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 （ 题目 
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威廉 ？
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位雜者 的 历程
萨默塞 特

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毛姆对 古 中 国 的 追 寻
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—

Ｉ 学科专业 — ＿ ．
英语语 言文 学

 届 别 ２ ０ １ ８ 届 
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姓 名 
陈羽乔 
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 上海外国语大学
硕士学位论文

一位崇拜者的历程
——威廉·萨默塞特·毛姆对古中国的追寻

院系：英语学院

学科专业：英语语言文学

姓名：陈羽乔

指导教师：吴其尧

2018 年 5 月
 Shanghai International Studies University

AN ADMIRER’S PROGRESS

——The OBSESSION WITH THE ANCIENT CHINA IN

WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM’S WORKS

A Thesis Submitted to the School of English Studies

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For

The Degree of Master of Arts

By

Chen Yuqiao

Under the Supervision of Professor Wu Qiyao

May 2018
 
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序 处理 
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学 位 论文 作 者签 名 ：
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年 ４ 月 汉日
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 答辩委员会成员

主席：王光林

成员：程汇娟 周小进
 Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Wu Qiyao for his advice and
thought-provoking guidance. This thesis would not have been possible without his
wisdom, patience, counsel and support. I will be forever grateful. I would also like to
thank the anonymous reviewers of my thesis for the valuable feedback they gave me.
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Shanghai International Studies
University and teachers of School of English Studies(SES) for giving me an excellent
graduate education.
I am also indebted to my colleagues of Office of Students Affairs in School of
English Studies for their sincere help and concern during my period of study.
Finally, I need to thank my family and my friends for all their support and
company.

I
 摘要
威廉·萨默塞特·毛姆（William Somerset Maugham 1874-1965）是 20 世纪
英国最受欢迎的作家之一。毛姆一生出版了大量的作品，包括长篇小说，短片小
说，随笔，戏剧等，异域风情是他作品的最大特色。毛姆对东方情有独钟：他以
南太平洋岛屿为背景创作了一系列东方故事，南太平洋诸岛甚至被称为“毛姆
国”；1919 年他前往中国，回国后，他以中国见闻为素材，创作了《在中国的
屏风上》（On a Chinese Screen）、《彩色的面纱》（The Painted Veil）以及《苏
伊士之东》（East of Suez）。
西方评论界习惯于将毛姆笔下的东方各国视为一个整体进行研究，而国内评
论界则更多地关注毛姆的中国系列作品，将其视为毛姆中国观的最直接体现。以
往的研究普遍认为毛姆对中国有许多误读，持有矛盾的中国观：一方面傲慢与偏
见并存，另一方面又被中国深深吸引。本文同样单独研究毛姆的中国系列作品，
但与传统研究又有所不同，将“中国”这一概念分为古代中国和处于现代化进程
中的中国两个部分，毛姆是古代中国的崇拜者和追随者，对中国朝现代化方向的
转变持反对态度，这一态度表现为他对 20 世纪中国的漠视、傲慢及偏见。
本文首先梳理了从 14 世纪至 20 世纪初中国形象在英国文学中的沿革，而毛
姆对古代中国的迷恋和追寻，则和 20 世纪英国文学普遍对中国的不友好态度恰
恰相反；本文第二部分，分析了毛姆笔下的中国人物形象，认为他避开了“黄祸
论”的影响，从劳动人民，女性和学者身上得到了他所期待的启示；本文第三部
分，从毛姆作品中提炼出了较抽象的中国元素，包括田园式的景致，中国的艺术
及哲学，证明毛姆对古代中国的执着和推崇。文章最后得出结论：毛姆到访中国，
并是不带着西方殖民者的优越感而来，而是带着对西方资本主义的失望情绪而
来。古中国的精神内核和文化内涵满足了毛姆为自己和同胞寻求心灵慰藉和精神
出路的需要，中国是他眼中乌托邦式的存在，是饱受一战苦果折磨的西方人最后
的精神家园。

关键词: 毛姆；中国形象；中国情结；乌托邦想象

II
 Abstract
William Somerset Maugham（1874-1965）is one of the most popular 20th century
British writers. During his life, he created numerous works, including novels, short
stories, essays as well as plays. Exotic atmosphere is one of the most distinct features
of his writings. With special affection for the East, Maugham created a series of short
stories of which the backgrounds are set in the South Pacific. Therefore the islands in
South Pacific are also called “the countries of Maugham”; he visited China in 1919
and created On a Chinese Screen, The Painted Veil and East of Suez on the basis of
his own experiences in China. Western academic circle tends to use “the East” to
describe those Asian countries in Maugham’s works, while Chinese critics pay more
attention to his Chinese stories and regard them as the direct demonstration of
Maugham’s view on China. Critics come to a conclusion that there is much
misunderstanding in Maugham’s description of China and he holds a paradox view on
China. On one hand, there is appreciation in his writings; on the other hand, his pride
and prejudice is obvious.
The thesis also focuses on Maugham’s series works of China but tries to view
them from a different aspect. The thesis divides the concept of “China” into an ancient
one and one with modernized tendency, deeming that Maugham is purely an admirer
of ancient China. The indifferent and even unfriendly attitude towards China of the
20th century results from Maugham’s objection to the modernization process of China.
The first part of the thesis sorts out the evolution of the image of China in British
literature from the 14th century to Maugham’s time; the second part of the thesis
analyzes Chinese figures in Maugham’s works; the third part extracts abstract Chinese
elements, including idyllic scenery, works of art and philosophy of Taoism, to prove
Maugham’s obsession with China.
The conclusion is that Maugham considers ancient China as the final resort of
the West that suffer from the aftermath of the First World War. The temperament and
the core spirit of ancient China make it become the Utopia in his mind.

Key words: Maugham; image of China; Chinese complex; Utopian imagination

III
 Contents
Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................I
摘要............................................................................................................................... II
Abstract........................................................................................................................ III
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1 Wind from East of Suez.................................................................................6
——Evolution of the Image of China in European Literature.......................................6
1.1 The Positive Description of China: From the Travel Books of Sir John
Mandeville to the Imagined Correspondence of Lowes Dickinson........................ 6
1.2 The Negative Description of China: From the Account of Macartney to the
Appearance of Fu Manchu.................................................................................... 11
1.3 Maugham’s Description of China: Remembrance of the Past........................ 14
Chapter 2 Figures Displayed on a Chinese Screen.......................................................18
——Maugham’s Impression of Chinese People.......................................................... 18
2.1 Yellow Face Coolies: Demonstration of Buddhist Spirit................................ 18
2.2 Attractive Women: Embodiment of Ancient Chinese Imagination................. 21
2.3 Knowledgeable Scholars: Representatives of Chinese Ideology.................... 24
Chapter 3 Uncover the Painted Veil over Chinese Culture.......................................... 29
——Maugham’s Utopian Imagination of China.......................................................... 29
3.1 Pastoral Landscapes: the Opposite Side of Modernization............................. 29
3.2 Works of Art: Objects Embody Ancient Wisdom............................................32
3.3 Idle Taoism: Chinese Wisdom to Explain the World...................................... 35
Conclusion....................................................................................................................40
Bibliography.................................................................................................................42
 Introduction
1. General Introduction to the Study
William Somerset Maugham (1874-1965) was one of the most productive,
muti-talented and popular writers in the 20th century. Different from most writers who
gained reputation long after their death, Maugham enjoyed reputation and wealth
before he passed away. Maugham’s second book Liza of Lambeth which was
published in 1897 proved to be the beginning of Maugham’s success. In his 65 years’
career as a writer, Maugham created 20 novels, 32 plays, over 120 short stories and a
large number of reviews, essays, travel notes and memoirs. Though his works cover
various genres, all of them attract numerous readers. The commercial value Maugham
has created is widely acknowledged by people, and consequently, his works are
introduced to different countries and some of them are being repeatedly adapted for
films till now. For readers of all ages from all over the world, the works of Maugham
have an everlasting charm. Seldom could a writer devote himself or herself to so
many different genres and simultaneously achieve such great success. Thus Maugham
is regarded as “the English Maupassant”, “the most popular British writer after
Dickens”(Zhang Yanhua, 1). In 1954, he was made a Companion of Honor by British
Royalty because of his distinguished performance in the literary circle. The honor
Maugham has received means that his achievements are generally acknowledged by
his readers. However, Maugham is marginalized by literary criticism. His status in
literary history is influenced by unfair treatment that critics have imposed on him.
Maugham is often ignored in literary history. The authoritative works about the
history of English literature, such as History of European Literature by Li
Funing(editor-in-chief) and A History of English Literature by Michael Alexande, do
not spare much space for Maugham, just to name a few. Critics tend to regard
Maugham as a second-class writer who attracts people with his odd and vulgar plots.
Many critics have characterized Maugham as a mediocre writer which confirms the
author's own assessment that he was in the very first row of the second-raters
regardless of his popularity and financial success during his lifetime. However, a
conventional standard is not the only one to define a first-class writer. The scholar
Shao Yanjun points out that the charm of a best-selling writer’s works is not merely
lies in those fascinating plots he creates, the enjoyment of his works is more important.
The former influences the sales volume while the latter decides the frequency of
reread. And the frequency of reread is the key feature that differs a literary nobility

1
from a popular writer. So far, the popularity of this “secondary” writer has lasted for
more than a century. Readers keep persistent interest in Maugham. Those books about
literary history we have now illustrate, in essence, the literary history in critics’ eyes.
If we look Maugham from the readers’ points of view, his status in literary history is
secure. Readers are the most valuable treasure for writers. As a best-selling writer
who profoundly influences readers from home and abroad, from generation to
generation, Maugham deserves our attention and a close study.
Between the 18th and the 19th century, besides colonial officials and missionaries,
only a few writers came to visit China and fewer of them chose to describe China in
their works. On this occasion, Maugham’s description of China is precious and worth
studying. Maugham is famous for his ability to create exotic atmosphere. South
Pacific, Burma and Malaysia offer abundant material for his writing and China is also
a place that greatly inspired him. Usually, the West tends to see all the districts
mentioned above as a whole, therefore Maugham is called East Asian Novelist.
However, a sense of belonging makes Chinese academic circle pay more attention to
the study the connection between Maugham and China. In 1929, the name
“Maugham” was first mentioned in China by Zhao Jingshen. His connection with
China interests Chinese people naturally. Understanding China in works of Maugham
is very helpful to further the study of the evolution of China’s image in western
culture and at the same time, to see China more properly. The history of China in the
late 18th century and the early 19th century was a turbulent period full of war,
corrupted regime and invasion. When Maugham came to China in 1919 and 1921,
China was experiencing endless warlord dogfight. It was a dark period that the
Chinese do not want to recall. People tend to feel that under the circumstances, what
China showed to foreigners was not prosperity but devastation. Consequently, when it
comes to the darkest times, the Chinese will have a kind of inferiority complex for
they have already got used to accepting the leading idea declared by the West that
China is lifeless and is good for nothing during that period.
According to Maugham’s writings about China, there is a statement occurring,
declaring that Maugham is an arrogant British who cannot get rid of his inherent
racism and colonialism views. Though it meets the self-abased mentality of the
Chinese and is widely accepted, this statement is over arbitrary. Maugham tries to
detect even the tiniest details of ancient China in the period of the Republic of China.
The gorgeous works of art, the talented scholars and the civilians that appeal to

