CONVERSION TABLES

THERMODYNAMIC FORMULAS

Density 𝑚
ρ=
𝑉
Specific volume 𝑉
v=
𝑚
Specific weight γ=
𝑊
𝑉
Specific gravity (relative density) of a liquid 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
Specific gravity (relative density) of a gas 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Kelvin to Celsius 𝐾 = °𝐶 + 273.15

Celsius to Kelvin °𝐶 = 𝐾 − 273.15
Celsius to Fahrenheit °C =
5
(°𝐹 − 32)
9
Fahrenheit to Celsius 9 (°𝐶)
°𝐹 = + 32
5

Pressure 𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
Pressure exerted by a fluid over a surface 𝑃 = ρhg
area

Pressure absolute 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS

Internal energy ∆𝑈 = 𝑈𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙

∆𝑈 = 𝑄 + 𝑊
PV-WORK

Work 𝑊 = 𝑓𝑠
𝑉2
𝑊 = − ∫ 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1
Expansion PV-work 𝑉2
𝑊 = −𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1
𝑊 = −𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

Compression PV-work 𝑉2
𝑊 = −𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1
𝑊 = −𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

Irreversible Expansion PV-work 𝑉2

𝑊 = −𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1
𝑊 = −𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

Reversible Expansion PV-work 𝑉2

𝑊 = − ∫ 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1

ENTHALPY

Enthalpy 𝐻 = 𝑈 + (𝑃𝑉)
∆𝐻 = ∆𝑈 + ∆(𝑃𝑉)
∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝐻 = Σ 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 − Σ 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Enthalpy of ideal gases at ∆𝐻 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑛𝑅𝑇
constant pressure and
temperature
Enthalpy of solids and ∆𝐻 = ∆𝑈
liquids at very low pressure

HEAT OF REACTION

Heat of reaction at constant volume 𝑄𝑣 = ∆𝑈

Heat of reaction at constant pressure 𝑄𝑝 = ∆𝐻
Heat of vaporization 𝑄𝑣𝑎𝑝 = 𝑛∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝
Heat of condensation 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑛∆𝐻𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑛∆𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝
Heat of fusion 𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑠 = 𝑛∆𝐻𝑓𝑢𝑠

HESS’ LAW

Hess Law ∆𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Σ𝐻𝑟

STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGE OF REACTION

Standard enthalpy change of a reaction ∆𝐻°𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = Σ 𝑛∆𝐻°𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − Σ 𝑛∆𝐻°𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

CALORIMETRY

Heat capacity 1°∆𝐶 = 1∆𝐾

1°∆𝐶 = 1.8°∆𝐹
Heat 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
Heat on constant volume process 𝑇2
𝑄𝑣 = ∆𝑈 = 𝐶𝑣 ∫ 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
Heat on constant pressure process 𝑇2
𝑄𝑝 = ∆𝑈 = 𝐶𝑝 ∫ 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1
𝑄𝑝 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
Constant-pressure calorimetry ("coffee-cup" −𝑄𝑟𝑥𝑛 = (𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇)𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
calorimeter)
Constant-volume calorimetry (bomb −𝑄𝑟𝑥𝑛 = 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑇
calorimeter)

ENTROPY

Rudolf Clausius’s Entropy 𝜕𝑄

𝑆=
𝑇
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 =
𝑇
Ludwig Boltzmann’s Entropy ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑘𝑏 ln 𝑊
Microstates 𝑊 = 2𝑁𝐴
Boltzmann’s Constant 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑅 𝐽
𝑘𝑏 = = 8.314
𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐾
𝐽
= 1.38𝑥10−23
𝐾
∆𝑆°𝑟𝑥𝑛 = Σ𝑛𝑆°𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − Σm𝑆°𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

FREE ENERGY

Gibb’s Free Energy 𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆

At constant temperature ∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆
−𝑇∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = ∆𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠
At standard conditions ∆𝐺°𝑠𝑦𝑠 = ∆𝐻°𝑠𝑦𝑠 − 𝑇∆𝑆°𝑠𝑦𝑠
For reactions ∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 = Σ𝑛𝐺°𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − Σm𝐺°𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
For ideal gases 𝑃2
𝑑𝑝 𝑃2
∆𝐺𝐼𝐺 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ∫ = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑃1 𝑃 𝑃1
𝑄
∆𝐺 = 𝑅𝑇 ln
𝐾
∆𝐺° = −𝑅𝑇 ln 𝐾
∆𝐺 = ∆𝐺° + 𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑄

∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 > 0 ∆𝐺 < 0 Spontaneous

∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 0 ∆𝐺 = 0 Equilibrium
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 < 0 ∆𝐺 > 0 Nonspontaneous

∆𝐻 ∆𝑆 ∆𝐺
− + − Spontaneous at all temperatures
+ − + Nonspontaneous at all temperatures
− − +/− Spontaneous at low T; Nonspontaneous at high T
+ + +/− Spontaneous at high T; Nonspontaneous at low T

𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐵 ↔ 𝑐𝐶 + 𝑑𝐷
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 ↔ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒

Equilibrium Constant 𝐾𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 [𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑

𝐾= =
𝐾𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 [𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏
Reactant Quotient [𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑
𝑄=
[𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏
[𝑃𝐶 ]𝑐 [𝑃𝐷 ]𝑑
𝑄𝑝 =
[𝑃𝐴 ]𝑎 [𝑃𝐵 ]𝑏

𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐵 ↔ 𝑐𝐶 + 𝑑𝐷

𝑄=𝐾
𝑄 Reaction reached equilibrium
=1
𝐾

𝑄<𝐾
𝑄 Reaction proceeds to the right
<1
𝐾

𝑄>𝐾
𝑄 Reaction proceeds to the left.
>1
𝐾
 𝑄
∆𝐺 = 𝑅𝑇 ln
𝐾
𝑄 𝑄
∆𝐺 = 0 Reaction is at equilibrium
=1 𝑙𝑛 =0
𝐾 𝐾
𝑄 𝑄
∆𝐺 < 0 Reaction is spontaneous
<1 𝑙𝑛 < 0
𝐾 𝐾
𝑄 𝑄
∆𝐺 > 0 Reaction is not spontaneous
>1 𝑙𝑛 > 0
𝐾 𝐾

Heat Engine

Heat engine 𝑄𝐻 = 𝑄𝐶 + 𝑊
Thermal Efficiency 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 |𝑄𝐶 |
𝜂= = 1−
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 |𝑄𝐻 |

Nuclear Notations

X: Chemical Symbol
𝐴
A: Mass number (protons + neutrons) 𝑍𝑋
Z: Atomic number (protons)

Nuclear Decay

Alpha decay 226

88𝑅𝑎 → 222
86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝛼
Beta decay (𝛽 − decay, Negatron Emission) 63
28𝑁𝑖 → 63
29𝐶𝑢 + −10𝛽
Beta decay (𝛽 + emission, Positron Emission) 11
6𝐶 → 11
5𝐶𝑢 + 01𝛽
Beta decay (Electron Capture) 55
26𝐹𝑒 + −10𝑒 → 55
25𝑀𝑛

Valley of Stability

Too many protons result in too much repulsive force. (𝛽 + emission, EC)
Too many neutrons make the nucleus too crowded. (𝛽 − decay)
Too much of both protons and neutrons. (𝛼 decay)

Predicting Nuclear Stability

Magic numbers of protons 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82

Magic numbers of neutrons 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82,126
N/Z ratio (N = neutrons, Z = protons) 𝑍 > 83 is radioactive
20 < 𝑍 < 83 are stable at N/Z ratio of 1.5:1
𝑍 < 20 are stable at N/Z ratio of 1:1

Predicting the Mode of Decay

𝛼 decay 𝑍 > 83
(𝛽 − decay, Negatron Emission) 𝐴(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟) > 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑁/𝑍 is higher than the band
(𝛽 + emission, EC) 𝐴(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟) < 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑁/𝑍 is higher than the band

Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

Decay Rate Δ𝑁
𝐴=− = 𝑘𝑁
Δ𝑡
Half-life ln 2
𝑡1/2 =
𝑘
Decay constant ln 2
𝑘=
𝑡1/2
1 Becquerel (Bq) 1 𝑑/𝑠
1 Curie (Ci) 3.70 × 1010 𝑑/𝑠

Nuclear Fission

Mass defect 𝛥𝑚 = [𝑍(𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑒 ) + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 ] − 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

∆𝑚 = 𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
Binding energy ∆𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2
Nuclear Fusion

%mass converted to energy 𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 − 𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

%𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =
𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Nuclear Transmutation
14
1𝑁 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 17
8𝑂 + 11𝐻 14
1𝑁 (𝛼 , 11𝐻 ) 178𝑂

Ionizing Radiation