢ GATED CHANNELS: limit the movement
of ions across the membrane by
opening and closing
➢ ENDOCYTOSIS: process the brings
materials into cells using vesicles
➢ RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS:
occurs when a specific substance binds
to the receptor molecule and is
transported into the cell

➢ SPECIFITY: only specific molecules are

transported by the carriers.
➢ ACTIVE TRANSPORT: carrier mediated
process requiring ATP.
➢ SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP: SOPI
(Sodium Out Potassium In)

➢ PHAGOCYTOSIS: often used for

➢ SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT: uses
the energy provided by a concentration
endocytosis when solid particles are
digested
➢ PINOCYTOSIS: has much smaller
vesicles formed, and they contain liquid
rather than solid
➢ EXOCYTOSIS: use of membrane-bound
sacs called secretory vesicles; secretion
of digestive enzymes
CELL ACTIVITY:

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➢ Cells characteristics are determined by

the type of the proteins produced
➢ Proteins produced are in turn
determined by the genetic information
of nucleus
➢ Information in DNA provides the cell
with a code for its cellular process
➢ DNA: contains of information that
directs protein synthesis called gene
expression, consist of nucleotides that
contains 5-carbon sugar, phosphate
group and nitrogenous base
➢ GENE EXPRESSION: involves copying
DNA into messenger RNA (transcription)
and involves messenger RNA being used
to produce protein(translation)

CELL CYCLE:
➢ INTERPHASE: G(1) during which the
cells carries out normal metabolic
activity, S Phase during which the DNA
is replicated and G(2) during cell
prepares to divide, at the end a cell has
two complete sets of genetic material
➢ MITOSIS: involves 2 daughter cell from
a single parent cell, prophase;
chromatin condenses to form visible
chromosomes, metaphase;
chromosomes align near the center of
the cell, anaphase; chromatids become
chromosome and the cytoplasm begins
to divide and telophase; chromosomes
become organized to form two separate
nuclei, two separate daughter cells are
produced
➢ TUMORS: abnormal proliferations of
cells; some are benign and malignant
➢ APOPTOSIS: cell death
➢ CELLULAR AGING: existence of cellular
clock, presence of death genes and DNA
damage.

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CHAPTER 4: TISSUES
➢ Group of cells with similar structure and
function, plus the extracellular
substance surrounding them
➢ HISTOLOGY; study of tissues
TYPE OF TISSUES
➢ EPITHELIAL
➢ CONNECTIVE
➢ MUSCLE
➢ NERVOUS
CHARACTERISTIC OF TISSUE TYPE:
➢ EPITHELIAL TISSUE
➢ Mostly composed of cells
➢ Covers body surface
➢ Has an exposed surface
➢ Attaches the basal surface
➢ Specialized cells connections and
matrix attachments
➢ Avascular
➢ Capable of regeneration
➢ Classifications: Simple; single layer
of cells, Stratified; consist more
than one layer of cells and
Pseudostratified; appears to be
falsely stratified.
➢ CONNECTIVE TISSUE
➢ Diverse primary tissue type that
make up part of every organ in the
body
➢ Consist of cells separated from each
other by abundant extracellular
matrix
➢ diverse in both function and
structure
➢ compromise of cells, protein fibers
and extracellular matrix
➢ MUSCULAR TISSUE
➢ Formed elements and a fluid matrix
➢ Striated(banded)
➢ Long, cylindrical with many nuclei
➢ NERVOUS TISSUE
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ Consist of dendrites, cell body and a
long axon; glia or support cells
surrounds the neurons
FUNCTIONS OF TISSUE TYPE
➢ EPITHELIAL TISSUE
➢ Protects underlying structure
➢ Acts as a barrier
➢ Permit passage of substance
➢ Secreting substances
➢ Absorption of substance
➢ CONNECTIVE TISSUE
➢ Enclose and separate other tissues
➢ Connecting tissues to one another
➢ Supporting and moving parts of the
body
➢ Storing compounds
➢ Cushioning and insulating
➢ Transporting
➢ Protecting
➢ MUSCULAR TISSUE
➢ Contract or to shorten
➢ Responsible for making movement
possible
➢ NERVOUS TISSUE
➢ Responsible for coordinating and
controlling many body activities
SPECIFIC TYPE OF TISSUES AND ITS LOCATION
AND FUNCTION
➢ EPITHELIAL
➢ SIMPLE SQUAMOUS; single
layer of thin, flat cells; lining of
blood vessels, alveoli, portions
of kidney, lymph. Vessels, lining
of serous membranes of body
cavities; diffusion, filtration,
some secretion and some
protection against friction
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➢ SIMPLE CUBOIDAL; single layer
of cube-shaped cells; some
have microvilli; kidney tubules,
glands and their ducts, choroid
plexus of brain, lining of
terminal bronchioles of the
lungs, surface of the ovaries;
secretion and absorption,
movement of particles
➢ SIMLPLE COLUMNAR; single
layer of tall, narrow cells; some
cells have cilia; glands and some
ducts, bronchioles of the lungs,
auditory tubes, uterus, uterine
tubes, stomach, intestines,
gallbladder, bile ducts and
ventricles of the brain;
movement of particles,
secretion and absorption
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
COLUMNAR; single layer of
cells; lining of nasal cavity, nasal
sinuses, auditory tubes,
pharynx, trachea and bronchi of
lungs, synthesize and secrete
mucus
➢ STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS;
several layers of cells that are
cuboidal in the basal layer and
progressively flattened toward
the surface; protects against
abrasion, forms a barrier
against infection and reduces
loss of water from the body
➢ KERATINIZED STRATIFIED
SQUAMOUS; cytoplasm of the
cell is replaced by a protein
called keratin; outer layer of the
skin
➢ NON-KERATINIZED STRATIFIED
SQUAMOUS; surface cells
retain a nucleus and cytoplasm;
mouth, throat, larynx,
esophagus, anus, vagina,
inferior urethra and corneas
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➢ TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM; energy storage and protection

stratified cells that appear of organs against tissue
cuboidal when the organ or
tube is not stretched and
squamous when the organ or
tube is stretched; lining of the
urinary bladder, ureters, and
superior urethra;
accommodates fluctuations in
the volume of fluid in an ➢ RETICULAR TISSUE: fine
organ/tube, protects against network of reticular fibers
caustic effect of urines irregularly; lymph nodes,
spleen, bone marrow; provides
a superstructure for lymphatic
and hemopoietic tissue

➢ CONNECTIVE TISSUE
➢ AREOLAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
fine network of mostly collagen
fibers with the space between ➢ DENSE REGULAR
the fibers; widely distributed all COLLAGENOUS: matrix
throughout the body; loose composed of collagen fibers
packing, support, and running in somewhat the same
nourishment for structures direction in tendons and
ligaments; tendons and
ligaments, dermis of the skin,
organ capsules and outer layer
of blood vessels; withstand
great pulling forces exerted in
the direction of fiber
➢ ADIPOSE TISSUE: consist of orientation
adipocytes or fat cells, contain
large amount of lipid for energy
storage; predominantly in
subcutaneous areas,
mesenteries, renal pelvis,
around kidneys; packing
material, thermal insulator,