2
Maugham reflect the splendid China in the bygone days. Regarding Maugham as a
reverent admirer of ancient China, the thesis aims at reversing the former statement
about Maugham’s writing about China. This idea can help the Chinese observe and
view their motherland in the dark times from another aspect instead of blaming her.
Maugham visited China when the country was in chaos, but the turmoil did not
weaken his admiration for China, which can fully prove how charming and powerful
China is. The charming and powerful factors of China are not its flourishing economy
and insurmountable military force, but its material and spiritual cultures that influence
the Chinese from generation to generation gradually and profoundly. Knowing that
Maugham holds a positive attitude towards China is helpful to build up our
confidence and self-recognition of Chinese culture not only in the past, but at present
and in the future.
2. Literature Review
Maugham’s works cover various genres and all of them attract numerous readers,
therefore, his works can be interpreted from all kinds of aspects. All of his three
masterpieces, Of Human Bondage, The Moon and Sixpence, and The Razor’s Edge,
motivate people to study the issue of morality and humanity. Because women images,
marriage and adultery appear repeatedly in Maugham’s works, some people focus on
different sorts of female characters in Maugham’s works for he is considered as a
misogynist. Maugham also attracts readers with his exotic works, especially those
works that set the Far East as the background. Western people are used to viewing the
East as a whole, while as the major group in the East, the Chinese pay more attention
to the description of China. Consequently, the problem “Maugham and China” is
proposed.
It is obvious that Maugham builds up the image of “the other” in his writing of
China. Word has it that the reason why a person will pay special attention to others’
situation is that he himself has encountered a similar problem. At the turn of the 19th
and the 20th century, the West experienced a series of crisis. Western people needed to
find a new way out. Maugham is one of those pioneers who turn their eyes to China.
The study on Maugham’s exotic writing has interested the academic circle at home
and abroad.
In terms of oversea study, critics tend to regard the exotic land in Maugham’s
writings as a whole instead of studying the image of China separately. Many
documents and thesis interpret Maugham’s exotic works from the post-colonialism

3
perspective. Jane O Holloran is the first to analyze those exotic works from the aspect
of post-colonialism. In Orienting Masculinity, orienting Nation: W. Somerset.
Maugham’s exotic fiction, Philip Holden points out that the oriental thought of
Maugham is closely related with the construction of western imperialism. At the same
time, some critics hold opposite views. For example, Antony Curtis demonstrates that
there exists anti-colonialism idea in Maugham’s works. Du Chunmei pays her
attention to the interaction between Maugham and Gu Hongming in On a Chinese
Screen, illustrating that the exchange among foreign elites and Chinese Scholars is
somewhat like the “Mobius Strip”, a twisted but actually one-side surface. Exchange
among the East and the West will finally merge into one.
Different from oversea study, domestic Maugham study pays more attention to
the relationship between China and Maugham. Li Shixue is a pioneer of the field.
After he published Pride and Prejudice--Maugham’s impression of China, the phrase
“pride and prejudice” is often used to describe Maugham’s attitude towards China.
Most documents and thesis deem that Maugham has a prejudiced
misunderstanding of China. Maugham views China with disdain. But the reasons why
Maugham has such an opinion are different. In Of Maugham’s misunderstanding of
Chinese Culture, Wu Chaoping explains that Maugham is not familiar with Chinese
culture, so his attitude towards China is not reliable. Many researchers hold the view
that in Maugham’s eyes, China plays a role as “the other”, which is invaded and
despised by the West. He creates a good for nothing China in order to justify the
political system of the West. Maugham regards himself and his countrymen as the
savior of China. Ge Guilu issues a lot of thesis discussing Maugham’s negative
judgment about China. He demonstrates that Maugham’s judgment is caused by the
thought that western culture is superior to Chinese culture.
There indeed are some scholars voicing an opposite point of view. In his Uncover
the Painted Veil—— A Study on Maugham’s Creation, Qin Hong deems that
Maugham admires classical Chinese culture and objects to Western industrialization
when discussing the images of two Chinese scholars. However, compared with the
opinions mentioned above, this kind of view is not widely accepted.
On the basis of previous study, the thesis tries to view Maugham’s attitude
towards China from a different aspect and comes to a conclusion that Maugham is
purely a devout admirer of ancient China. And with regard of China of the 20th
century, he objects to the modernization process of it and his unfriendly attitude is

4
also caused by this emotion.
3. Significance of the Present Study
After referring to many literature works and historical records, the thesis obtains
a general outline of the evolution of the image of China in British literature from the
14th to the 20th century, which offers people a further knowledge of Chinese status in
the western world. The life of Maugham itself is a very attracting story which greatly
influences Maugham’s values. The thesis’ emphasis on it is a distinguishing
characteristic of the passage. Analyzing Maugham's psychology when creating his
works on the basis of biographies and memoirs about him helps readers have a better
understanding of the 20th century’s most popular writer.
There is a innovative point of the thesis. Instead of regarding the concept China
as a whole as usual, the thesis divides the concept into two parts, namely, an ancient
China and a China in modernization process. The overthrow of the Qing Dynasty
marks the end of ancient China and the beginning of modern China.
The most important thing is that the thesis discovers Maugham’s positive attitude
towards ancient China.Viewing his attitude towards China in an unconventional way,
people can observe and view China in the dark times from another perspective.
Knowing that Maugham holds a positive attitude towards ancient China is helpful to
build up our confidence and self-recognition of classical Chinese culture and spirit not
only in the past, but at present and in the future.

5
Chapter 1 Wind from East of Suez
——Evolution of the Image of China in European
Literature
This chapter gives a brief introduction to the general evolution of the image of
China in British literature and Maugham’s mixture writing about China. Britain’s
over-all awareness of China arose in the 13th century and experienced vicissitudes
during the next several centuries. Generally, Britain’s attitudes towards the image of
China go in to two extreme directions. One sees China as a Utopian region. The other
treats China as a land full of evil and horror. The latter attitude mainly appeared in the
mid and the late 18th century. However, Maugham was an exception against the
powerful current of the times. Maugham both describes the dark sides of China and
expresses his appreciation and longing for this oriental land, but compared with
Maugham’s records of those unpleasant scenes of China, his his compliment on China
is more prominent.
1.1 The Positive Description of China: From the Travel Books of
Sir John Mandeville to the Imagined Correspondence of Lowes
Dickinson
If the publication of The Travels of Marco Polo in 1298 is deemed to be the
beginning of Continental European’s awareness of the image of China, another travel
book coming out several decades after Marco Polo’s records, written by the British
essay pioneer John the Beard, must be the starting point of Britain’s perception of
China. Together with Marco Polo’s masterpiece, this book, The Travels of Sir John
Mandeville, turns out to be encyclopedias of the whole European before Columbia’s
Great Discovery. Different from the narration of Marco Polo whose authenticity is
controversial, the records of Mandeville’s tour is now proved to be imaginary.
However, at the time when transportation was inconvenient and culture
communication was impeded by mountains and oceans, Britain’s knowledge of China
was mainly based on imagination. On this ocassion, the author of The Travels of Sir
John Mandeville tactfully uses vivid and detailed depiction to make readers believe
that he has been to China and achieves massive success.
Mandeville calls ancient China “Mancy” and according to his description, Mancy
is a very flourishing country with innumerable treasures as well as unique plants and
rare animals. There is neither poor people nor beggars. Furthermore, in order to make
Mancy a more ideal land, Mandeville adds some magical elements in his depiction,

6
for example, wizards in Mancy can not only reverse day and night, but conjure up
talented dancers and mighty knights. On the basis of French friar Vincent’s Speculum
Majus, travel book of Odorics and Marco Polo, the author of The Travels of Sir John
Mandeville develops his imagination, creating a fantastic and desirable world, but this
world that attracts the British is not what China really is. To a great extent, the ancient
China in the records of Mandeville is an imagined one.
In literary criticism, the purpose of shaping alien images can be comprehended
from two aspects——one is from aesthetic function side, the other is from practical
utilization side. Aesthetic function means that China acted as an inspiration for writers,
offering unlimited space for imagination and exaggeration. Coleridge’s unfinished
long verse Kubla Khan and Charles Lamb’s Old China and A Dissertation upon Roast
Pig are very typical examples that the image of China is used for aesthetic purpose. In
Kubla Khan, Coleridge describes Xandu——a city surrounded by grand landscape
and in which the Mongolian King builds splendid pleasure-dome. Coleridge is famous
for his talented ability to use mysterious and unreal elements to create a dreamy
atmosphere. He had not been to China before he created Kubla Khan and his
knowledge of China was merely based on hearsay and various travel records which
prevailed in Europe at that time. It is said that Coleridge was inspired by his dream
about the Empire of Mongolia and just before he fell asleep, he was reading Purchas
His Pilgrimage, a travel book written by British geographer in which there is
description of the mysterious and unmatchable China. What Coleridge unfolds in this
long verse is not a real history about China but his imagination stimulated by the
image of the Far East. Coleridge lived in the time when romantic literary movement
was at its booming phase. The writings of Coleridge are also tinted with romanticism
dye. As a civilized country with long history, China is always considered as a
mysterious state full of magical objects and supernatural power. The image of China
exactly meets the need of romanticism creation and turns out to be a source from
which Coleridge’s inspiration stems.
In the 19th century, essay and prose turned into a branch of the Romantic Literary
Movement. Charles Lamb is a British essayist who distinguishes himself by his
romanticism style. Being a close friend of Coleridge, Charles Lamb shares some
similar characteristic with Coleridge in writing style. He also shows his preference to
China. There are two passages of Lamb involving China, one is Old China. In English,
the word “porcelain” is equivalent to the word “china”. However, Lamb chooses the

7
latter one in his prose, which shows his preference to China. Like Coleridge, Lamb, in
fact, knows little about China. To a great extent, those exotic patterns displayed on
exquisite china turn out to be a way Lamb learns about China. In Old China, Lamb
marvels at the craft and content of china. He admits that he cherishes a kind of
partiality to china which is just like his instinctive liking for women as a man. The
other passage of Lamb that involves China is A Dissertation upon Roast Pig. The idea
which widely spreads in Europe is that the dish roast pig appears because of people’s
accidentally discovery that meat becomes more delicious after being burnt, but there
is no definite historic records of where roast pig derives from. That Lamb chooses to
set the background of his story in China and produces a folk legend of China which
sounds very reliable proves his affection for China.
Though the two close friends mentioned above share the same imprint of the
times in their writings, their differences can be easily detected as well. Coleridge
features imagination in writings while Lamb plainly expresses his longing for bygone
days and old things. Scholars point out that the general theme of Lamb’s writings is
reminiscence and nostalgia. Lamb himself also admits his attachment to things that
stands for old days. Like Coleridge, Lamb knows little about China, so his choice of
China is mainly due to the old days atmosphere that conservative ancient China
displays. For Lamb, China here plays as a symbol of bygone days. Instead of
implying certain specific political enlightenment, the depiction of China in Kubla
Khan and two essays of Lamb offers European aesthetic enjoyment and strengthens
their longing for Chinese wealth and material culture.
Mandeville’s account of China does offer the British a fresh topic for chatting
and enjoyment, but it, more importantly, embodies the British’s hope for development
and motivation for change. “Ancient China in The Travels of Sir John Mandeville is a
materialized China...England needs a materialized exotic image to motivate itself to
get rid of Christian culture”(Jiang Zhiqin Literature 73). From this perspective, the
ancient China in The Travels of Sir John Mandeville is at the service of practical
utilization more than at the service of recreation. At the time when The Travels of Sir
John Mandeville came out, asceticism of Christianity prevailed in medieval England
and it discouraged people from pursuing fortune and personal enjoyment.
Mandeville’s description motivated the British to strive for capital accumulation and
expansion in the Middle Ages. In addition, judging from the whole historical
background, when Europe was in the forming stage of Renaissance, account of

