ECE 276 Prof.

Khalid Mirza 1

CHAPTER 6
CAPACITORS AND
INDUCTORS
EE 101 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 2

CAPACITORS

• A PASSIVE ELEMENT THAT STORES ENERGY IN ITS ELECTRIC FIELD

• A VOLTAGE SOURCE CONNECTED
TO A CAPACITOR WILL DEPOSIT
CHARGE ON THE PLATES
GIVEN BY:
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣
WHERE 𝐶 IS THE CAPACITANCE
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 3

CAPACITORS

• CAPACITANCE IS DETERMINED
BY THE GEOMETRY OF THE
CAPACITOR

𝜀𝐴
𝐶= FARADS (F)
𝑑

WHERE 𝜀 IS THE PERMITTIVITY

OF THE DIELECTRIC
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 4

CIRCUIT SYMBOL

• PASSIVE SIGN CONVENTION

• 𝑖 IS POSITIVE  CHARGING CURRENT

• 𝑖 IS NEGATIVE  DISCHARGING CURRENT

 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 5

CURRENT VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP

𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 (1)
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑣
DIFFERENTIATING (1): =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
AND USING THE DEFINITION FOR CURRENT: =𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑖=𝐶 (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 1 𝑡
INTEGRATING (2): ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶𝑣(𝑡) ⇒ 𝑣(𝑡) = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝐶
1 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = ‫ 𝜏𝑑)𝜏(𝑖 𝑡׬‬+ 𝑣(𝑡0 ) (3)
𝐶 0
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 6

STORED CHARGE

1 𝑡
𝑣 = ‫ 𝜏𝑑)𝜏(𝑖 𝑡׬‬+ 𝑣(𝑡0 ) SHOWS THAT CAPACITOR HAS A MEMORY
𝐶 0
(DUE TO STORED CHARGE)
THE INSTANTANEOUS POWER DELIVERED TO THE CAPACITOR IS:
𝑑𝑣
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐶𝑣 WATTS
𝑑𝑡
THE ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR IS:
𝑡 𝑡 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑣 1
𝑤 = න 𝑝(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶 න 𝑣 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐶 න 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 2 ቤ
−∞ −∞ 𝑑𝜏 𝑣(−∞) 2 𝑣(−∞)

AT T = −∞ , CAPACITOR IS NOT CHARGED ⇒ 𝑣 −∞ = 0

1
𝑤 = 𝐶𝑣 2 JOULES
2
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 7

PROPERTIES OF IDEAL CAPACITORS

𝑑𝑣
• =0 ⇒ 𝑖=0 CAPACITOR IS OPEN CIRCUIT TO DC
𝑑𝑡

• VOLTAGE ON A CAPACITOR CAN’T CHANGE ABRUPTLY

• AN ABRUPT CHANGE IN VOLTAGE WOULD REQUIRE AN INFINITE
CURRENT!
• THIS PROPERTY IS COMMONLY USED TO SMOOTH SIGNALS

• IDEAL CAPACITOR DOES NOT DISSIPATE ENERGY

• STORED ENERGY MAY BE RETRIEVED LATER
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 8

NON-IDEAL CAPACITORS
• A REAL CAPACITOR HAS LEAKAGE
RESISTANCE
• LEADING TO A SLOW LOSS OF THE
STORED ENERGY INTERNALLY

• THIS RESISTANCE IS TYPICALLY VERY HIGH

• 100 – 200MΩ
• CAN BE IGNORED FOR MANY CIRCUIT
APPLICATIONS
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 9

EXAMPLE
𝑖 𝑡

𝑣 𝑡 = 20 SIN 100𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 ~ 𝐶 𝐶 = 5 𝜇F = 5 × 10−6 F
𝑖 𝑡 = ?

