I.

1. Đại suy thoái (Great Depression) năm 1929:

 Sự kiện: Trong thập kỷ 1920, thị trường chứng khoán tại Hoa Kỳ phát triển mạnh, tạo ra một sự bùng nổ
kinh tế. Tuy nhiên, vào tháng 10 năm 1929, thị trường chứng khoán bắt đầu sụp đổ và tiếp tục giảm mạnh
trong thời gian dài.
 Hậu quả: Đại suy thoái lan rộng khắp toàn cầu và kéo dài trong hơn một thập kỷ. Số lượng ngân hàng bị
đóng cửa tăng lên đáng kể. Người dân mất việc làm, doanh nghiệp phá sản và sự suy thoái kinh tế diễn ra
trên diện rộng. 76 000 công ty đóng cửa trải dài từ 1929-1931 ¼ dân số lao động thất nghiệp tại Mỹ.
Khoảng 13 triệu cổ phiếu được bán tháo trên thị trường vào ngày thứ 5 đen tối. Gần 4.200 ngân hàng phá
sản xuyên suốt 3 năm (1929-1931). Tỷ lệ thất nghiệp báo động với hơn 40 triệu người vào năm 1932.
Việc thanh toán bằng vàng bị dừng. Tiền tệ bị mất giá .Nhập khẩu từ các quốc gia khác bị ngừng trệ, gây
lực cản trực tiếp lên nền kinh tế của các quốc gia xuất khẩu công nghiệp, khiến họ gặp khó khăn trong
quá trình phục hồi. Các quốc gia xuất khẩu nhiên liệu thô và nông sản trở thành nạn nhân gặp trở ngại
nhất khi không còn đầu ra khiến giá dầu bị sụt giảm nghiêm trọng.
 References: https://gmstock.vn/blog/great-depression-1929--cuoc-dai-khung-hoang-tai-chinh-danh-sap-
can-bang-kinh-te--xa-hoi-tren-toan-the-gioi

2. Khủng hoảng tài chính châu Á năm 1997:

 Sự kiện: Từ tháng 7 năm 1997, kinh tế châu Á chứng kiến một sự suy thoái kinh tế và đồng tiền giảm giá
đột ngột. Thái Lan là nước đầu tiên bị tác động nghiêm trọng khi không thể duy trì tỷ giá hối đoái đồng
bạc vàng của mình.
 Hậu quả: Khủng hoảng tài chính châu Á đã lan rộng sang các nước láng giềng như Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines và Hàn Quốc. Nhiều ngân hàng và công ty tài chính gặp khó khăn và phá sản. Tỷ lệ thất
nghiệp gia tăng và nền kinh tế châu Á mất điểm mạnh.
References: https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%E1%BB%A7ng_ho%E1%BA%A3ng_t%C3%A0i_ch
%C3%ADnh_ch%C3%A2u_%C3%81_1997

3. Khủng hoảng tài chính toàn cầu năm 2008:

 Sự kiện: Bắt đầu từ năm 2007, thị trường tín dụng Mỹ bắt đầu trải qua khủng hoảng khi giá nhà đất giảm
và nợ thất nghiệp tăng. Vào tháng 9 năm 2008, ngân hàng Lehman Brothers, một trong những ngân hàng
đầu tiên của Mỹ, tuyên bố phá sản, tạo ra một cuộc khủng hoảng tài chính toàn cầu.
 Hậu quả: Các ngân hàng trên khắp thế giới gặp khó khăn và phải được cứu trợ bởi chính phủ. Sự suy
thoái kinh tế toàn cầu kéo dài và gây ra suy thoái tại các quốc gia khác nhau. Tỷ lệ thất nghiệp gia tăng,
hàng triệu người mất việc làm và nền kinh tế trên toàn cầu giảm điểm mạnh. 10.000 tỷ USD bị cuốn trôi,
30 triệu người mất việc, 50 triệu người quay lại chuẩn dưới nghèo.

References: https://vnexpress.net/cuoc-khung-hoang-kinh-te-toan-cau-dat-do-nam-2008-3809531.html

II.

Bank crashes, also known as financial crises or banking crises, can have various causes and effects
depending on the specific circumstances and types of crashes. Here, I will provide a general overview of
some common types of bank crashes, their causes, and their effects. Please note that specific examples
and references can vary depending on the context and historical period.