8
people’s wealthy life in the travel book meets those mundane notions Renaissance has
proposed. The Travels of Sir John Mandeville has been reprinted time after time and
keeps influencing Britain. Therefore the ancient China created by it is widely accepted
and turns out to be the main source of inspiration of writers in the following centuries.
In Literature Imagination and Culture Utilization, Jiang Zhiqin mentions that
Qian Zhongshu comes to a conclusion that Britain’s admiration for China peaked at
the 17th century. Among those writings that eulogize China, The Anatomy of
Melancholy is one of the most remarkable one. Written by Robert Burton, the book is
full of witty remarks, strange knowledge, various elements and persuasive arguments.
Burton enumerates political, religious and human relationship problems that perplex
people, and he concludes all the annoying issues as the symptom of one
disease——melancholia. Since all the social problems are caused by a certain disease,
there are prescriptions to cure it. Among various remedies Burton has mentioned, the
most conspicuous one must be “China”. Burton appreciates Chinese Imperial Civil
Examination which selects talented intellectuals instead of people from high class to
be officials of the country. For Burton, this employment mechanism meets Plato’s
advocacy of “philosopher kings”. A Utopian state is a method to treat melancholia as
well. In The Anatomy of Melancholy, Burton mentions the concept “a utopia of mine
own”(Deng Zhongtian 80) and gives this utopia a further definition——“a poetical
commonwealth of mine own”(Deng Zhongtian 80). China, famous for its Confucius
poetic education and rites and music enlightenment, turns out to be the reference
object when Burton designs his Utopia. Only by following Chinese political
institution and general mood of society can Britain, even the whole Europe, finally be
healed.
Though Qian Zhongshu points out that British’s admiration for China was on
the decline after the end of the 17th century, there are also masterpieces that speak
highly of China. Oliver Goldsmith and Lowes Dickinson are two very famous men of
letters that coincidentally use epistolary style to express their opinions. Goldsmith’s
Citizen of the World is a collection of correspondence between the main character Len
Chi Altangi and his foreign friend. Len is a Chinese philosopher who lives in London.
Readers can learn the general style and features of as well as Len’s attitude towards
London by reading those letters. However, instead of displaying the prosperity and
advanced civilization of Britain, Len’s records of life in London show the weakness of
Britain. Using China as a reference object, Goldsmith not only indicates his

9
disapproval of the pride and prejudice the British possess, but reflects on laws,
religions, and social mood of Britain. Goldsmith does not constrain his appreciation
for China, but this does not mean he is on the opposite side of Britain. The ultimate
purpose of his compliments on China is to draw the Britain’s attention to their
shortcomings. A century later, Lowes Dickinson, representative of British academic
circle and education circle, also created a Chinese man that is fond of expressing his
opinions by letters. Those correspondences are collected in the book Letters from
John Chinaman and enjoy overwhelmed popularity in Britain. Like Len Chi Altangi,
John also lives in London. His long residence in London gives him “some right to
speak of your (Britain) institutions” (Dickinson 4) while his Chinese identity qualifies
him to speak of his own country. In the book, the Chinaman John responds to the
inherent criticism and prejudice the British holds about China. John points out the
problems of Britain from political, economic and cultural aspects. According to John,
both the political and economic situations of Britain at that time were in chaos while
China was always in a placid state.
Driven by the idea that “money comes first”, Britain actively devoted to oversea
economic expansion which resulted in violence, moral decay and religion oppression
while China valued ethics and had no intention for invasion. Being sufficient to itself,
China stood on the opposite side of Britain. “What we consume we produce, what we
produce we consume” (Dickinson 11). When Dickinson created those letters, the
whole Europe was trapped in wars motivated by national interests. Threatened by
Boer War and domestic economic crisis, the British were antipathetic to aggression
and expansion their government advocated. Dickinson conveys his dissatisfaction
with Britain through John’s description. He admires the mode of Chinese political and
economic operation and development as well as the national character of Chinese
people. Though Dickinson had never been to China when Letters from John
Chinaman was published, he had an instinct affection for China and regarded China
as an ideal reference object when disclosing disadvantages of British civilization
progress.
How to use the image of China depends on westerners themselves. The image of
China in Coleridge’s and Lamb’s work satisfies their need for creation and people’s
curiosity while Mandeville, Burton, Goldsmith and Dickinson consider China an
positive image at the service of politics and education of citizens. Their understanding
of China is influenced by the historical facts and prevailing culture of their country at

10
that time. As a result, whenever Britain is caught by crisis or dilemma, China, symbol
of oriental wisdom, will be regarded as a panacea to cure all the diseases Britain
infects.
1.2 The Negative Description of China: From the Account of
Macartney to the Appearance of Fu Manchu
The famous scholar Zhang Hong claims that the turning point of “Sinomania”
happened in 1699, which generally corresponds to Qian Zhongshu’s conclusion that
Britain’s admiration for China peaked at the 17th century and after that China stepped
down from the altar. Two historical events taking place in the 18th century lead to this
change. One is Britain’s completion of the First Industrial Revolution. The other is the
visit of British delegation in 1792. The First Industrial Revolution in the1760s altered
productivity and productive relationship of British society and established the
dominate status of bourgeoisie all over the world. Britain firstly completed the
progress of the industrial revolution and soon acquired its hegemony over world. The
success of industrial revolution encouraged Britain’s pursuit for openness and
development, while China, at the same time, lost itself in the complacency of being
“the Celestial Empire”. Stimulated by the growth of capitalism at home, Britain
actively looked for more commercial partners all over the world. Therefore, China
naturally came into its sight since the legend of prosperous China had spread over
Britain for many centuries. In order to further the commercial intercourse with China,
George Ⅲ dispatched a delegation with Macartney as its leader in 1792, and the visit
to China directly influenced Britain’s attitude towards China. After returning to
Britain, one of Macartney’s assistant called Saunton recorded what they had seen and
heard during their stay in China in his An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the
King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China.
Though the envoys still recorded some positive perspectives of China, for
example, the fresh air which was good for residents’ health, it suggests, on the other
side, the backwardness of China in terms of industry and technology. Compared with
earlier literary works that regards China as an insurmountable oriental great power,
there is an obvious change in the tone in which Saunton describes China. According
to Saunton, the defects of Chinese system had been exposed——the over emphasis on
ethics and hierarchy confined Chinese people so that they were too conservative to
accept flexible ways when dealing with special circumstance. Saunton once
commented in his record that the delegation could not find any theories concerning

11
about freedom after searching for all kinds of documents of China. Corruption was
also a prominent problem. There was a contrast between the life of officers and
civilians. The emperor of China was not as great as the Khan that Marco Polo and
Coleridge had described. Instead, he became a little stubborn and ignorant in the
delegation’s eyes. The emperor insisted that the envoys should kneel down to show
their respect and sincerity, which embarrassed the delegation a lot and led to an
unpleasant intercourse. In addition, Chinese art had lost its attraction for the British to
a certain extent. The zest for Chinese artworks and Chinese elements once swept over
the upper class of Britain in the 17th and the 18th century. However, the Macartney
delegation in the late 18th century pointed out that the overlook of perspective and
shadow in China did harm to the development of painting and then hindered the
whole Chinese art from reaching its peak. The delegation reached a consensus that the
western art was superior to the Chinese art.
There are two main reasons to explain why the delegation’s attitude towards
China has greatly changed. First, the direct reason. It is said that the meeting between
the delegation and the Chinese emperor did not go well. The original purpose of the
delegation was to gain commercial interest and carry out diplomatic affairs that other
countries failed to gain by violence. To their disappointment, cultural conflict was
obvious in their first meeting with the emperor, and therefore the negotiation did not
go well and all their requirements were rejected. Influenced by the unpleasant
experience, the delegation’s impression of China was not very positive. Second, the
underlying reason. Marco Polo visited China in the 13th century when Europe was in
the Dark Ages while China was in its prime time. But from then on, China did not
achieve great progress in terms of science, technology and economy while Europe
witnessed enormous development in those fields. As a result, the European no longer
felt as admiring as their ancestors did when they came to China in the late 18th century.
The publication of An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great
Britain to the Emperor of China imposes great influence on the British and it marks
the end of the British’s yearning for China. In the following century, China was left
behind the tide of modernization that swept over the world, and thus this ancient
country and its people lost the reputation they once enjoyed. In the 19th century,
western powers including Britain invaded China through their forces and opium and
at the same time, coming with the advanced firearms and warships were merchants,
missionaries and diplomats and tourists. Being reduced to a semi-colony and

12
semi-feudal society, what China was in those foreign visitors’ eyes? British sinologist
J. A. G. Roberts compiles China Through Western EyEs The Nineteenth Century
mainly on the basis of the first-hand information he has collected. Hence researchers
can catch a glimpse of westerners’ impression of China. The westerners in China
express their views on Chinese civilians, officers, political system, religious, art and
so on and these affect British literature’s later shaping of China.
In terms of the image of Chinese people, the general impression they leave to the
westerners is negative——“ugly” and “dirty” are the most often used words to
describe them. With black teeth and sparse hair, neither ordinary civilians nor Chinese
officers and nobility win favorable feelings of the West. Chinese men are thin, pale
and sissy and even their hair style turns out to be a joke for westerners. “Even the
shortest pigtail in China is longer than the dignitary’s braid”(Roberts 31). Numbness
and indifference of the Chinese is also being criticized frequently. A foreign visitor
describes his experience of witnessing an interrogation. Severe torture was executed
to gain confession from suspects and the process was so miserable and cruel that he
had no heart to see and soon made off. However, surprisingly, Chinese judges kept
insusceptible from the beginning to the end. Without empathy for others, the Chinese
seem indifferent to their own physical feelings as well, which impresses the West a lot.
“There is a popular opinion saying that the Chinese are cruel and insensitive to pain”
(Roberts 189). Besides the national personality, the randomness of religion, weird
food and the natural science with “geomantic omen ( 风 水 )” theory as the primary
cannot be recognized by the West either. Even though the number of foreign visitors
that came to China increased in the 19th century, the image of China still remained
mysterious and somewhat elusive for the West. Consequently, feeling of unknown and
uncertainty led to westerners’ negative attitude towards China. The notorious literary
character Fu Manchu created by British novelist Sax Rohmer is very much the
concentrated reflection of all the negative impressions about the Chinese. It is said
that “the creation of Fu Manchu is the biggest and the worst contribution western
literature has made to the image of China”(Ge Guilu 279). Calculating, sinister, cruel
and dangerous, Fu Manchu’s appearance marks China’s close connection with the
idea “Yellow Peril” in western literature.
In the 19th and the following centuries, the popularity of Fu Manchu motivated
the creation of more and more similar literary works. All works that try to demonize
China seek inspiration from the character. The reason why Fu Manchus are widely