𝑑𝑣 𝑑
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 = 5 × 10−6 20 SIN 100𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 5 × 10−6 × 20 × 100 COS 100𝑡
= 10 COS 100𝑡 MA
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 10

PARALLEL CAPACITORS

• 𝑁 PARALLEL CAPACITORS
• VOLTAGE ON ALL
CAPS IS THE SAME
• APPLYING KCL
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑁
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 11

SERIES CAPACITORS
• 𝑁 SERIES CAPACITORS
• CURRENT THROUGH ALL
CAPS IS THE SAME
• APPLYING KVL
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁
1 𝑡 1 𝑡 1 𝑡
= ‫𝜏𝑑)𝜏(𝑖 ׬‬ + 𝑣1 𝑡0 + ‫𝑖 ׬‬ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣2 𝑡0 + ⋯ + ‫𝜏𝑑)𝜏(𝑖 ׬‬ + 𝑣𝑁 (𝑡0 )
𝐶1 𝑡0 𝐶2 𝑡0 𝐶𝑁 𝑡0

1 1 𝑡 1 𝑡
= + ⋯+ ‫ 𝜏𝑑)𝜏(𝑖 𝑡׬‬+ 𝑣1 𝑡0 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁 𝑡0 = ‫׬‬ 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣 𝑡0
𝐶1 𝐶𝑁 0 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑡0

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑁
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 12

INDUCTORS

• A PASSIVE ELEMENT THAT STORES ENERGY IN ITS MAGNETIC FIELD

• IF A CURRENT IS PASSED THROUGH
AN INDUCTOR, THE VOLTAGE IS
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE
TIME RATE OF CHANGE IN
CURRENT:
𝑑I
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
WHERE 𝐿 IS THE INDUCTANCE + 𝑣 −
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 13

INDUCTORS

• INDUCTANCE IS DETERMINED
BY THE GEOMETRY OF THE
INDUCTOR
• FOR A SOLENOID, THE
INDUCTANCE IS:

𝑁 2 𝜇𝐴
𝐿= HENRYS (H)
𝑙
WHERE 𝜇 IS THE PERMEABILITY OF THE MATERIAL USED FOR THE CORE
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 14

CIRCUIT SYMBOL

Air-core Iron-core
• PASSIVE SIGN CONVENTION
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 15

CURRENT VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP

𝑑I
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
1
⇒ 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡 (1)
𝐿

INTEGRATING (1):
1 𝑡
𝑖 = න 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝐿 −∞
1 𝑡
𝑖 = න 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖(𝑡0 )
𝐿 𝑡0
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 16

STORED ENERGY

1 𝑡
𝑖 = ‫ 𝜏𝑑)𝜏(𝑣 𝑡׬‬+ 𝑖(𝑡0 ) SHOWS THAT INDUCTOR HAS A MEMORY
𝐿 0
(DUE TO STORED ENERGY)
THE INSTANTANEOUS POWER DELIVERED TO THE INDUCTOR IS:
𝑑𝑖
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = L I WATTS
𝑑𝑡
THE ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR IS:
𝑡 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑖 1
𝑤 = න 𝑝(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝐿 න 𝑖𝑑𝜏 = 𝐿 න 𝑖𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 2 ቤ
−∞ −∞ 𝑑𝜏 𝑖(−∞) 2 𝑖(−∞)

AT T = −∞ , INDUCTOR DOES NOT HAVE STORED ENERGY ⇒ 𝑖 −∞ = 0

1
𝑤 = 𝐿𝑖 2 JOULES
2
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 17

PROPERTIES OF IDEAL INDUCTORS

𝑑𝑖
• =0 ⇒ 𝑣=0 INDUCTOR IS SHORT CIRCUIT TO DC
𝑑𝑡

• CURRENT THROUGH AN INDUCTOR CAN’T CHANGE ABRUPTLY

• AN ABRUPT CHANGE IN CURRENT WOULD REQUIRE AN INFINITE
VOLTAGE!
• TURNING AN INDUCTOR OFF ABRUPTLY WILL
PRODUCE A HIGH VOLTAGE
• IDEAL INDUCTOR DOES NOT DISSIPATE ENERGY
• STORED ENERGY WILL BE RETURNED TO THE CIRCUIT LATER
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 18

NON-IDEAL INDUCTORS
• A REAL INDUCTOR HAS
• WINDING RESISTANCE
• WINDING CAPACITANCE

• THESE ARE TYPICALLY SMALL

• CAN BE IGNORED FOR MANY CIRCUIT
APPLICATIONS
• WINDING CAPACITANCE ONLY MATTERS
AT HIGH FREQUENCIES
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 19

SERIES INDUCTORS

• 𝑁 SERIES INDUCTORS
• CURRENT THROUGH ALL
INDUCTORS IS THE SAME
• APPLYING KVL
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
= 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
= 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁 = 𝐿𝑒𝑞
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑁
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 20