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➢ DENSE REGULAR ELASTIC:
matrix composed of collagen
fibers and elastin fibers running
in somewhat the same
directions in elastic ligaments;
elastic ligaments bet. Vertebrae
along dorsal aspect of nuchal,
vocal cords and elastic
connective tissue of blood
vessels; capable of stretching
and recoiling like a rubber band
➢ HYALINE CARTILAGE: collagen
fibers are small and evenly
dispersed in the matrix;
growing long bones, cartilage
rings of the respiratory system,
costal cartilage of ribs; allows
growth of long bones, provides
rigidity, forms strong, smooth
yet somewhat flexible
articulating surfaces of bones
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ FIBROCARTILAGE: collagen
fibers similar to those in hyaline
cartilage; intervertebral disk,
pubic symphysis, and articular
disk; somewhat flexible and
capable of withstanding
considerable pressure; connects
structures subjected to great
pressure
➢ ELASTIC CARTILAGE: similar to
hyaline cartilage, but matrix
also contains elastic fibers;
external ears, epiglottis, and
auditory tubes; provides rigidity
with even more flexibility than
hyaline cartilage because elastic
fibers return to their original
shape after being stretched.
➢ BONE: hard bony matrix, many
osteocytes; all bones of the
body; provides great strength
and support and protects
internal organs
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➢ BLOOD: formed elements and a
fluid matrix; withing blood
vessels; transports oxygen,
carbon dioxide, nutrients and
waste products; protects body
from infections, temperature
regulation.
➢ MUSCULAR TISSUE
➢ SKELETAL: fibers appear to be
striated; attached to bone or
other connective tissue;
movement of the body under
voluntary control
➢ CARDIAC: cylindrical and
striated and have a single
nuclei; in the heart; pumps
blood under involuntary control
➢ SMOOTH: tapered at each end,
not striated and have single
nucleus; hollow organs;
regulates the size of organs,
forces fluids through tubes,
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
controls the amount of light
entering the eyes, produces
goose bumps, under
involuntary control
➢ NERVOUS TISSUE: consists of
dendrites, a cell body and long
axon; brain, spinal cord, and
ganglia; transmits information
in the form of action potentials,
store information, and integrate
and evaluate data
OTHER IMPORTANT INFO
➢ DESMOSOMES: are mechanical links
that bind cells together
➢ HEMIDESMOSOMES: are half
desmosomes that anchor cell to the
basement membrane
➢ TIGHT JUNCTIONS: cell connection that
form barriers and anchor cells to each
other; found in the linings of the
intestines
➢ ADHESION BELTS: found just below the
tight junctions and help tight junctions
anchor epithelial cells to each other
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➢ GAP JUNCTIONS: small channels that friction and allowing smooth movement
allows molecules and ions to pass from within the joint.
one epithelial to adjacent one ➢ INFLAMMATION: occurs when tissues
➢ GLANDS: secretory organs that secrete are damaged; redness, swelling, pain
substance; and disturbance of function
➢ ENDOCRINE GLANDS: ductless glands; ➢ REGENERATION: new cells are the same
secrete products into the bloodstream; type of those were destroyed; normal
➢ EXOCRINE GLANDS: glands with ducts; function is restored
ducts are the tube that transports ➢ REPLACEMENT: a new type of tissue
secreted material to free surface of the develops; produces scars and causes
epithelium loss of some tissue functioN
➢ UNICELLULAR GLANDS: composed of
only one single cells
➢ SIMPLE GLANDS: multicellular and
have a single nonbranched duct
➢ COMPOUND GLANDS: multicellular and
have several branched ducts
➢ TUBULAR: shaped as tubules
➢ ACINAR OR ALVEOLAR: shaped in
saclike structures
➢ MEROCRINE: involves the released of
secretory product
➢ APOCRINE: involves the release of
secretory products as pinched-off
fragments of the gland cells
➢ HOLOCRINE: secretion involves
shedding of entire cells
➢ MUCOUS MEMBRANE: line cavities that
open to the outside of the body;
digestive, respiratory and reproductive
ducts; secretes mucus; protection,
absorption and secretion
➢ SEROUS MEMBRANE: lines cavities that
do not open to the exterior of the body;
pericardial, pleural and peritoneal
cavities; do not contain glands but
secrete small amount of serous fluid
that lubricates the surface of the
membrane.
➢ SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE: lines the
cavities of freely movable joints;
produces synovial fluid which makes
the joints slippery, thereby reducing

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CHAPTER 5: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
➢ Consist of skin, accessory structures
such as hair, glands, and nails
➢ means covering
➢ appearance can indicate physiological
imbalances.
FUNCTION OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:
➢ PROTECTION: against abrasion and
ultraviolet light
➢ SENSATION: has sensory receptors that
can detect heat, cold, touch, pressure,
and pain
➢ VITAMIN D PRODUCTION: skin
produces a molecule that can be
transformed into Vitamin D
➢ TEMPERATURE REGUALTION: amount
of blood flow beneath skin’s surface
and activity of sweat help regulate body
temperature
➢ EXCRETION: small amounts of waste
product are lost through skin and in
gland secretion
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
SKIN
➢ EPIDERMIS: most superficial layer of
skin; prevents water loss and resists
abrasion; composed of distinct layers
called strata
➢ STRATUM CORNEUM; most superficial
stratum, keratin gives the stratum its
structural strength
➢ DANDRUFF: excessive sloughing of
stratum corneum cells from the surface
of the scalp
➢ CORN: thicken form of stratum
corneum that can form a cone-shaped
structure
➢ CALLUS: produced thickened area when
skin is subjected to friction
➢ DERMIS: composed of dense
collagenous connective tissue
containing fibroblast, adipocytes and
macrophages
➢ CLEVAGE LINES: or tension lines in the
skin are more resistant to stretch; if
overstretched dermis can be damaged
causing stretch marks
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➢ DERMAL PAPILLAE: projection towards