13
accepted is that these characters exactly meet the West’s universal imagination of
China at that time. The idea “Yellow Peril” is so overwhelming that the essence of
China seems worthless and will no longer be remembered. The First Industrial
Revolution and Macartney’s arrival in China in the 18th century indicate the beginning
of the degeneration of China’s image in British literature and the situation lasts for a
long time. Chinese current situation is despised and the achievements China has made
in the past are forgotten. The negative image of China in British literature becomes
more and more stable and difficult to be changed.
1.3 Maugham’s Description of China: Remembrance of the Past
Britain’s general evaluation was on a decline in the 19th century and the tendency
also influenced the image of China created by British authors. However, because of
the inconvenient transportation system, the toilsome trudge hindered the British’s visit
to Far East. Living experiences of those famous and popular writers in the era
between the late 18th and the early 20th century show that only a few of them once had
chances to visit China. As a result, instead of creating the image of China on the basis
of what they had seen on their own, most authors mainly gained writing materials
from the generally negative account of merchants and missionaries. Under the
circumstances, William Somerset Maugham, who did come to China and produced
literature works about China in accordance with his personal experiences and feelings,
deserves special attention. The section above has mentioned that the status of China in
Britain has started to suffer a decline since the 18th century. A series Chinese literary
figures with Fu Manchu as their representative marks the popularity of “Yellow Peril”.
Among the voice that denies Chinese achievements, there are several British writers
who express their appreciation towards the eastern land and Maugham is one of them.
Different from those literary works that bitterly criticize China, works of Maugham
do not go to that extreme direction. Famous for his exotic writing style, Maugham is
fond of using his traveling destination as the background of his stories. Maugham
went to China in 1919 and 1921 respectively and this distant country inspired him so
greatly that he wrote down a series of stories about it. Maughma’s writings about
China involve various literary styles, including travel notes On a Chinese Screen,
fiction The Painted Veil, play The East of Suez and a lot of short stories happening in
China. Maugham records details about Chinese local customs and practices in his
works. Revealed between lines, his attitude towards China is positive in general.
“Exotic image is like a mirror, on one hand, the mirror reflects the image of the

14
exotic land; on the other hand, and more importantly, it reflects the creator’s image,
giving away the desire, fear and expectation of the creator himself” (Jiang Zhiqin
Literature 1). For native subjects, the exotic image is regarded as “the other” that
plays the role as a mirror. By comparing with the image showed in the mirror, the
main subject can get to know itself more clearly. Just as Edward Said mentions in his
Orientalism, the attitude towards the Orient, whether positive or negative, aims at
responding to the call of social development. Undoubtedly, being the participants of
the times, literature creators can by no means get rid of the influence their social
background imposes on them. Therefore, the Orient displayed in front of people is not
what it really is but mostly the outcome of deliberate choice of the westerner. As we
have mentioned in the previous two sections, from the 14th to the 17th century, Britain
was in great need of getting rid of rigorous Christian doctrine and pursuing a richer
and more open life. The prosperity and civilization of China offered an example and
support for Britain to develop capitalism. From the late 18th to the following centuries,
development of capitalism in Britain reached a peak and the country was in great need
of capital expansion, while China at that time was gradually left behind the
modernization trend. Since then, the Orient has become a land with lower status in the
eyes of the British. The negative description of China highlights the superiority of
Britain and justifies British plan to turn China into its oversea colony and market.
In fact, Maugham’s depiction about China also embodies certain purpose
related with historical background. However, different from most authors of his times,
Maugham shows his appreciation for China in his “stories of China”. In On a Chinese
Screen, Maugham devotes to constructing scenery that can remind readers of an
ancient China which was mentioned by their ancestors several hundred years ago.
Maugham dropped down the Yellow River, pursuing legend about Zhang Qian, the
envoy of the Western Han Dynasty. By observing passersby on the street, Maugham
imagined the golden age of the Tang and the Sung Dynasty which can return no more.
He wandered around the Altar of Heaven, the Great Wall and tranquil fields,
recollecting scenery of the Great Ming Dynasty. He showed his preference for
Chinese art works and antiques. Traditional Chinese paintings, calligraphy and objects
with traditional Chinese elements all grabbed Maugham’s attention. Maugham’s
nephew Robin Maugham once wrote a biography for him. In the biography
Conversations with Willie, Robin reveals that in Maugham’s villa there is a gilt statue
of Buddha. Buddhism is also an important part of Chinese culture. Seldom will a

15
westerner keep an orient god in his residence. The statue of Buddha in Maugham’s
house proves his acknowledgement of oriental culture. The temperament of Maugham
is also deeply influenced by China. He himself will remind people of China. “The
finely traced lines of Willie’s face, combined with the Oriental slant of his eyes, now
gave him the appearance of a Chinese mandarin. In fact, many people have suggested
that the Maughams must have sprung from Far Eastern lands...” (R. Maugham 105).
However, Maugham does not neglect the unpleasant things he has witnessed in China.
His writings about shabby orphanage, malnourished children and gray scenes of life
form a sharp contrast to the flourish and energetic China existing in medieval
literature.
When Maugham came, China was in the age of the transition from the old to the
new, beset by troubles from home and abroad, ordinary people’s life seemed very far
away from modernization. People’s superstitious behaviour and ignorance caused by
long-time seclusion could be seen everywhere. Some unbelievable things such as
deserting baby girls in baby tower truly happened in the Republic of China. Those
unpleasant writings of China’s dark side turn out to be the evidence of Maugham’s
discrimination against China in the eyes of many critics. As a result, definitions like
“an arrogant bystander”, “British writer influenced by racialism and colonialism” are
often used when discussing Maugham’s attitude towards China. However, by
comparing the positive and negative elements in the works of Maugham, this thesis
deems that, though Maugham records some unpleasant scenes of China, his
compliment on China is more prominent. Maugham is not so much a criticizer of
China as an admirer of ancient China in earlier era. What Maugham praises are the
spirit, value and objects that represent the classical culture of China accumulating
through hundreds of years. Maugham expresses his destination of coming to China
through his female character Kitty in The Painted Veil. The atmosphere of China
greatly alters Kitty and she finally feels that there is strength in her. The strength, in
essence, is “a path lead to peace”(286) and this path to peace exactly indicates the
course of Kitty’s growth.
Maugham was in bad mood when he arrived in China. Viewing from personal
perspective, Maugham did not get along well with his wife, Syrie. Matrimony tortured
him a lot. Viewing from social background, the First World War had just finished
when Maugham arrived in China in 1919, and the whole Europe was suffering from
the feeling of disillusion and confusion caused by the war. Maugham himself took

16
part in the war and acted as a spy for the British government. Troubled by the
aftermath of the war and the miserable marriage, Maugham came to China in order to
retreat from the oppressive and chaotic life in Britain temporarily. Just like Robert
Burton who considers China as the only prescription to cure the disease of Britain,
Maugham manages to seek comforts for himself and tries to find a way out for Britain
during his visit to China. Since China in the 20th century was not so desirable,
Maugham tried to find the signs of ancient China by contacting with Chinese people,
traveling around places of interest and appreciating traditional Chinese art works. For
him, the dark side China has shown is unexpected so he chooses to ignore it and fixes
his eyes on even the tiniest detail that stands for the ancient China in his heart.
Therefore, unavoidably, there may be some subjective supplement and imagination in
Maugham’s writings. China becomes a state that reminds the British of their
imperfection and plays the role as an orient Utopia that offsets regret and bears
expectation of Britain. With special attachment to ancient China, Maugham tries to
reproduce the glorious bygone days of China in his works by describing things that
embodies strong Chinese style and seems unchanged for hundreds of years. He firmly
believes that he can find a way for redemption from the ancient land.

17
Chapter 2 Figures Displayed on a Chinese Screen
——Maugham’s Impression of Chinese People
This chapter focuses on Chinese people in Maugham’s writings. Chinese
laboring people, women and scholars are very typical images which leave deep
impression on readers. The Chinese people Maugham chooses to describe are the
representatives of ancient China. For Maugham, they are endowed with a certain kind
of spirit that gradually forms from generation to generation. His attitude towards
Chinese people demonstrate his longing for ancient China.
2.1 Yellow Face Coolies: Demonstration of Buddhist Spirit
The chapter above mentions that western evaluation about China keeps changing
in history. Westerner’s attitude towards the Chinese is influenced by the relationship
between China and the West. After the Opium War, the situation that the Occident is
more powerful than the Orient was almost settled, thus the image of Chinese,
especially those poor laboring people is uglified at that time. Westerners generally
approve of the idea that they are a group of people wearing shabby blue gowns and
have sallow faces with plat features on them. They are elusive paradox, that is to say,
cunning and sophisticated as well as dull and ignorant. And at the time when
Maugham arrived in China, the ugly image of Chinese people went further into
westerners’ mind. According to those authors contemporary with Maugham, living
like walking dead, laboring people are very much alike in terms of appearance and
characteristics. However, Maugham’s description of Chinese laboring people is quite
different. His special attention to Chinese laboring people who live in the bottom of
society can be easily detected in his stories of China. For example, in the first scene of
his play East of Suez, Maugham creates a vivid view of life by arranging the
appearance of laboring people working on various jobs. Trackers, rickshaw boys,
barbers and sedan-chair bearers that appear in Maugham’s works have a common
name——Coolie. The image of Coolies plays an important role in his pursuing of
ancient Chinese spirit.
Maugham’s opinion of laboring people can be analyzed from the following
perspective. First, the appearance. The expression of laboring people in Maugham’s
writing is good-natured and frank rather than dull or indifferent. Even their blue
clothes becomes pleasant to see. “In his blue rags, a blue of all colours from indigo to
turquoise and to the paleness of a milky sky, he fits the landscape” (Maugham
Chinese 44). Their bodies, though still skinny, burst out great strength. In The Song of

18
the River, readers can feel the great vitality in trackers. “They strain, strain fiercely,
against the pitiless might of the stream”(Maugham Chinese 80). Referring to
Maugham’s tone, it seems that the Chinese have nothing to do with the title “Sick
Man of East Asia”. Second, the temperament. Instead of being indifferent and dull,
the laboring people display their characteristics in Maugham’s writings. Maugham
shows his admiration for bearers’ endurance and their spirit in The Beast of Burden.
It’s easy to satisfy them. No matter how toilsome the job is, coolies are optimistic. A
short break, a cheap cigarette or a small talk with companions can make them feel
contented. Coolies used to be submissive in modern western literature, but for
Maugham, they can respond to external environment even more fiercely. The song of
trackers in The Song of River is a proof of coolies’ rebellious spirit. The song is “a
sigh of despair”; “the cry of souls in infinite distress”; “the final despairing protest”
(Maugham Chinese 80).
In The Painted Veil, through the heroine Kitty’s eyes, those sedan-chair bearers
and Chinese servants are shrewd, considerate and can react to the requirements
quickly. For Kitty, their silence is not the manifestation of their stupid but the
reflection of their internal peacefulness. No matter how demanding those Chinese
laboring people’s jobs are, and not matter what kind of reaction they make when
facing with hardships, the laboring people have one thing in common, that is, all of
them do not shrink back but accept the ordeal of fate. Terrible living environment
does not weaken laboring people’s enthusiasm and confidence towards life. Their
insistence and endurance are beyond the imagination of westerners and the vitality
they manifest impresses Maugham deeply.
In Robin Maugham’s narration, his uncle’s face looks sad and grim. After losing
his parents at a very young age, Maugham depends on his uncle for living. The
depressive atmosphere in uncle’s home and his stammer result in his pessimistic
personality. His unrequited prayer leads to his abandon of Christianity. Maugham got
to know Schopenhauer when he studied in Heidelberg University and his pessimism
exactly struck a chord with Maugham’s unhappy experience in early years.
Schopenhauer is “one of the most important power that influences Maugham” (Boyle
15).
Schopenhauer points out that “the essence of life is pain” (126), and the form of
pain keeps changing but will never be eliminated thus human is unfortunate. The sight
of industrious people’s endless labor reminds Maugham of Schopenhauer’s theory