PARALLEL INDUCTORS
• 𝑁 PARALLEL INDUCTORS
• VOLTAGE ON ALL IND-
UCTORS IS THE SAME
• APPLYING KCL
𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑁
1 𝑡 1 𝑡 1 𝑡
= ‫𝜏𝑑)𝜏(𝑣 ׬‬ + 𝑖1 𝑡0 + ‫𝑣 ׬‬ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖2 𝑡0 + ⋯ + ‫𝜏𝑑)𝜏(𝑣 ׬‬ + 𝑖𝑁 (𝑡0 )
𝐿1 𝑡0 𝐿2 𝑡0 𝐿𝑁 𝑡0

1 1 𝑡 1 𝑡
= + ⋯+ ‫ 𝜏𝑑)𝜏(𝑣 𝑡׬‬+ 𝑖1 𝑡0 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑁 𝑡0 = ‫׬‬ 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖 𝑡0
𝐿1 𝐿𝑁 0 𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝑡0

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯+
𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿𝑁
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 21

APPLICATIONS USING OP AMP

• CAPACITORS, IN COMBINATION WITH OP-AMPS CAN BE MADE TO

PERFORM ADVANCED MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS
• INTEGRATOR – OP AMP CIRCUIT WHOSE OUTPUT IS PROPORTIONAL TO
THE INTEGRAL OF THE INPUT SIGNAL

• DIFFERENTIATOR – OP AMP CIRCUIT WHOSE OUTPUT IS PROPORTIONAL

TO THE RATE OF CHANGE OF THE INPUT SIGNAL
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 22

INTEGRATOR
REPLACE 𝑅𝑓 WITH A CAPACITOR IN INV. AMP

KCL AT NODE A: 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑖𝐶
𝑣𝑖 − 0 𝑑(0 − 𝑣𝑜 )
=𝐶
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑣𝑜 1
= −𝐶 ⇒ 𝑑𝑣𝑜 = − 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑖
INTEGRATING BOTH SIDES:
1 𝑡
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 − 𝑣𝑜 0 = − න 𝑣 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑅𝐶 0 𝑖
MAKE 𝑣𝑜 0 = 0 BY DISCHARGING THE CAP:
1 𝑡
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = − න 𝑣 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑅𝐶 0 𝑖
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 23

DIFFERENTIATOR
REPLACE 𝑅𝑖 WITH A CAPACITOR IN INV. AMP
KCL AT NODE A: 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑑(𝑣𝑖 − 0) 0 − 𝑣𝑜
𝐶 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑑𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑣𝑖
𝐶 =− ⇒ 𝑣𝑜 = −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
ELECTRONICALLY UNSTABLE CIRCUIT
• ANY SMALL ELECTRICAL NOISE WITHIN CIRCUIT
WILL BE EXAGGERATED BY THE DIFFERENTIATOR
• SELDOM USED IN PRACTICE
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 24

SUMMING INTEGRATOR

𝑅1 𝐶

𝑅2

𝑡 𝑡
1 1
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = − න 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 − න 𝑣 (𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑅1 𝐶 0 1 𝑅2 𝐶 0 2
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 25

ANALOG COMPUTER

• OP AMPS WERE ORIGINALLY DEVELOPED FOR ELECTRONIC ANALOG

COMPUTERS
• CAN BE PROGRAMMED TO SOLVE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS THAT
REPRESENT MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF MECHANICAL / ELECTRICAL
SYSTEMS
• NEED 3 TYPES OF OP AMP CIRCUITS:
1. INTEGRATORS
2. SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
3. INVERTING / NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIERS
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 26

2ND ORDER DIFF. EQUATION SOLVER

SOLVE FOR 𝑥(𝑡) IN THE EQUATION:

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 2 +𝑏 + 𝑐𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑡>0 (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
WHERE 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ARE CONSTANTS AND 𝑓 𝑡 IS AN ARBITRARY FORCING FUNCTION
REWRITING (1):
𝑑2 𝑥 1 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑐
= 𝑓 𝑡 − − 𝑥(𝑡) (2)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑎
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑥(𝑡) IS OBTAINED BY INTEGRATING TWICE
𝑑𝑡 2
 ECE 276 Prof. Khalid Mirza 27

2ND ORDER DIFF. EQUATION SOLVER

𝑑2 𝑥 1 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑐
= 𝑓 𝑡 − − 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 Amp
𝑏
𝑎

Summing Integrator
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 Integrator
Amp −
1 + 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑓 𝑡 න න 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑎
−

Amp
𝑐
𝑎