the epidermis found in the upper part
of the dermis
➢ HYPODERMIS: subcutaneous tissue that
is not part of the skin; attaches to the
skin to underlying bone and muscle and
supplies it with blood vessels and
nerves
➢ MELANIN: group of pigments primarily
responsible for skin, hair and eye color;
produced by melanocytes and then
packaged into vesicles called
melanosomes
➢ ALBINISM: caused single mutation and
lack in production of melanin
➢ CAROTENE: lipid-soluble that
accumulates lipid in the adipocytes of ➢ Found everywhere in the skin except
the dermis and subcutaneous tissue; palms, soles, lips, nipples part of
skin become quite yellowish genitalia and distal segment of the
➢ JAUNDICE: yellow skin color digitals
➢ CYANOSIS: bluish color of the skin ➢ With age, the amount of melanin in hair
caused by decrease in the blood O2 can decrease causing the hair color to
SKIN CANCERS: become faded or no melanin and be
white.
➢ HAIR FOLLICLE: where hair arises
➢ HAIR SHAFT: above the surface
➢ ROOT: below the surface
➢ HAIR BULB: expanded base of the root;
➢ Most common cancer; mainly caused by
where hair is produced
UV light exposure
➢ CORTEX: hard and is surrounded by
➢ Fair skinned people are more prone
softer center; covered by a single layer
➢ Prevented by limiting sun exposure and
of overlapping cells that holds hair in
using sunscreen
the hair follicle called cuticle
➢ UVA causes tan; UVB causes sunburns
➢ MEDULLA: softer center
➢ BASAL CELL CARCINOMA: cells in the
➢ HAIR PAPILLA: an extension of the
stratum basale affected; cancer
dermis that protrudes into the hair bulb
removed by surgery
and contains blood vessels
➢ SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA: cells
➢ ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE: can contract
above stratum basale affected; cancer
and cause the hair to become
can cause death
perpendicular to the skin surface;
➢ MALIGNANT MELANOMA: arises from
goosebumps
melanocytes in a mole; rare type of
➢ GROWTH STAGE: hair is formed by
cancer; can cause death
mitosis; cells divide and undergo
HAIR keratinization

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➢ RESTING STAGE: growth stop and the
hair is held in the hair follicle
GLANDS
➢ NAIL BODY: visible part of the nail
➢ CUTICLE: stratum corneum that extends
onto the nail body
➢ NAIL ROOT: extends distally from the
nail matrix
➢ NAIL BED: where the nail attaches to
➢ NAIL MATRIX: give rise to the cells to
form the nail

BURN

➢ SEABCEOUS GLANDS: simple branched

acinar glands with most being
connected by a duct to the superficial
➢ FIRST DEGREE: superficial burn; red and
part of hair follicle; produces sebum a
painful, slight edema or swelling; takes
substance rich in lipids; released by
a week to heal
holocrine secretion
➢ SECOND DEGREE: both dermis and
➢ ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS: simple,
epidermis are damaged; redness,
coiled, tubular glands and release sweat
edema and blisters; take 2 weeks to
by merocrine secretion; located in
heal
almost every part of the skin; produces
➢ THIRD DEGREE: causes complete
a secretion that is mostly water with
damage on both dermis and epidermis;
few salt
painless due to destroyed sensory
➢ APOCRINE: simple, coiled tubular
receptors; appears to be white, tan,
glands that produces a thick secretion
brown, black or deep cherry red
rich in organic substances; generally
➢ TREATMENT: to speed healing, skin
odorless; becomes active at puberty
grafts are often performed.

AGING
NAILS
➢ Blood flow decreases and skin becomes
thinner due to decrease amount of
collagen
➢ Decreased activity of sebaceous and
sweat glands make temperature
regulation more difficult
➢ a thin plate, consisting of layers of dead ➢ Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag or
stratum corneum cells wrinkle.

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CHAPTER 6: SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONES
AND JOINTS:
COMPONENTS OF SKELTAL SYSTEM
➢ Bones; major storage for calcium
➢ Cartilages
➢ Tendons
➢ Ligaments
FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
➢ Body Support
➢ Organ protect
➢ Body movement
➢ Mineral storage
➢ Blood cell reproduction
BONE HISTOLOGY
➢ Bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments
are connective tissues
➢ Characteristics are largely determined
by the composition of their extracellular
matrix
➢ MATRIX: contains collagen, ground
substance, and other organic molecules
as well as water and mineral
➢ COLLAGEN: fibrous protein that
provides flexibility but resists pulling or
compression
➢ GROUND SUBSTANCE: contains
proteoglycans that are water trapping
proteins that help cartilage be
smoother and more resilient
➢ EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX: contains
large amt. of collagen fibers which
make the structure very tough like
ropes and cables
➢ OSTEOBLAST: cell responsible for
formation of bones; ossification
➢ OSTEOCYTE: cells maintaining matrix
➢ OSTEOCLAST: bone destroying cells
➢ SPONGY BONE: has less bone matrix
and more space; consist of trabeculae
where it consists bone marrow and
blood vessels
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ LONG BONE: longer than they are wide;
upper and lower limb bones
➢ SHORT BONE: approximately as wide as
they are long; bones of the wrist and
ankle
➢ FLAT: relatively thin and flattened;
bones of the skull and sternum
➢ IRREGULAR: have shapes that do not fit
readily onto the other categories;
vertebrae and facial bones
➢ COMPACT BONE: has more bone matrix
and less space; solid outer layer of the
bones; osteon as the functional unit
➢ LAMELLAR BONE: mature bone;
organized in the lamellae
➢ LAMELLAE: concentric rings of bone
matrix that surround the central canal
➢ LACUNAE: where osteocytes are
located
➢ CANCALICULI: connect osteocytes to
one another; transport nutrients and
removes waste
➢ DIAPHYSIS: center portion of the bone
which is composed of compact bone
➢ MEDULLARY CAVITY: hollow center
➢ EPIPHYSES: end of long bones
➢ ARTICULAR CARTILAGE: covering
hyaline cartilage
➢ EPIPHYSEAL PLATE: growth in bone
occurs; located bet. Epiphysis and
diaphysis
➢ EPIPHYSEAL LINE: ossified epiphyseal
plate when bone stops growing in
length.
➢ RED BONE MARROW: location of blood
forming cells
➢ YELLOW BONE MARROW: marrow is
mostly fat
➢ PERISTONEUM: tissue membrane
covering the outer surfaces of the bone;
contains blood vessels and nerves, bone
cells and fibers of the tendons or
ligaments
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➢ ENDOSTEUM: single cell layer of
connective tissue that lines the internal
surface of all cavities within bones;
includes osteoblast and osteoclasts
➢ INTEMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION:
starts within embryonic connective
tissue membranes; occurs when
osteoblast begin; primarily in the bone
of the skulls
➢ ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION: starts
within cartilage model; cartilage model
is replaced by bone; primary ossification
cent which form bones in the diaphysis
and secondary ossification center forms
bone in the epiphysis
➢ APPOSITIONAL GROWTH: bone growth
in width; occurs by the deposition of
new bone lamellae onto existing bone
or other connective tissue
➢ BONE REMODELING: involves removal
of existing bone and deposition of new
bone; occurs in all bones; responsible
for changes in bone shapes, bone
repair, adjustment of bone to stress and
calcium ion regulation
➢ BONE REPAIR: compact bone replaces
the spongy bones
➢ BONE CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS:
calcium is a critical nutrient that
stimulates and regulate skeletal and
cardiac muscle contractions; exocytosis
of those important for neural signaling
➢ PATHYROID HOROMONES: secreted by
parathyroid glands; increases formation
and activation of osteoclasts; stimulates
reabsorption of Ca2+ from urine and
reducing amt. of Ca2+ excreted in the
urine
➢ CALCITONIN: rapidly lower bloods Ca2+
levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity
SKELETAL ANATOMY AND TERMINOLOGY
➢ Average adult has 206 bones
➢ Segregated into axial skeleton and
appendicular skeleton
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ AXIAL: consist of the skull, auditory
ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral column
and thoracic cage
➢ APPENDICULAR: upper limbs, lower
limbs, pectoral girdles and pelvic girdles
➢ FORMANEN: hole
➢ FOSSA: depression
➢ PROCESS: projection
➢ CONDYLE: smooth, rounded end
➢ MEATUS OR CANAL: canal-like
passageway
➢ TUBERCLE OR TUBEROSITY: lump of
bone
AXIAL SKELETON
➢ Skull has 22 bones divided into the
braincase and face
➢ Braincase which encloses cranial cavity
consists of 8 cranial bones
➢ Bony structure of face has 14 facial
bones
➢ 13 of the facial bones are rather solid
connected to form the bulk of the face
➢ Mandible forms a freely movable joint
with the rest of the skull
➢ there are 6 auditory ossicles
➢ CRANIAL SUTURES: immovable joints
that connects cranial bones
- CORONAL
- SAGITTAL
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- LAMBOID ➢ PALATINE BONES; form posterior