19
about suffering life. Schopenhauer himself is also an admirer of oriental philosophy
and he speaks highly of Buddhism. “He speaks highly of Eastern Buddhism, thinking
that it is the best religion in the world and declaring that Nivarna of Buddhism is
sustenance of life as well as accommodation of spirit”(Jiang Zhiqin Mirror 386). He
considers that Buddhism work Veda is the outcome of human’s greatest wisdom.
Buddhism advocates that life in mundane world is full of pain and hardships and
human beings are bound to experience torture so that they can acquire bliss and true
meaning of life. The only way to get rid of sufferings is not to forget them but to
accept them. Disappointed by western religion, it is natural for Maugham to search for
psychological comforts from the Orient thus it becomes easy for Maugham to
acknowledge Schopenhauer’s opinion about Buddhism. Schopenhauer advocates
Buddhism’s concept Nirvana which means a state one will be in after going through
unthinkable torment. “Pain not only has the impact to suppress one’s will but can
purify the mind and diminish the desire. Viewing from possibility side, it also has a
power of sanctification”(157). By observing Chinese laboring people, Maugham
detects that they embody the wisdom of Buddhism. The song of bearers, the joyful
chatting of coolies and the peacefulness of sedan-chair bearers demonstrate their
acceptation of pain. The optimistic outlook on life that laboring people show is the
vivid representation of Nirvana in Buddhism. Chinese laboring people remain in the
lowest class of society, but their attitude towards life is the one that exactly proximate
to the doctrine of Buddhism.
The wisdom of oriental religion offers Maugham a new way to explore life.
When Maugham arrived in China, it had been several thousand years since Buddhism
was introduced to China. Buddhism can be regarded as one of the oldest and the most
influential religions in China. The doctrine of Buddhism has penetrated into Chinese
society and gradually shaped common people’s personality. Despite the change of
times, it is impossible to mitigate torture that is imposed on laboring people in lower
class and religion usually turns out to be the best way laboring people resort to.
Consequently, their performance displayed in front of sufferings is the outcome of
Buddhism indoctrination and this explain the reason for Maugham’s special attention
on laboring people. Their peacefulness and poised temperament forms a sharp
comparison with uneasy and confused people in the postwar Europe. From them,
Maugham detects brilliant Buddhist culture of the past.
As a sober observation of humanity, Maugham keeps searching for a way to

20
explain life and save people from the plight life. Obviously, annoyed by the memory
of unhappy childhood and suffering from the aftermath of the First World War,
Maugham gives up pursuing the answer from Christianity completely. His
discrimination against Christianity can be seen in many of his works. Schopenhauer’s
appreciation for Buddhism offers Maugham a new way to solve questions that
confuse him. Laboring people are just the embodiment of the ancient brilliant
Buddhist culture. In Maugham’s writings, they are no longer bland or boring but
complicated with distinct personality. Maugham, in essence, is a writer that stands on
the opposite side of the mainstream ideology of the West. As a result, his opinions
about laboring people are quit different from other westerners of his times. His
admiration for them indicates his consideration and attention to humanity as well as
his approval for ancient Chinese religion.
2.2 Attractive Women: Embodiment of Ancient Chinese
Imagination
Female character is always considered as an individual part in the creation of
literary character. In literary criticism, characters will be classified in accordance with
career, social class or race, but female characters are usually regarded as a whole that
independent from other categories. The same goes to Maugham’s literary creation.
Famous for his cool observation of people, character shaping is one of the most
outstanding features of Maugham’s works. Among various characters Maugham has
created, the image of woman plays a significant role and attracts the most attention of
readers and critics thus it deserves special study. Maugham cherishes a very special
and complicated emotion towards women. By studying female characters of
Maugham, many critics come to a conclusion that Maugham has misogyny. He
usually expresses his despise and hate for women. Mrs. Strickland in The Moon and
Sixpence is a typical female character that shows Maugham’s detestation about
women. Hypocritical, vain, mercenary and selfish, Mrs. Strickland is a bothersome
woman with various vices in her. The image of adorable women hardly appears in
Maugham’s works.
It is said that the collective unconsciousness is the main cause of one’s values
and personal experience is also a crucial point that directly influences one’s opinions
about things. Maugham’s attitude towards female can be analyzed from psychological
perspective. From collective unconsciousness side, discrimination against female has
deeply rooted in the mind of men all over the world for thousands of years. In western

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society, the Bible’s claim that Eve evolves from the rib of Adam settles the women’s
status as the appendages of men. Just like the famous feminist Beauvoir points out in
her The Second Sex, female remains as the second sex. Living in the society where
men hold the rights of speech, it is inevitable for Maugham to be affected by the
thought. The other factor that affects one’s values is the experience of one’s own.
Childhood bereavement as well as unhappy marriage directly results in Maugham’s
hate against women. Maugham’s mother died when he was only eight years old. The
enormous sorrow of losing his beloved finally turned into a strong desire for female’s
love. However, his desire failed to come true. Ill-looking appearance and stunted
figure prevented him from pursuing love without difficulty. Being refused by his
Muse Syvia, Maugham, in turn, started a relationship with Syrie. However, he soon
got very bored with Syrie. He hated her vanity and arbitrariness and was annoyed that
Syrie gave away his homosexual tendency. Tension between the couple grew after
they got married. Afterwards, Maugham even declared that Syrie played some tricks
to force him to marry her. Maugham once said to his nephew Robin, “But Syrie was
the greatest mistake....And I was saddled with her for years and she led me an
unhappy existence” (R. Maugham, 140-141). His hate for Syrie lasted until the end of
his life and many undesirable female characters of him were given those unpleasant
personality of Syrie. The misogyny of Maugham is universally accepted, however his
attitude towards Chinese women is quit gentle and even appreciative.
Maugham’s preference for Chinese women is obvious. In his writings, Chinese
women are peaceable, considerate and their mysterious oriental temperament has fatal
attraction for western men. The Manchu woman in The Painted Veil is a very
important character that shows Maugham’s attitude towards Chinese women. The
nameless woman becomes a representative of her compatriots and the description of
her illustrates Maugham’s appreciation for them. She is only a mistress of Waddington
and her lover never expresses his sincere affection to her. However, in fact, Waddinton
is deeply addicted to her. Kitty detects the emotion from his eyes. A proud western
officer is willing to stay in China forever for a Manchu woman’s sake, which is
enough to demonstrate how charming a Chinese woman is to westerners.
The first attractive point of the Manchu woman is her clothing and appearance
which remind Kitty of ancient China. The Manchu woman indicates the previous
Qing Dynasty which stands for an ancient China. In essence, her dressing and
appearance are the externalization of ancient China. Her gorgeous dresses and

22
accessories help Kitty get a further understanding about China——“Now she seemed
on a sudden to have an inkling of something remote and mysterious. Here was the
East, immemorial, dark and inscrutable” (Maugham Painted 197). Kitty’s feeling
actually indicates that that kind of beautifully dressed Chinese women can inspire
Maugham, thus he is fond of imaging them for they symbolize the prosperity ancient
China once owned. When he traveled around China, pleasant scenery usually
motivated his reverie about Chinese women. “Their silken dresses are richly wrought
with flowers, and their hair is precious ornaments of jade” (Maugham Chinese 40-41).
From them, he detects the values and key connotation of ancient China that is handed
on from generation to generation. Apart from dressing and appearance, the behaviour
of the Manchu woman is also attractive. She speaks little and has no direct
conversation with Kitty. Kitty can only get her ideas through Waddington. Maugham
expresses his impression about Chinese women through the image of Manchu woman.
Just like the Manchu woman, silence is the general feature of all Chinese women.
However, silence does not make them boring or dull. On the contrary, the tranquility
showed through taciturnity is exactly what their charm lies in. The Manchu woman
plays as a mirror that exposes some desirable qualities Kitty does not have. Kitty
appreciates this temperament and even feels that she herself is dwarfed by comparing
with the elegant exotic woman. Elegance and tranquility are always traditional virtues
that the Chinese advocate and Chinese women perfectly practice those virtues.
Maugham’s impression of Chinese women is also influenced by his wife. If
viewing those so-called drawbacks of Syrie from another perspective, she in fact
represents a strong-minded woman with independent personality at that time.
However, in Maugham's eyes, Syrie’s behaviour is arbitrary, headstrong and selfish.
He is usually annoyed by her deeds but have no other alternative. It seems that
Maugham does not appreciate women with that characteristic. Maugham once
explained why he held such an attitude towards women. “Women had ceased to be the
housekeepers and mothers of an earlier age, who led life apart from them, with their
own interests and particular concerns, and were trying to participate in men’s affairs
without the capacity to do so; they were content to look upon themselves as men’s
inferiors, and withal insisted on their right, their new-won right, to join in all the
masculine activities in which they knew only enough to make a nuisance of
themselves. They were no longer housewives and had not yet learnt to be good
fellows” (Maugham Summing 188-189). For Maugham, since women of his age are

23
not qualified enough to be women of the new era, he prefers them to maintain
traditional virtues just like their ancestors did. This explains why Maugham shows his
fondness for Chinese women. At the time when he arrived in China, Chinese woman
were still following “the three obedience and the four virtues” required by Confucian,
which demonstrated centuries’ custom of China. The image of Chinese woman meets
his requirement that it is better for female to keep their former features of being
humble, obedient and meek at the transition period.
Maugham mentions more than once that the Manchu woman plays as a sign of
enlightenment in The Painted Veil. According to Kitty and her friend Waddington, the
temperament of this Chinese woman triggers their reflection of life and offers them
comforts. Kitty tries to look for an answer from the Manchu princess. “I’m looking
for something but I don’t quite know what it is. But I know that it is very important
for me to know it, and if I did it would make all the difference. … I don’t know why it
came into my head that if I saw this Manchu woman I should have an inkling of what
I am looking for. Perhaps she would tell me if she could” (198-199). The Manchu
woman is mysterious and distant for Kitty and the features exactly meet her as well as
her creator Maugham’s expectation and imagination of the Orient. For Maugham, he
detects ancient China from Chinese women’s dressing and behaviour. They inspire
him and act as guides who show him a way to oriental wisdom. Since China becomes
a Utopian land for Maugham who is at loss to develop his imagination of the Orient,
the creation of Chinese woman naturally “turns out to be the reflection of the
observer’s mentality...and forms a sharp contrast with the belief and ideal of modern
western society” (Wang Liya 50). In a word, Maugham’s appreciation for Chinese
woman is out of his yearning for the bygone days and tradition of that time.
2.3 Knowledgeable Scholars: Representatives of Chinese
Ideology
After the First World War, the West suffered from a feeling of nothingness. Being
a spy during the war, Maugham was no exception. For Maugham, the western spirit
has collapsed, so he turns to the Orient for help, expecting to discover even the tiniest
trail of the ancient oriental wisdom. By pursuing Chinese wisdom Maugham tries to
find a new way to explain life and death as well as the course of the world’s operation.
Compared with coolies and women the thesis has mentioned above, scholars
represent a higher social class and the highest level of Chinese culture. Most Chinese
scholars in the early Republican period were among the earliest generation influenced