- SQUAMOUS portion of hard palate; lateral wall of
nasal cavity
CRANIAL BONES
➢ ZYGOMATIC; cheek bones
➢ LACRIMAL; medial surface of eye orbits
➢ NASAL; forms nose bridge
➢ VOMER; midline of nasal cavity; forms
nasal septum with ethmoid bone
➢ INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE; attached
to lateral walls of nasal cavity
➢ MANDIBLE; lower jawbone; only
movable skull bone
➢ PARANASAL SINUSES; large cavities
that open into nasal cavity; frontal,
ethmoid, sphenoid and maxillary
➢ FRONTAL; forehead
➢ PARIETAL; sides and roof of cranium HYOID BONE
➢ OCCIPITAL; posterior portion and flood
or cranium
➢ TEMPORAL; inferior to parietal bones;
temporomandibular joints
➢ SPHENOID; forms part of cranium floor,
lateral posterior portion of eye orbits,
lateral portions of cranium anterior to
temporal bone; sella turcica
➢ ETHMOID; anterior portion of cranium,
including medial surface of eye orbit
and roof of nasal cavity; nasal conchae

FACIAL BONES

➢ Unpaired u-shaped bone that is not part

of the skull and has no direct bony
attachment to the skull or any bones
➢ Provides attachment for some tongue
➢ MAXILLAE; forms the upper jaw, muscles and it’s an attachment point
anterior portion of hard palate; for important neck muscle that elevate
maxillary sinus the larynx

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VERTEBRAL COLUMN

SACRUM

➢ Also known as the spine

➢ Central axis of the skeleton extending
from the base of the skull to the end of
the pelvis
➢ In adult it usually consists of 26
individual bones
➢ MAJOR CURVATURE: THORACIC CAGE
- CERVICAL; curves anteriorly; 7
vertebrae
- THORACIC; curves posteriorly; 12
vertebrae
- LUMBAR; curves anteriorly; 5
vertebrae
- SACRAL AND COCCYGEAL; together
curves posteriorly; 2 vertebrae; 1
vertebra each
➢ ATLAS: 1ST vertebrae; holds head
➢ Protects vital organs
➢ AXIS: 2nd vertebrae; rotates head
➢ 12 pair of ribs
➢ FUNCTIONS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN: ➢ STERNUM; breastbone
- Supports body weight
➢ TRUE RIBS; attach directly to sternum
- Protects the spinal cord
by cartilage
- Allow spinal nerves to exit spinal
➢ FALSE RIBS; attach indirectly to sternum
cord by cartilage
- Provides a site for muscle ➢ FLOATING RIBS; not attached to
attachment
sternum
- Provides movement of head and
trunk
➢ REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN VERTEBRAE

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PECTORAL GIRDLE AND UPPER LIMB

➢ SCAPULA; Shoulder blade

➢ CLAVICLE; collarbone
➢ CARPALS; wrist
➢ METACARPALS; hands
➢ PHALANGES; fingers

➢ HUMERUS; upper portion of forelimb

PELVIC GIRDLE
➢ Where lower limbs attach to the body
➢ PELVIS; includes pelvic girdle and
coccyx
➢ ISCHIUM; inferior and posterior region
of hip bone
➢ ULNA; forearm
➢ RADIUS; forearm

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➢ FEMUR; thigh

➢ ILIUM; most posterior region of hip

bone
➢ ACETABULUM; hip socket (joint) of hip
bone

➢ PATELLA; knee cap

➢ TIBIA; larger bone of lower leg
➢ FIBULA; smaller bone of lower leg

LOWER LIMB BONES

➢ TARSALS; ankle
➢ METATARSAL; foot
➢ PHALANGES; toes

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➢ ABDUCTION; away from midline

➢ ADDUCTION; toward midline
➢ PRONATION; rotation of forearm with
palms down
➢ SUPINATION; rotation of forearm with
palms up
➢ ROTATION; movement of structure
about long axis

EFFECTS OF AGING
➢ Decreased collagen production
➢ Loss of bone density
➢ Degenerative changes

JOINTS/ARTICULATIONS
➢ Where two bones come together
➢ CLASSIFICATION;
- FIBROUS JOINT; united by fibrous
connective tissue; sutures,
syndesmosis and gomphoses
- CARTILAGINOUS; united by means
of cartilage; synchondroses and
symphysis
- SYNOVIAL; joined by a fluid cavity;
most joints of the appendicular
skeleton
➢ FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS;
- SYNARTHROSIS; non-movable joint;
skull bone
- AMPIARTHROSIS; slightly movable
joint; bet. vertebrae
- DIARTHROSIS; freely movable joint;
knee, elbow and wrist