24
by both eastern and western culture. For Maugham, communicating with Chinese
scholars must be the greatest chance for him to get further contact with ancient
Chinese culture. On one hand, Chinese scholars have a good command of Confucian
education and the essence of traditional culture during their early study. On the other
hand, with western culture gradually introduced to China, going abroad for further
study becomes a choice for some famous scholars of that time. Therefore, they are
able to exchange opinions with westerners without difficulty. Maugham records his
meeting with two famous Chinese scholars in his On a Chinese Screen. Since China
has lost its insurmountable status in the world and its cultural achievements are
generally neglected, seldom will a foreign visitor have the desire to talk with Chinese
scholars. It is said that Maugham “was one of the first modern British writers to visit
China”(Charles, 2). Under the circumstances, Maugham's two meetings with Chinese
scholars deserve special attention. Maugham does not mention the names of the two
scholars, but according to his later narration and others’ inference, the two scholars
are Gu Hongming and Song Chunfang respectively, both of whom have overseas
study experience.
Gu Hongming is one of the most outstanding Confucian scholars in
modern China, and is called “Miraculous Talent of the Late Qing Dynasty”. Different
from many scholars, Gu grew up in exotic land and did not receive traditional
education in his early age, but this did not affect his excellence in Chinese culture.
Being a well-known Confucian scholars all over the world, the writings of Gu
Hongming is also welcomed by the western metropolitan cities. His works have been
translated into different languages and sold in different countries. Maugham must
have read Gu Hongming’s works before his arrival in China and is very interested in
the thoughts of those works, since he admits that “here lived a philosopher of repute
the desire to see whom had been to me one of the incentives of a somewhat arduous
journey” (Chinese 91). Maugham attaches great importance to his visit to Gu
Hongming and the behaviour he performed during the visit suggests his respect for
this knowledgeable Chinese scholar. Maugham himself was by no means a person
easy to please, but in front of the fastidious and stubborn scholar, he put his pride
aside, thus no matter how ironic the philosopher was, Maugham kept murmuring
something complimentary.
Gu Hongming used to be an officer of the Qing Dynasty and even in the
Republican period, he still kept a queue. He is a anachronism who refuses to accept

25
the reform of a new era and considers he himself remains a man of the imperial past.
During his conversation with Maugham, he kept criticizing the influence the West had
violently imposed on China and expressed his affection for traditional Chinese art,
academic proposal, technology and philosophy. He bitterly condemned those students
turning back from foreign universities for they pursued western civilization blindly.
Gu is reluctant to accept the fact that China, the oldest civilization in the world, has
lost the prosperity it used to enjoy. Maugham does not satire or despise the stubborn
scholar. However, he somewhat shares the same feeling with Gu and expresses his
sympathy towards this pathetic figure. The meeting with Gu Hongming is meaningful
for Maugham.
Compared with other essays in his travel book, Maugham uses a great length to
narrate his intercourse with Gu. The reason why Maugham came to visit Gu is that he
was eager to know more about ancient China. Satisfactorily, the visit did not
disappoint him. Just like the laboring people who embody Buddhist spirit, women
who display traditional Chinese virtues, Gu Hongming symbolizes the profound
Confucianism which is the most distinct feature of ancient China. Just as Gu
Hongming himself says, he is “the last representative of the old China” (Maugham
Chinese 96.), and in deed, Maugham finds in Gu Hongming a bygone ancient China.
The opinions of the Chinese philosopher bring much of a white man’s deep anxieties
about the internal social problems in Britain and further motivate him to find a way
out from ancient China
Faced with the criticism and pride of Gu, Maugham does not feel offended but
performs great tolerance and understanding, which fully demonstrates his respect and
even approval of the defender of ancient China. However, things become different
when it comes to his meeting with Song Chunfang. The experience seems undesirable
for Maugham. Song Chunfang is an outstanding playwright and drama theorist. He is
also the one who is the first to begin studying and introducing western drama and
drama theories. In his A Student of Drama, Maugham offers a detailed depiction of
Song’s appearance and manners. Maugham had a good impression when he first saw
the respectful young scholar, but when they tried to have an academic discussion,
conflict appeared. Maugham was eager to know more about Chinese philosophy and
he mentioned Chuang-Tzu and tried to lead the conversation to the topic as deftly as
he could. However, it seemed that Song Chunfang had no interest in philosophy and
could not give Maugham a useful reply. Disappointed, Maugham considered that it

26
was useless to argue with him and tried to discuss drama with him. In Maugham’s
opinion, Song is a little rigid and nerd in academic research, therefore Maugham’s
tone in the following narration is ironic.
The reason why Maugham holds such an attitude is that Song’s performance does
not meet Maugham’s expectation. He expects to have a profound conversation about
traditional Chinese culture with this famous Chinese scholars but the conversation
does not goes well. Song desires to know more western craft in drama and tries to
operate it in Chinese drama, while Maugham hopes to see that ancient Chinese
achievements keep unchanged. The scholarly research idea of Song runs counter to
Maugham’s imagination of old China. Failing to find the ancient China from Song,
Maugham belittles Song as a “pedagogue”. Song turns out to be a timid and nerd
person in his writing. In fact, Song Chunfang is not as that undesirable as Maugham
has described. He occupies a high status in the history of modern Chinese drama.
Objectively speaking, he is over criticized by Maugham. According to reminiscence
of Song Chunfang’s son, his father “more or less represents the Chinese overseas
students since the May 4th Movement. They hope to practice what they have learnt
abroad, both science and literature, into social affairs and impel the modernization of
China”(Fu Lizhong 178 ).
Compared with Maugham’s attitude towards the two outstanding Chinese
scholars, it is not difficult to understand his evaluation criteria. “His opposite attitudes
towards Song Chunfang and Gu Hongming is closely relates to his special pursuit for
culture. Maugham is looking for a way that can use Chinese culture to make up the
deficiency of modern western civilization”(Jiang Zhiqin Mirror 394). Song Chunfang
concentrates on western theoretical learning and spends less time on Chinese
traditional ideology study. His pursuit contradicts with Maugham's purpose of coming
to China. Maugham’s scornful attitude is more out of the disappointment provoked by
his unrealized intention rather than disgust with the cautious scholar. And this shows
that Maugham has no hostility towards China. His behaviour is the demonstration of
his sincere yearning for ancient Chinese wisdom. Song Chunfang’s son also admits
that though Maugham speaks sarcastically about his father, his criticism is relatively
modest.
In terms of Gu Hongming, he speaks highly of ancient Chinese ideology and
plays as a defender of ancient China. The role he plays meets Maugham’s imagination
of China. He cherishes the memory of the previous dynasty which stands for the

27
Confucianism, ritual system and other brilliant achievements of China. He still wants
to revive the reputation China once enjoyed in the world and this attitude forms a
sharp contrast with the social tendency of westernization. They share the same
nostalgia feeling with each other, and thus Maugham respects him and considers him
a Chinese philosopher. By viewing Maugham’s meetings with the two Chinese
scholars, the thesis deems that Maugham shows no interest in the current situation of
China and also pays less attention to how western ideology has brought to China. The
final purpose of his visits to China is to follow the traces of ancient China and then
find a way out both for himself and for the West.
Summing Up
This chapter focuses on Chinese figures created by Maugham. He stands on the
opposite side of the social tendency that looks down upon the Chinese as “Sick Man
of East Asia”. Laboring people, women and scholars in Maugham’s writings present
three different social classes of China, but all of them display admirable qualities that
win Maugham’s appreciation. By observing Chinese laboring people, Maugham
detects that they embody the wisdom of Buddhism. Nirvana is the true meaning of
Buddhism and laboring people’s endurance of torture is just a reflection of the idea.
Their performance in front of sufferings offers the westerners an example. The
Elegant and peaceful Chinese women stand for the most ideal women in Maugham’s
mind. The image of Chinese woman meets his requirement that it is better for female
to keep their former features of being humble, obedient and meek at the transition
period. In Maugham’s generation, the character of British women were in a transitory
stage. However, meanwhile, Chinese woman were still following “the three obedience
and the four virtues” required by Confucian, which demonstrated centuries’ custom of
China. Maugham’s respect for Gu Hongming——the defender of ancient China and
his disappointment at Song Chunfang fully prove his preference for China in bygone
days. The temperament of laboring people, women and Confucian scholar deeply
fascinates Maugham for it means the indescribable attraction of the ancient China to
him.

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Chapter 3 Uncover the Painted Veil over Chinese Culture
——Maugham’s Utopian Imagination of China
This chapter focuses on Maugham’s pursuit of Chinese culture. The concept of
“culture” merely indicates the cultural elements appear in Maugham’s writings about
China. The idea of culture here is a generalized idea that includes landscapes,
philosophical ideology and works of art. When Maugham visited China, the country
was very backward. It is the scene of underdevelopment that makes China display a
sense of romantic and nostalgia which fascinates Maugham a lot and reminds him of
the traditional spiritual connotation of ancient China he is pursuing. Works of art and
philosophical ideology are more direct manifestation of conventional culture and meet
Maugham’s Utopian imagination.
3.1 Pastoral Landscapes: the Opposite Side of Modernization
Famous for his exotic writing style, Maugham travels around the world, looking
forward to find spiritual comforts that he could not acquire in the Europe. He shows
special affection for oriental countries, especially China. In Maugham’s opinion, the
exotic land is the habitat of his soul, the paradise where his imagination comes true
and Eden for uneasy westerners. During his visit to China, Maugham had chances to
get along with Chinese people and he detected from their behaviour and outlook on
life the core value of ancient China. Apart from people, some abstract things in
Maugham’s writings also embody his anticipation and even imagination of ancient
China. Maugham considers China as an effective medicine for the symptom the West
suffered from after the First World War. Therefore, in order to prove that his
description of China meets the expectation he cherishes before his arrival, there will
be preference when deciding the objects he wants to show. The landscape in
Maugham’s works clearly reveals this kind of preference. China was in its transition
stage when the time Maugham came. Poor, dark and chaotic are words frequently
used to describe that period. However, at the same time, due to its backwardness,
China also has the features of tranquility, isolation and conventionality. When
comparing the two sides China has displayed, we can see it clearly that the negative
side is more conspicuous. However, Maugham finally focuses on the peaceful side
and creates a pastoral atmosphere. By describing both natural and man-made
landscapes, Maugham displays his appreciation for ancient China and indicates an
oriental way leading to spiritual peacefulness for the West.
In The Painted Veil, the main characters’ attitudes towards China is expressed

29
through their reflection on the landscape. Put aside Waddington, who has already
accepted the influence China imposes on him, even the heroine Kitty, who initially
despises China, finally acknowledges the opinion that the idea and belief of the West
are harsh and brutal in front of historical Chinese ideology. The first time Kitty comes
to China, the sight of China makes her feel strange and mysterious. The feeling of
uncertainty finally turns into fear. “There were hundreds of them (junks), and they
were silent, mysterious in that ghostly light, and you had a feeling that their crews lay
under an enchantment, for it seems that it was not sleep, but something strange and
terrible, that held them so till and mute” (108). Later, when she steps on the land of
Mei Tan Fu, dirty street, mysterious religious buildings, the cry and shout of people
further frighten her. The unknown dread at last overwhelms her. In fact, the negative
image of China has lasted for several hundred years and the unpleasant scene just
corresponds to the popular “Yellow Peril”. Kitty's first impression of China can be
easily accepted by western readers. However, there is a transformation in Kitty’s
perspective. Before leaving Mei Tan Fu, her mentality has greatly changed. “The sun
of the early autumn was pleasant, and if at daybreak, the shimmering dawn lent the
neat fields the enchantment of a fairy tale, it was cold and the warmth later was very
graceful. Kitty was filled by it with a sense of beatitude which she made no effort to
resist” (240). The objects that used to be disgusting and horrible now turn into the
most beautiful and precious things. Images that stand for idyllic life, such as fields,
sunlight, river and cottage, attract most of Kitty’s attention. Scenery of the distant
small town even reminds Kitty of the Holy City which means a spiritual
enlightenment.
Maugham uses the word “beatitude” to show how delighted Kitty is when she
realizes the change inside herself. The sharp contrast between the former and the latter
attitude explains how powerful Chinese environment is to purify one’s soul. By
depicting the change of Kitty’s attitude and creating a pleasing scene of China,
Maugham aims at reversing westerners’ attitude in the past centuries that China is
dangerous, horrible and full of quirky magic. Distant, mysterious, magical are the
most frequently used words for Maugham to describe China, and those adjectives
create a graceful exotic image which exactly reflects how undesirable the West is. He
tries to prove that China is where westerners can resort to.
Similarly, when it comes to the landscape in his travel book On a Chinese
Screen, Maugham ignores those unpleasant things but focuses on the pretty natural

30
view, vivifying living scene and energetic people. In his writing, China is still a
relatively isolated land that remains unaffected by the global modernization trend and
everything keeps their most original looking.
“Put out the lantern. Behind me darkness pales to a mist of purple and I know
that soon this will kindle to a rosy flush. I can make out the causeway well
enough and the water in the padi fields reflects already a wan and shadowy
light....This is the moment of the most magical beauty, the hills and the valleys,
the trees and the water, have a mystery which is not of earth” (39-40).
The sight of China reminds Maugham of Britain, “the railway line runs along the
sea and the long shining beach and the desolate greyness of the English Channel? The
seagull flies over the wintry coldness and the melancholy of its cry is almost
unbearable”(41). Compared with the soothing landscape in China, his recall of Britain
is depressive and gloomy, the sharp contrast suggests his pessimistic thought about
the modern West, while wonderful natural landscape in China offers Maugham an
illusion that China stays far away from global modernization trend and he is still in
the bygone days.
When it comes to the living scene of Chinese people, Maugham prefers to show
that everyone gets along well with others and enjoys conventional lifestyle. Maugham
avoids mentioning modern technology in his narration on purpose and puts emphasis
on traditional transportation, ordinary articles of daily use and original agricultural
work. Chinese elements such as lanterns, carriages and painted small boats can be
seen between lines. Even the much-maligned opium den turns out to be “a cheerful
spot, comfortable, home-like and cosy” and reminds him of the sweet memory in
Berlin. Smoking opium is a fixed impression Chinese people has left on the West.
Though the essay The Opium Den testifies the impression westerners possess, it, at
the same time, claims that “fiction is stranger than fact”(Maugham Chinese 34),
suggesting western literary works’ over demonization of China. In Maugham’s
writings, modern elements are ignored and then the ancient China appears. Covered
with retrospective veil, all those agreeable depictions are the symbol of Maugham’s
yearning for a heaven-like world. For him, China remains its traditional virtues and is
better than the modern West. His appreciation for the ancient uncontaminated land
indicates his sentimental attachment for a pre-industrial period. “The descriptions
about Chinese pastoral scenery in the writings of Maugham demonstrate his
preference to consider the 20th century China as a pre-industrial society thereby to

31
criticize the modern civilization of the West”(Philip 65). From generation to
generation, numerous poets express their ambition and idea by describing natural
scenery and idyllic life, thus attractive pastoral factors exactly becomes one of the
most outstanding features of ancient China. Therefore, Maugham’s detailed depiction
of the pastoral landscape and lifestyle of China becomes reasonable and
understandable.
Compared with the fixed negative perspective westerners have had since the 18th
century, it is obvious that Maugham tries to bring back the image of ancient China in
his works whereby westerners can eliminate their fear of China or give up their desire
of turning China into a colony and finally accept his proposal that ancient China is an
effective medicine for the uneasy and confused West. His bitter satire about those
colonial officers is out of his disagreement of westerners' attempt to reconstruct China.
In fact, it is true that China in the 20th century was backward and chaotic, but it is also
true that the isolation and mystery are where its value lies. Since Maugham plans to
make use of the image of China, what readers see in his writings is the positive side of
China and there must be some intentional choices and Utopian imagination when he
prepares his creating material. The description of pastoral landscape and lifestyle
shows western culture’s rediscovery of the ancient Orient. Being regarded as “the
other” that stands on the opposite side of the West by Maugham, the paradise-like
land replaces the undesirable reality and “not only doubts the justification of modern
western civilization but denies the modernization course of China” (Wang Liya 47).
In conclusion, with special oriental complex, Maugham does not expect to see
the ancient Chinese factors replaced by the invasion of western culture. Just as a
scholar says, what Maugham really appreciates is “the ancient Chinese civilization
and traditional culture”(Chen Youbing 78)”. The reality of China is ignored and he
even tries to adds imagination to his description of China. Hence Maugham’s identity
as an admirer of ancient China is confirmed.
3.2 Works of Art: Objects Embody Ancient Wisdom
In the eyes of westerners, the art of China is the outcome of profound Chinese
culture. It was given the traditional Chinese values and stimulated westerners’ longing
for the ancient country when it was first introduced to the West. In the 16th century,
admiration for China reached its peak. Having some Chinese elements such as
porcelains, screens in interior decoration and daily life was a necessity for people
from upper class, and even a small Chinese fan became the most fashionable gadget

32
the gentry competed to possess. But in the late 18th century, with the decline in its
status, China lost its charm and Sinomania, which once overwhelmed the West,
gradually diminished. One of the most typical examples is the abandon of Chinese
design idea for gardens. Classical Chinese garden used to enjoy a high reputation for
it offered the West inspirations for their garden design but it has lost its charm since
China was left behind the modernization trend.
Maugham also mentions the neglect of Chinese artworks in his prose My Lady’s
Parlor. The British lady tries to make something of her Chinese residence, expecting
to reproduce her living room located in Britain. It is necessary for her to have a carpet,
American stove, wall paper and a screen made in Britain. Thus she does her best to
collect imported goods, but it is hard for her to get imported decoration materials in
China. Reluctantly, she has no alternative but to choose some Chinese goods that “do
not look Chinese at all” (Chinese 3). By following Maugham’s words, readers can get
a glance into the status transition of Chinese artworks.
Going against the trend of the times, Maugham insists on expressing his
appreciation for the works of art in China. For him, the immemorial civilization is
where the glamour of China lies in and artworks are the relics of it. He comes to
China in order to find the flourishing oriental country that used to appear in the works
of his predecessors. The exquisite articles are exactly the concrete reflection of the
lost civilization. In his The Cabinet Minister, Maugham visits a Chinese officer.
According to Maugham, corrupt, inefficient, and unscrupulous, the cabinet minister,
like most of his colleagues, had done numerous bad things in his lifetime. Therefore
he was by no means a respectable person. Maugham is famous for his ironic writings
and sharp analysis of humanity and the upper class or people with higher social status
often become his target. The cabinet minister must be an ideal writing material.
However, unexpectedly, Maugham does not impose much bitter or undesirable
comments on him.
The Chinese officer showed Maugham some of his works of art, including
priceless porcelains, bronzes and Tang figures as well as paintings and calligraphy.
Completely attracted by those Chinese things, Maugham vividly and precisely
depicted the features of traditional Chinese paintings. “Beautiful things! ... roughly
done with a few strokes, but with such a power of suggestion, with so great feeling of
nature and such a playful tenderness, that it took your breath away”(Chinese 10).
While Maugham marveled at the charming collection, the officer himself was also

33
addicted to his treasures. His attitude towards Chinese works of art was very touching
to Maugham. “When he held in his hand a little vase of the colour of lapis lazuli his
fingers seemed to curl about it with charming tenderness, his melancholy eyes
caressed it as they locked, and his lips were slightly parted as though with a sigh of
desire”(Chinese 10). This explains why Maugham is gentle to him. No matter how
wicked and immoral the cabinet minister is, the affection and tenderness he shows in
front of those old Chinese articles is genuine. The officer also feels sorry for the state
of China for the oldest civilization of the world is being ruthlessly swept away. Being
an admirer of ancient China, Maugham’s regret for the losing civilization is evoked by
the scene. His melancholy strikes a chord in Maugham and wins Maugham’s
understanding. Sharing the same feeling with the cabinet minister, Maugham has no
heart to criticize him. The officer, to a great extent, shows Maugham a path to the land
of ancient China.
Maugham not only shows interest in those valuable calligraphy and paintings of
famous people, but detects the beauty in the most ordinary Chinese gadgets. In his
eyes, those things also embody profound ideas of China. He feels surprised to see
patterns on cheap objects such as pewter pots, utensils of ordinary household and
coolie’s rice bowls. For the Chinese, utility is far from enough, and aesthetic value is
indispensable. Consequently, even the poorest villagers are keen on embellishments
and shop owner carefully decorates his shop-front so that both passersby and owners
can take pleasure from fantastic ornamentation. The painted utensils and sculptures,
carvings on window lattices may not have too much value for the Chinese but to
Maugham, they are the fragments of the past and represent the charms of unique
Chinese art. The tranquil and leisurely temperament of ancient China reflected by
those intricate patterns appeals to him. Maugham compliments the ordinary Chinese
people as well as Chinese craftsmen on their insistent pursuit of beauty despite the
upheaval of the era. In Maugham’s opinion, the ordinary Chinese are placid,
contented and able to enjoy themselves. The pessimistic spirit Chinese people have
shown is the outcome of traditional Chinese values that call on people to be
contented in poverty and devoted to spiritual things. Maugham’s purpose of coming to
China is to pursue the ancient China in his heart, but the sight of real China
disappoints him. Fortunately, there are still traces of the past time. Even the slightest
one can remind him of the glorious past and rouse his appreciation for the spirit core
of the ancient culture.

34
 Apart from porcelains, paintings, calligraphy and ordinary gadgets, traditional
architecture can also be regarded as a branch of artwork. But compared with other
branches of artwork, architecture can show the attainment ancient China has achieved
more directly. With excellent craft, aesthetic ideas and the wisdom of constructors
concentrated in one, grand architecture plays as the witness of former prosperity of
China. During his stay in China, Maugham visited famous ancient architectures. Some
of them left a deep impression on him and he wrote down his reflections in his travel
book.
In the Altar of Heaven, Maugham visits a place where emperors came solemnly
to worship their ancestors and realizes how sacred the spot is. Sacred and towering,
the altar stands open to the sky. Its construction embodies “unity of nature and man”
in traditional philosophy. The theory must have inspired Maugham. The proposal of
harmony between nature and human beings and the awe towards nature offer
enlightenment for the West in the era of great change. In addition, Maugham
expresses his disapproval of the West’s invasion of China by creating a story about a
foreign visitor. It is said that after the overthrow of feudal dynasty, a foreign visitor
came to the Altar of Heaven and wrote down his name in the spot, expecting that
“men would remember him when he was no more”, and “he aimed in this crude way
at immortality” (Chinese 15). But no sooner had he left, a Chinese caretaker smeared
the name with his feet and there was nothing left on the floor. Maugham tries to prove
that treating the historic civilization with awe and respect is necessary and the West’s
attempt to change China is inadvisable and unwise. It is better for China to remain as
“the other”, namely, a reference so that it can keep offering inspirations for the West.
Ancient China, represented by those works of art, is full of wisdom and
respectable temperament. Fearlessly, the solitary, mysterious country stands in the
furthest regions of the Orient and turns out to be a spiritual habitat for Maugham.
3.3 Idle Taoism: Chinese Wisdom to Explain the World
Maugham comes to China in order to find a way that can lead the West to
salvation. Philosophy is the theoretical foundation of all that Maugham has seen in
China. Being the most significant part of traditional culture, Chinese philosophy is
one of Maugham’s greatest concerns. Both the landscape and works of art that attract
Maugham are the externalization of Chinese philosophy. The temperament and
attitude Chinese people hold for life is also the outcome of the influence of
philosophy.