TYPE OF MOVEMENT
➢ FLEXING; bending
➢ EXTENSION; straightening
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CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM ➢ Also called as striated muscle because

transverse bands or striations is what
TYPE OF MUSCLES can be seen in the muscle under the
➢ SKELETAL; attached to bones; striated; microscope
voluntary controlled ➢ Constitutes approximately 40% of body
➢ CARDIAC; located in the heart; striated; weight together with its associated
involuntarily controlled connective tissue
➢ SMOOTH; located in blood vessels, ➢ Skeletal muscle is so named because
hollow organs; non-striated; many of the muscles are attached to
involuntarily controlled the skeletal system
➢ Some attaches to the skin or connective
FUNCTIONS OF MUSCULAR SYSTEM
tissue sheets
➢ Movement
➢ TISSUE COVERINGS:
➢ Maintain posture
- Each muscle is surrounded by tissue
➢ Respiration
sheath called epimysium
➢ Production of body heat
- Subdivided into group of muscle
➢ Communication
cells called perimysium
➢ Constriction of organs and vessels
- Skeletal cell fibers are surrounded
➢ Contraction of heart
by a connective tissue called
➢ CONTRACTILITY; the ability to contract
endomysium
➢ EXCITABILITY; capacity of muscle to
➢ MUSCLE FIBER:
respond to stimulus
➢ EXTENSIBILITY; ability to be stretched
beyond its normal resting length and
still be able to contract
➢ ELASTICITY; ability to recoil to its
original resting length after it has been
stretched

WHOLE SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY

- Large cell with several hundred

nuclei
- Ranges to 1 mm to 30 cm in length
- Light and dark bands is what gives
muscle fibers a striated appearance
- Number remains constant after
birth.
- Sacrolemma has many tubelike
inward folds called transvere
tubules or T tubules

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➢ MYOFIBRILS: bundle of protein fibers
➢ MYOFILAMENTS: thick filaments
➢ MYOSIN: thin filaments
➢ SACROMERES: repeating units where
myofilaments are arranged; provides
mechanical aspect for muscle
contractions; basic structural and
functional unit of skeletal muscle
➢ Z DISKS: network of protein fibers that
serves as an anchor for actin
myofilaments
➢ I BANDS: light bands consist only of
actins
➢ A BANDS: dark staining bands ; they
extend the length of the myosin
filaments
➢ TROPONIN: molecules that have
binding sites for Ca2+
➢ TROPOMYOSIN: filaments that block
the myosin filament binding sites on the
actin myofilaments
➢ NEUROMUSCULARI JUNCTION
STRUCTURE:
- Motor neurons stimulates muscle
cells
- Synapse where neuron connect
with a muscle fiber
- Synapse means cell to cell junction
bet. a nerve cell and either another
nerve cell or an effector cell
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
- Motor unit is a group of muscle
fibers that a single motor neuron
stimulates
- Presynaptic terminal is the end of a
neuron cell axon
- Synaptic cleft is the space bet.
presynaptic and postsynaptic
membrane (sarcolemma)
- Synaptic vesicle in the presynaptic
terminal that stores and release
neurotransmitter chemicals
- Neurotransmitters are chemical
that stimulate or inhibits
postsynaptic cells
- Acetylcholine; neurotransmitter
that stimulates skeletal muscle
➢ RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL: exist
because of concentration of K+ is being
higher on the inside of the cell
membrane and the concentration of
Na+ is higher on the outside
➢ ACTION POTENTIAL: reverses the
resting membrane potential so that the
inside of the cell becomes positive and
the outside becomes negative
➢ DEPOLARIZATION: changes in charges
becomes more positive and outside
more negative- sodium channels open
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- ECCENTRIC; type of isotonic

contractions in which tension is
maintained in a muscle, but the
opposing resistance causes the
muscle to tighten
- RELAXATION; phase when muscles
relax

➢ REPOLARIZATION: sodium channels

close change back to resting potential

➢ MUSCLE CONTRACTION: mechanical ➢ SUMMATION: amount of individual

component of muscle contraction is muscle fiber
called cross-bridge cycle; energy from ➢ RECRUITMENT: amount of force in
one ATP molecule is required a whole muscle; stimulation of
➢ RIGOR MORITS: will occur when a several motor units
person dies and no ATP is available to ➢ INCOMPLETE TETANUS: occurs
release cross-bridge when the frequency of stimulation
➢ MUSCLE RELAXATION: occurs when only allows partial relaxation of
acetylcholine is no longer released at muscle fiber
the neuromuscular junction ➢ TETANUS: sustained contraction
➢ MUSCLE TWITCH: single contraction of when frequency is rapid and no
muscle fiber in response to stimulus relaxation occurs
- LATENT; time bet. the application of
a stimulus and the beginning of
contraction
- CONTRACTION; time during which
muscles contract; isometric;
increase in muscle tension no
change in length; isotonic;
contraction increase the tension in
muscle and decreases the length
- CONCENTRIC; type of isotonic ➢ MUSCLE TONE: constant tension
contractions in which muscle produces by body muscles; keeping the
tension increases as the muscle back and legs straight
shortens

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➢ SLOW TWITCH FIBERS: contract slowly; ANTERIOR VIEW

fatigue slowly; use aerobic respiration;
are in dark color
➢ FAST TWITCH FIBERS: contract quickly;
fatigue quickly; use anaerobic
respiration; are in light color
➢ MUSCLE FATIGUE: temporary state of
reduced work capacity; local
inflammatory reactions
➢ OXYGEN DEFICIT: lag time bet. when a
person begins to exercise and when
they begin to breath more

SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY:

➢ TENDON: connect skeletal muscle to
the bones
➢ APONEUROSES: sheetlike tendons
➢ RETIANCULUM: band of connective
tissue that hold down tendons at each
wrist and ankle
➢ INSERTION: end of muscle attached to
the bone
➢ BELLY: part of muscle bet. the origin
and insertion
➢ AGONIST: group of muscles working
together
➢ ANTAGONIST: group of muscles that
opposes action.

SKELETAL MUSCLES
➢ MUSCLE ARE NAMED ACCORDING TO
- Location
- Size
- Shape
- Orientation of fascicles
- Origin and insertion
- Numbers of heads
- Functions

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MUSCLES OF MASTICATION AND FACIAL

POSTERIOR VIEW EXPRESSION

TONGUE AND SWALLOWING MUSCLES

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DEEP NECK AND BACK MUSCLES MUSCLES OF ABDOMINAL WALL

PELVIC DIAPHRAGM MUSCLES

MUSCLES OF THORAX

MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER

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ARM MUSCLES LOWER LEG MUSCLES

MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM

MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH

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CHAPTER 8: NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
➢ Receiving sensory input
➢ Integrating information
➢ Controlling muscles and glands
➢ Maintaining homeostasis
➢ Establishing and maintaining mental
cavity
MAIN DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
➢ CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM(CNS):
brain and spinal cord; contains fluid
cavities called ventricles
➢ PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS):
all the nervous tissue outside the CNS
➢ SENSORY DIVISION: conducts action
potential from sensory receptor of the
CNS
➢ MOTOR DIVISION: conducts action
potential to effector organs such as
muscle and glands
➢ SOMATIC: transmits action potentials
from the CNS to skeletal muscles;
maintain the body posture and balance,
moving the trunk, head, limbs, tongue
and eyes, communicating through facial
expression and speech
➢ AUTONOMIC: transmits action
potential from CNS to cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle and glands;
sympathetic; prepares individual for
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physical activities; parasympathetic;
activates involuntary functions such as
digestion that are normally associated
with body at rest
➢ ENTERIC: a special nervous system
found in the digestive tract
ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYTEM
➢ NEURONS: receive stimuli, conduct
action potentials and transmit signals to
other neurons of effector organs
➢ CELL BODY: contains single nucleus
➢ DENDRITE: cytoplasmic extension that
usually receives information from other
neurons and transmits the information
to the cell body
➢ AXON: conducts sensory signals to the
CNS and motor signals away from the
CNS
➢ MULTIPOLAR: have many dendrites and
a single axon
➢ BIPOLAR: one dendrite and one axon
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➢ PSEUDO-UINIPOLAR: single axon with
small dendrite-like sensory receptors at
the periphery
➢ GLIAL CELLS: supportive cell of CNS and
PNS; carry out different function that
enhance neuron function
➢ ASTROCYTES: serves as the major
supporting cells in the CNS; can
stimulate or inhibit signaling activity;
and can form the blood brain barrier
➢ EPENDYMAL: cell line the cavities in the
brain that contains cerebrospinal fluid
➢ MICROGLIAL: act as immune function in
the CNS by removing bacteria and cell
debris
➢ OLIGODENDROCYTES: provide myelin
to axons in the CNS
➢ SCHWANN: provide myelin to axons in
the PNS
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➢ MYELIN SHEATH: specialized later that
wrap around the axons of some
neurons; formed in the
oligodendrocyte; excellent insulator
that prevents all ion move across cell
membrane; have a gap called node of
Ranvier where ion movement can
occur; the action potential in this
process is called saltatory conduction
➢ UNMYLEINATED NEURONS: lacks
myelin sheaths
➢ GRAY MATTER: consists of group of
neuron cell bodies and their dendrites
where there is very little myelin
➢ WHITE MATTER: consists of bundles of
parallel axons with their myelin sheaths
which are whitish in color
➢ NERVE CELL COMMUINICATION: nerves
are excitable; changes in membrane
potential is called action potential
➢ CONTINOUS CONDUCTION: action
potential along unmyelinated axons
➢ CONVERGING NUERONAL PATHWAY:
pathway in which two or more neuron
synapse with the same postsynaptic
neuron; allows information transmitted
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in more than one neuronal pathway to
converge into a single pathway
➢ DIVERGING NEURONAL PATHWAY:
pathway in which axon from one
neuron divides and synapse with more
than one other postsynaptic neuron;
allows one neuronal pathway to diverge
into two or more pathways
➢ SUMMATION: signals in neuronal
pathway allows integration of multiple
subthreshold local potentials
➢ SPATIAL SUMMATION: occurs when
the local potentials originate from
different location on the postsynaptic
neuron
➢ TEMPORAL SUMMATION: occurs when
local potentials overlap in time
SPINAL CORD
REFLEX
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➢ Extends from the foramen magnum to
the 2nd lumbar vertebrae
➢ Protected by vertebral column
➢ Spinal nerves allow movement
➢ If damage paralysis could occur
➢ GRAY MATTER: center of spinal cord;
looks like H or butterfly
➢ POSTERIOR HORNS: contains axons
which synapse with interneurons
➢ ANTERIOR HORNS: contain somatic
neurons
➢ LATERAL HORNS: contains autonomic
neurons
➢ CENTRAL CANAL: fluid filled space in
center of cord
➢ WHTE MATTER: outer layer of spinal
cord; contains myelinated fibers
➢ ASCENDING TRACT: axons that conduct
action potential toward the brain
➢ DESCENDING TRACT: conduct action
potential away from the brain
➢ Involuntary reaction response to be
with stimulus applied to periphery and
transmitted to the CNS
➢ Allow a person to react to stimuli more
quickly
➢ Most occur in the spinal cord or
brainstem rather than the higher brain
centers
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➢ Reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by SPINAL NERVES

which a reflex occurs and has five basic ➢ Arise along spinal cord from union of
components dorsal roots and ventral roots
- A sensory receptor ➢ Contains axons of sensory and somatic
- A sensory neuron motor neuron
- Interneurons, which are located ➢ Located bet. vertebrae
bet. and communicating with two ➢ Categorized by region of vertebral
other neurons column from which it emerges (C for
- A motor neuron cervical)
- An effector organ ➢ 31 pairs organized in 3 plexuses

➢ STRETCH REFLEX: occurs when muscle

contracts in response to stretching
force applied to them
➢ KNEE-JERK REFLEX: or patellar reflex is
classic example of a stretch reflex
➢ WITHDRAWAL REFLEX: or flexor reflex
is to remove a limb or another body
part from a painful stimulus

➢ CERVICAL PLEXUSES: spinal nerves C1-

4; innervates muscles attached to hyoid
bone and skin of neck and back of head;
contains the phrenic nerve which
innervates the diaphragm
➢ BRACHIAL PLEXUSES: originates from
spinal nerves C5-T1; supply nerves to
upper limbs, shoulders and hands
➢ LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUSES: originates
from L1-S4; supplies nerves lower limbs
➢ DERMATOME: area of skin supplied
with sensory innervation by pair of
spinal nerves
➢ Sensory receptors are pain receptors
and stimulation of these receptors
initiates the reflex
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BRAIN
➢ Has four major regions;
- Brainstem
- Cerebellum
- Diencephalon
- Cerebrum
➢ MEDULLA OBLONGATA: continuous
with spinal cord; regulates heart rate,
blood diameter, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, hiccupping, coughing,
sneezing and balance; pyramids
involved in conscious control of skeletal
muscle
➢ PONS: above medulla, bridge bet.
cerebrum and cerebellum; breathing,
chewing, salivation, swallowing, relay
station between cerebrum and
cerebellum
➢ MIDBRAIN: above pons; coordinated
eye movement, pupil diameter, turning
head toward noise
➢ RETICULAR FORMATION: scattered
throughout brainstem; regulates cyclical
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motor function, respiration, walking,
chewing, arousing and maintaining
consciousness, regulates sleep-wake
cycle
➢ CEREBELLUM: attached to brainstem by
the cerebellar peduncles; little brain,
composed of gyri, sulci and gray matter;
controls balance, muscle tone, and
coordination of fine motor function;
fourth ventricle is located at the base of
cerebellum and connected to the third
ventricle by cerebral aqueduct
➢ DIENCEPHALON: located bet. brainstem
and cerebrum; in the center there is
small ventricle called third ventricle
➢ THALAMUS: largest portion; regulates
sensory input traveling from the spinal
cord to the cerebral cortex, influences
moods and detects pain
➢ EPITHALAMUS: above thalamus;
emotional and visceral response to
odor, contains pineal gland which plays
a role in controlling some long-term
cycles
➢ HYPOTHALAMUS: below thalamus;
controls pituitary gland and is
connected to it by infundibulum;
controls homeostasis, body temp,
thirst, hunger, fear, rage, sexual
emotions
➢ CEREBRUM: largest portion of brain;
contains relatively large cavity called
lateral ventricle
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➢ CEREBRAL CORTEX: surface of
cerebrum, composed of gray matter;
controls thinking, communicating,
remembering, understanding and
initiates voluntary movements
➢ LONGITUDINAL FISSURE: divides
cerebrum into left and right hemisphere
➢ GYRI: folds in cerebral cortex that
increases surface area
➢ SULCI: shallow indentations
➢ FISSURE: deep indentations
➢ LEFT HEMISPHERE: controls right side
of the body; responsible for math,
analytic and speech
➢ RIGHT HEMISPHERE: controls left side
of the body; responsible for music, art
and abstract ideas
➢ CORPUS CALLOSUM: connection bet.
two hemispheres
➢ FRONTAL LOBE: anterior; controls
voluntary motor functions, aggression,
moods and smell
➢ PARIETAL LOBE: top; evaluates sensory
input such as touch, pain, pressure,
temperature and taste
➢ OCCIPITAL LOBE: posterior; vision
➢ TEMPORAL LOBE: lateral; hearing,
smelling and memory
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SENSORY FUNCTIONS
➢ CNS constantly receives sensory input
➢ We are unaware of sensory input
➢ Sensory input is vital of our survival and
normal functions
SENSORY AREAS
➢ PRIMARY SENSORY AREAS
- where ascending tracts project
- where sensations are perceived
➢ PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
- general sensory area
- in parietal lobe
- sensory input such as pain,
pressure, temp.
➢ UPPER MOTOR NEURONS: have cell
bodies in the cerebral cortex and
project down the spinal cord to synapse
with lower motor neurons.
➢ LOWER MOTOR NEURONS: have cell
bodies in the anterior horn of the spinal
cord gray matter or in cranial nerve
nuclei.
➢ PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX
➢ PREMOTOR AREA: frontal lobe; control
voluntary motor movement
➢ PREFROINTAL AREA: motivation and
foresight to plan and initiate movement
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➢ LATERAL COLUMNS: are most
important in controlling goal directed
limb movements such as reaching and
manipulating
➢ VENTRAL COLUMNS: most important in
maintaining posture, balance and limb
position through their control of neck,
trunk and proximal limb muscles
BASAL NUCLEI
➢ Group of functionally related nuclei;
plan organize and coordinate motor
movements and posture
➢ CORPUS STRIATUM: deep in cerebrum
➢ SUBSTANIA NIGRA: in midbrain
SPEECH
➢ Sensory Speech; parietal lobe; where
words are heard and comprehended
➢ Motor Speech; frontal lobe; where
words are formulated
BRAIN WAVES ANC CONSCIOUSNESS
➢ Used to diagnose and determine
treatment for brain disorder
➢ Electroencephalogram (EGG)
➢ Electrodes are placed on scalp to record
brain’s electrical activity
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➢ ALPHA WAVES: person is awake in
quite state
➢ BETA WAVES: intense mental activity
➢ DELTA WAVES: deep sleep
➢ THETA WAVES: in children
MEMORY
➢ WORKING: occurs when the brain
briefly stores information required for
immediate performance of a task
➢ SHORT-TERM: last longer than working;
can be retained for few mins to few
days
➢ LONG-TERM: it may store for only few
mins or become permanent by
consolidation
➢ DECLARATIVE: explicit memory,
involves retention of facts such as
name, dates and places as well as
related undertones
➢ PROCEDURAL: reflexive memory,
involves development of motor skills
such as riding a bicycle
LIMBIC SYSTEM AND EMOTION
➢ Influences long-term declarative
memory, emotions, visceral responses
to emotions, motivation and mood
➢ Major source of sensory input to limbic
is the olfactory nerves
➢ Connected to and functionally
associated with the hypothalamus
MENINGES
➢ Connective tissue layers that surround
the brain and spinal cord
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➢ DURA MATER: outermost layer; VIII. VESTITUBULOCOCHLEAR:

toughest of all; two for brain one for sensory; nerve for hearing and
spinal cord equilibrium
➢ ARACHNOID MEMBRANE: thin, wispy IX. GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL: motor
➢ SUBDURAL SPACE: space bet. dura and sensory; taste and
mater and arachnoid membrane swallowing
➢ PIA MATER: third; tightly bound to X. VAGUS: motor and sensory;
surface of the brain and spinal cord sensory for organs in the
➢ SUBARACHNOID SPACE: space bet. thoracic and abdominal cavities
arachnoid mater and pia mater; filled XI. ACCESSORY: motor; trapezius,
with cerebrospinal fluid and contains sternocleidomastoid and
blood vessels muscles for larynx
XII. HYPOGLOSSAL: motor; tongue

CRANIAL NERVES:
➢ 12 pair of cranial nerves
➢ Named by roman numerals
➢ 2 categories of functions; sensory and
motor
I. OLFACTORY: sensory; smell
II. OPTIC: sensory; vision
III. OCCULOMOTOR: motor; eye
movement
IV. TROCHLEAR: motor; eye
movement
V. TRIGEMINAL: motor and
sensory; pain, touch,
temperature for eye and jaws;
motors for muscle of chewing
VI. ABDUCENS: motor; eye
movement
VII. FACIAL: sensory and motor;
taste and facial expression

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CHAPTER 9: SENSES
➢ Ability to perceive stimuli
➢ Sensation is the conscious awareness of
stimuli received by sensory neurons
➢ Sensory Receptors are the sensory
nerve ending that respond to stimuli by
developing action potential
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SENSES
TYPE OF SENSSE
➢ GENERAL:
- Receptors over large part of the
body that senses touch,
pressure, pain, temperature
and itch
- SOMATIC: provide information
about body and environment
- VISCERAL: provide information
about internal organs
➢ SPECIAL
- Smell, taste, sight, hearing and
balance
TYPE OF RECEPTORS
➢ MECHANORECEPTORS: detect
movement; touch, pressure and
vibrations
➢ CHEMORECEPTORS: detect chemicals;
odors and taste
➢ PHOTORECEPTORS: detect light
➢ THERMORECEPTORS: detect
temperature changes
➢ NOCICEPTORS: detect pain
TYPE OF TOUCH RECEPTORS
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➢ MERKEL’S DISK: detect light touch and
pressure
➢ MEISSNER CORPUSCLE: detect light
touch
➢ RUFFINI CORPUSCLE: deep in
epidermis; localizing tactile sensation
➢ PACINIAN CORPUSCLE: deep in tactile
receptors; detect continuous pressure
in skin
PAIN AND PAIN CONTROL
➢ An unpleasant perceptual and
emotional experience
➢ LOCALIZED: sharp, pricking, cutting
paid; rapid action potential
➢ DIFFUSE: burning, aching pain; slower
action potential
➢ LOCAL ANESTHESIA: action potentials
suppressed from pain; receptors in local
areas; injected near sensory areas
➢ GENERAL ANESTHESIA: loss of
consciousness; chemicals affect
reticular formation
➢ REFFERED PAIN: felt when internal
organs are damaged or inflamed
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➢ Certain taste buds are more sensitive to