35
 Among all the schools of genres of philosophy, the doctrine of Taoism wins most
of Maugham’s acknowledgement. The reason why he shows great interest in Taoism
is mostly due to his admiration for Oscar Wilde. The scandal that Wilde was put into
prison for the homosexual act touched Maugham. He implicitly showed his sympathy
for Wilde by making friends with the old acquaintance of Wilde, which apparently
tells Maugham’s respect for Wilde. The reason he did this is not only because he
shares the same sexual orientation with Wilde, but mostly due to his support for
Wilde’s ideas. It is said that Schopenhauer and Oscar Wilde are two important persons
that deeply influence Maugham. “If Schopenhauer’s praise on Eastern philosophy
provides Maugham with a key to open the Oriental world, then Wilde’s appreciation
for the thought of Chuang Tsu helps Maugham gets a further understanding of
China”(Jiang Zhiqin Mirror 385).
Wilde’s proposal reflects his assimilation and imitation of the doctrine of Taoism.
Chuang Tsu’s claims that everything will finally goes to “Tao”. As the pioneer of
aestheticism in the 19th century, Wilde practices this idea into his proposal “art for
art’s sake”, regarding art as the only source of everything. The monistic idea goes
against the dualism in the Western philosophy. The latter separates material and spirit
apart, deeming that “material and spirit are the two origins of the world respectively.
They are extremely opposite thus always altering or replacing each other during the
course of development” (Wu Jing 140). In the Victorian age, economy development
reached a higher level, and the chase for wealth gradually replaced the pursuit of
spiritual abundance. The aestheticism Wilde advocates is “the criticism and overturn
of the society’s lack of spiritual pursuit and the fixed literary and artistic creation”
(Wu Jing 140). In addition, he appreciates the “inaction” principle of Taoism. “It is to
do nothing that the elect exist. Action is limited and relative. Unlimited and
absolute is the vision of him who sits at ease and watches, who walks in loneliness
and dreams” (Wilde 341). Ideas such as opposing vanity of western society and letting
things take their course present a brand new way to solve the social problems and at
the same time, perfectly meets Maugham’s mentality and philosophical demands. He
follows the traces of Wilde passionately and then keeps discovering wisdom from the
Chinese philosophy.
For Maugham, the doctrine of Taoism is an effective remedy to cure the disease
of the whole western society. The First World War brought unthinkable disaster to
Europe. It broke people’s illusion of western civilization, and a depressive atmosphere

36
reigned the West. The war deprived western people of their confidence and the West
descended into chaos. Even the United Kingdom in which “the sun never set” was
trapped in great trouble such as economic decline, and political unrest. The aftermath
of western blind pursuit for material wealth fully demonstrates that it is impracticable
for the dualism to put material and spirit in opposite position. Like most of his
compatriots, Maugham also had the feeling of incapability. Worried about the
situation, Maugham desired to do something for his motherland. At this very moment,
the Orient came into sight. In his The Razors Edge, the main character Larry starts a
journey to the East in order to find the true meaning of life. Maugham also set off for
China to find a light that can save the West form darkness. Taoism states that Tao is
the origin of everything in his world. In the universe, everything is closely connected
and mutually affected. The monism solves the dilemma caused by the western theory
of dualism. Furthermore, Taoism emphasizes the unity between nature and man. “It
starts from the philosophy of naturalism, advocating the transcendence of reality and
the freedom of personality. But the transcendence does not indicate religious
conversion but the return to nature and the harmonious coexistence between nature
and man” (Chen Shuhua 88). Influenced by this philosophy, respect and awe for
nature as well as the pursuit for harmony becomes an important core of Chinese
values. Consequently, peaceful intercourse, unity and harmony in Taoism finally turn
into an useful method for the West to get rid of crisis.
Since the West suffers from the aftermath caused by blind chase for material
wealth, western people are also the victims inevitably. In his travel book On a Chinese
Screen, Maugham depicts many western people who live in China. Most of them have
higher social status. However, their life in the exotic land is blank and meaningless.
Since foreigners cannot get along well with the new environment, most of them suffer
from mental problems. Westerners in China always feel solitude, anxious and afraid.
For example, in The Taipan, the main character is a very important person who enjoys
luxurious life and respect from others. However, demons still exists in his mind.
Unexpectedly, he is scared to death by his hidden fear. The outbreak of First World
War and the strange experience in an exotic land are the main causes of their unknown
fear and the feeling of nothingness. The deeply rooted admiration for material wealth
leads to a conflict with Chinese values. Western out-comers cannot accept the essence
of Chinese values and wisdom so alienation further worsens the mental problems of
the westerners.

37
 The same goes to Kitty in The Painted Veil. When she first came to China, her
heart was full of dread. The strange environment made her feel helpless and desperate.
But fortunately, she gradually made herself adapt to the environment and displayed
understanding towards the foreign land. During her stay in China, her friend, a
Chinese expert, Waddington played as a instructor of Kitty. It was his explanation
about Taoism that offered Kitty a clear and thorough reflection on life. By inheriting
and developing the ideas of Wilde, Maugham expresses his own understanding about
Taoism via the opinions of Waddington. Kitty vaguely felt that she must find
something though she could not tell what it exactly is. Waddington pointed out that it
is “Tao. Some of us look for the Way in opium and some in God, some of us in
whisky and some in love. It is all the same Way and it leads nowhither”(Painted 199).
This state of Tao shares something in common with Maugham’s idea of “Spirit of the
Universe”. In The Razor’s Edge, Maugham explains that it is hard to tell what Spirit
of the Universe is. It is inexpressible. Ethereal, abstract and eternal, like Spirit of the
Universe, Taoism predominates everything and acts as the absolute truth. What makes
Waddington differs from other anxious foreigners is that he enjoys himself in China
and makes himself discover the sincere sense of belonging in China. Doctrine of
Taoism somewhat become the “bible” of his. To him, Taoism means “the Way and
waygoer. It is the external road which walk all beings, but no being made it, for itself
is being. It is everything and nothing. From it all things spring, all things conform to it
and to it at last all things return. … Desire not to desire, it teaches, and leave all things
to take their course. He that humbles himself should be preserve entire”(Maugham
Painted 228-229). With his help, Kitty was cured and found the internal peacefulness.
Just like Waddington, Maugham feels at home in China. He claims that “I love the
East. I feels nothing but comforts and happiness in the East”(qtd. in Qin Hong 159).
He finds his spiritual habitat in China for his acceptance and understanding of Taoism.
It is acknowledged that Taoism is useful to cure the mental sufferings of people.
From time immemorial, Taoism is the last resort for those men of letters who fail to
realize their aspirations in official circle. And in modern times, there are still some
people assert that Taoism can be used to cure psychological trauma. Maugham must
have detected Taoism’s utility in psychological treatment by referring and learning
Wilde’s discussion on it. For him, Taoism finds the law of human development. It is
the supplement and correction for western civilization. Advocating unity between
nature and man, inaction and all action, Taoism offers the West a new inspiration for

38
their future. In Maugham’s eyes, with the philosophy of Taoism, China becomes the
final spiritual homeland for the West.
Summing Up
Maugham describes the original scene of China at great length, trying to create
an idyllic living atmosphere. Because of the seclusion policy, China was very
backward, but Maugham detected the sense of romantic and nostalgia in the
backwardness. Compared with the modernization process China was experiencing, he
preferred China to remain unchanged for the pastoral scenery has the atmosphere of a
Utopian land. In addition, Maugham marveled at those exquisite works of art that had
already lost their charm. To Maugham, those art works embody the accumulated
wisdom and respectable temperament which are the externalization of ancient China.
And the philosophy of Taoism even becomes the spiritual guide of Maugham. He
admires the “inaction” proposed by Taoism and obtains internal consolation from it.
For Maugham, philosophy of Taoism is the essence of ancient Chinese ideology. He
regards ancient Chinese as a therapy to cure the spiritual disease of the West. After the
First World War, the West was suffering from spiritual nothingness. In Maugham’s
eyes, values of the West have collapsed, so he turns to the Orient for help. With the
philosophy of Taoism, China becomes the final spiritual homeland for the West. By
pursuing Chinese culture, Maugham tries to find a new way to explain life and death
as well as the course of the world’s operation.

39
 Conclusion
China used to enjoy a high reputation. Its political system, economic prosperity
and profound culture once won enthusiastic pursuit of the West. However, with the
accomplishment of the first industrial revolution, the West grew powerful and actively
started the colonial expansion. China was left behind the global trend and
consequently lost its unmatchable status. Since literary works, to a great extent, are
the refection of history, the image of China in literature is correspondingly changed.
At Maugham’s times, China was regarded as an uncivilized and backward land.
Chinese people were ugly, ignorant and calculated. The notorious Fu Manchu is one
of the most typical literary characters that show how the West looks at China. The
hate for the Fu Manchus as well as the debasement of China haunts the West for a
long time. As a result, many critics tend to regard Maugham as an ignorant out-comer.
His attitude towards China is full of pride and prejudice. He bitterly criticizes what is
happening in China so that he can highlight the superiority of the West. There exists
many misunderstanding in Maugham’s writings. However, by analyzing Maugham’s
description of Chinese people, Chinese culture, the thesis detects Maugham’s
admiration for China, and be more precisely, for ancient China. After the First World
War, Europe suffered from the feeling of disillusioned. Western people began to doubt
the rationality of their civilization. Values of the western world seemed impracticable.
At the same time, as a spy who served the British government, Maugham himself
more or less suffered from psychological trauma. Under the circumstances, Maugham
turned his eyes to the East, looking forward to find a new way out for both the West
and himself. Given that China once enjoyed the highest position of the world, the
civilization of the ancient country attracted Maugham’s attention. Because Maugham
wants to make full use of ancient Chinese civilization to prove his proposition,
unavoidably, his admiration must be tinted with the colour of imagination or
embellishment.
When Maugham came to China in the twenties of the 19th century, China was in
chaos and Maugham must have witnessed many unpleasant things. However,
Maughma paid no attention to them but devoted himself to tracing objects that
embody the virtues and spiritual core of ancient China. Laboring people that
demonstrate Buddhist ideas, Chinese women embody ancient Chinese temperament
and scholars who stick to traditional Chinese values greatly fascinate Maugham.
Chinese pastoral lifestyle, conventional works of art and practice of influential Taoism

40
create a nostalgia atmosphere which gives Maugham a delusion that the old country
remains unchanged and then he ignores the social upheaval modern China is
experiencing. In the writings of Maugham, China, stands in the furthest region of Asia,
turns out to be a Shangri-la or Utopia where the West can find spiritual comforts.
Therefore, Maugham’s attachment to the ideal land is expressed through his
admiration for ancient China.
In Orientalism, Edward Said points out that the Orient is almost a place created
by the West out of thin air. Since time immemorial, it stands for romance, exotic
atmosphere, beautiful scenery, unforgettable memory and extraordinary experience.
The elements of the Orient mentioned by Said can be seen in Maugham’s creation.
Though the thesis regards the ancient China in Maugham’s writings as a Utopia, the
description of it is not completely groundless. There are indeed some imagined parts
in his writings but all of them are created on the basis of what he really sees and
experiences in China. “Utopia” is a very popular theme in literature history. But the
creation of Utopia is not groundless. “Utopia is not a completely fancied land. It lies
in man and material’s inherent openness to and expectation for future. It is a dynamic
process and a ‘haven’t realized’ possibility”(Jiang Chengyong and Wu Yuesu eds. 47).
Compared with the general attitude held by his contemporaries, Maugham’s
admiration for ancient China can be detected between lines. In view of Maugham’s
ignorance of Chinese situation at that time, the modernization and westernization of
China in the early 20th century did not win Maugham’s support. Maugham can only be
regarded as an admirer for ancient China. And his focus on ancient China indeed
opens up a new way for the West in trouble. His comments and reflection on ancient
China offers inspiration for western world and imposes profound influence on his
following generation. And beyond that, his advocacy for ancient Chinese civilization
can also strengthen the identification and confidence of Chinese people a little so that
they will not belittle their own culture in the global westernization trend.

41
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