certain tastes
➢ TYPE OF TASTES
- Sweet
- Sour
- Salty
- Bitter
- Umami

OLFACTION
➢ Sense of smell
➢ Occurs in response to odorants
➢ Receptors are located in superior
portion of nasal cavity
➢ We can detect 10,000 different smells
➢ Odors dissolve in nasal cavity’s thin
films of mucous
➢ Dendrites pick up odor, depolarize and
carry odor to axons in olfactory bulb
➢ Frontal and temporal lobes process
odors
VISION
➢ Accessory structures
➢ EYEBROWS: protects from sweat; shade
from sun
➢ EYELIDS/EYELASHES: protects from
foreign objects; lubricates by blinking
➢ CONJUCTIVA: thin membrane that
covers inner surface of eyelid
➢ LACRIMAL APPARATUS: produces tears
➢ EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLES: help move
eyeballs
TASTE
➢ Taste buds sensory structures that
detects taste; located on the papillae on
tongue, hard palate and throat; there
are 40 taste cells each has taste hairs
that extends into taste pores
➢ Taste is also linked to smell

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EYES
➢ Hollow, fluid filled sphere
➢ Composed of layers; fibrous tunic,
vascular tunic, nervous tunic
➢ Divided into chambers
➢ Light refraction or bending of the light
➢ Focal point; point where light rays
converge; occurs anterior to retina;
object is inverted
➢ Focusing images on retina
➢ Accommodation; changes in shape of
the lens so image can be focused on
retina; enables eyes to focus on images
closer than 20 fee
➢ FIBROUS TUNIC; outermost tunic
- SCLERA: firm, white outer part;
maintain eye shape, provides
attachment sites for muscle,
protects internal surface
- CORNEA: transparent structure
that covers iris and pupil; allows
light to enter and focues light
➢ VASCULAR TUNIC; middle tunic;
contains blood supply
- CHOROID: black part; delivers
O2 and nutrients to retina
- CILLIARY BODY: helps hold lens
in place
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-
CILLIARY MUSCLE: controls
shape of lens via suspensory
ligaments
- SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS:
helps hold lens in place
- LENS: flexible disk; focuses light
onto retina
- IRIS: colored part of the eye;
surrounds and regulates pupil
- PUPIL: regulates amount of
light entering; lots of light-
constricted; little light- dilated
➢ NERVOUS TUNIC; innermost tunic
- RETINA: covers posterior 5/6 of
the eyes; contains 2 layer
- PIGMENTED RETINA: outer
layer; keeps light from
reflecting
- SENSORY RETINA: contains
photoreceptors (rods and
cones) and interneurons
- RODS: photoreceptor sensitive
to light; 20 time more rods than
cone; can function in dim light
- CONES: provide color vision;
blue, green, and red
- MACULA:
- FOVEEA CENTRALIS:
- OPTIC DISK:
➢ CHAMBER OF THE EYES
- ANTERIOR: located bet. cornea
and lens; filled with aqueous
humor(watery) which helps
maintain pressure, refracts light
and provide nutrient to inner
surface of the eyes
- POSTERIOR: located behind
anterior chamber; contains
aqueous humor
- VITREOUS: located in retina
region; filled with vitreous
humor (jelly-like substance)
that helps maintain pressure,
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holds lens and retina in place, - SCALA TYMPANI: in cochlea;

refracts light filled with perilymph
➢ RHODOPSIN: photosensitive pigment in - COCHLEA DUCT: in cochlea;
rod cells filled with endolymph
➢ OPSIN: colorless protein in rhodopsin - MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH:
➢ RETINAL: yellow pigment in rhodopsin; inside body labyrinth; filled with
requires vitamin A endolymph
➢ COLOR BLINDNESS: the absence of - ENDOLYMPH: clear fluid in
perception of one or more colors membranous labyrinth
- PERILYMPH: fluid bet.
EAR
membranous and body
➢ Organs of hearing and balance
labyrinth
➢ External, middle and inner
- SPIRAL ORGAN: in cochlear
➢ EXTERNAL: extends from outside of
duct; contains hair cells
head to eardrum
- TECTORIAL MEMBRANE: in
- AURICLE: fleshy part on the
cochlea; vibrates against hair
outside
cells
- EXTERNAL AUDITORY MEATUS:
- HAIR CELLS: attached to
canal leads to eardrum
sensory neuros that when bent
- TYMPANIC MEMBRANE:
produces action potential
eardrum; thin membrane
- VESTIBULAR MEMBRANE: wall
separates external and middle
of membranous labyrinth that
ear
lines Scala vestibuli
➢ MIDDLE: air filled chamber with ossicles
- BASILAR MEMBRANE: wall of
- MALLEUS(HAMMER): bone
membranous labyrinth that
attached to tympanic
lines the Scala tympani
membrane
- INCUS(ANVIL): bone that STRUCTURE OF EXTERNAL EAR
connects malleus to stapes
- STAPES(STIRRUP): bone located
at the base of oval window
- OVAL WINDOW: separates
middle and inner ear
- EUSTACHIAN OR AUDITORY
TUBE: opens into pharynx;
equalizes air pressure bet.
outside air and middle ear
➢ INNER: set of fluid filled chamber
- BODY LABYRINTH: tunnels filled
with fluid
- COCHLEA: snail-shell shaped
structure; where hearing takes
place
- SCALA VESTIBULI: in cochlea;
filled with perilymph

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STRUCTURE OF INNER EAR

BALANCE (EQUILIBRIUM)
➢ STATIC: associated with vestibules;
evaluates position of head relative to
gravity ➢ AMPULLA: swelling at base of
➢ DYNAMIC: associated with semicircular semicircular canal
canals; evaluates changes in direction ➢ CRISTA AMPULLARIS: in ampulla
and rate of head movement
➢ VESTIBULE: inner ear contains utricle
and saccule
➢ MACULAE: specialized patches of
epithelium in utricle and saccule
surrounded by endolymph; contains
hair cells
➢ OTOLITHS: particles protein and ➢ CUPULA: gelatinous mass; contains
calcium carbonate embedded in a microvilli of hair cells; float that is
gelatinous substance that moves in displaced by endolymph movement
response to gravity
➢ SEMICIRCULAR CANALS: dynamic
equilibrium; sense head movement in
any direction

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