1. Liquidity Crisis:
 Causes: A liquidity crisis occurs when a bank faces a sudden shortage of cash or liquid assets, making it
unable to meet its financial obligations.
 Examples of causes include bank runs (large-scale withdrawals by depositors), loss of confidence in the
bank's stability, or a sudden decline in the value of assets held by the bank.
 Effects: A liquidity crisis can lead to the bank's failure and potential bankruptcy if it cannot secure
additional liquidity.
 Consequences may include the freezing of depositor funds, the closure of branches, and the need for
government intervention to stabilize the situation.
 Reference: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10479-022-04805-1

2. Credit Crisis:
 Causes: A credit crisis occurs when there is a severe contraction in the availability of credit in the
financial system.
 Causes may include excessive lending and borrowing, poor risk assessment by banks, and a general
deterioration in economic conditions.
 Effects: A credit crisis can lead to a sharp reduction in lending, which negatively affects businesses,
consumers, and the overall economy.
 Consequences may include a decrease in investment, job losses, reduced consumer spending, and a
decline in GDP.
 Reference: "The Anatomy of a Credit Crisis: The Boom and Bust in Farm Land Prices in the United
States in the 1920s" by Katharina Knoll and Moritz Schularick (Journal of Financial Intermediation,
2019). https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20120525

3. Systemic Banking Crisis:

 Causes: A systemic banking crisis refers to a widespread and severe disruption in the banking system of
an entire country or region.
 Causes can vary but often involve a combination of factors such as weak regulatory oversight, excessive
risk-taking by banks, unsustainable lending practices, and macroeconomic imbalances.
 Effects: A systemic banking crisis can have far-reaching consequences, including bank failures, economic
recession, and a loss of confidence in the financial system.
 Consequences may include a decrease in lending, a decline in asset values, high unemployment rates, and
a need for government intervention to stabilize the banking sector.
 Reference: https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20130456

4. Sovereign Debt Crisis:

 Causes: A sovereign debt crisis occurs when a country is unable to meet its debt obligations, leading to
concerns about its solvency.
 Causes may include excessive government borrowing, fiscal mismanagement, economic downturns, and a
loss of investor confidence.
 Effects: A sovereign debt crisis can have significant repercussions for the banking sector, particularly if
banks hold a substantial amount of government debt.
 Consequences may include bank losses, capital flight, reduced lending capacity, and the need for
government bailouts or international financial assistance.
 Reference: https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2015/wp1507.pdf

These are just a few examples of different types of bank crashes, their causes, and their effects. It is
important to note that each crisis is unique, and the causes and effects can vary depending on the specific
circumstances. For more detailed information and specific case studies, I recommend referring to
academic research papers, books, and reports published by reputable financial institutions and regulatory
bodies.
 III.
There are several economic factors that can contribute to bank crashes. These factors can vary in their
severity and impact from one case to another, but here are some common ones:

1. Economic Downturns: Bank crashes often occur during periods of economic recessions or downturns.
When the overall economy is performing poorly, businesses and individuals may face financial
difficulties, leading to increased loan defaults and a decline in the value of assets held by banks. This can
weaken the financial position of banks and potentially lead to insolvency.
2. Asset Bubble Burst: When there is a rapid increase in the value of certain assets, such as real estate or
stocks, it can create an asset bubble. If this bubble bursts, the value of these assets can decline sharply.
Banks that have significant exposure to these assets may face substantial losses, which can strain their
balance sheets and potentially lead to a bank crash.
3. Excessive Risk-taking: Banks that engage in excessive risk-taking activities, such as aggressive lending
practices, investing in high-risk financial instruments, or inadequate risk management, are more
vulnerable to bank crashes. If these risky bets turn sour, it can result in significant losses that the bank
may not be able to absorb, leading to a collapse.
4. Financial Contagion: Bank crashes can also be triggered by financial contagion, where the failure of one
bank spreads to other banks and the financial system as a whole. This can occur through interbank
lending, where banks rely on each other for short-term funding. If one bank fails, it can create a loss of
confidence among other banks, leading to a withdrawal of funding and a cascading effect throughout the
financial system.
5. Regulatory Failures: Weak or ineffective regulatory oversight can contribute to bank crashes. Inadequate
regulations, lax enforcement, or gaps in supervision can allow banks to take excessive risks, accumulate
unsustainable levels of debt, or engage in fraudulent activities. When these issues are not addressed in a
timely manner, they can undermine the stability of the banking system and increase the likelihood of bank
crashes.
6. Liquidity Problems: Banks heavily rely on short-term funding to meet their daily obligations. If a bank
experiences difficulties in accessing liquidity, such as a loss of depositor confidence or disruptions in the
interbank lending market, it can quickly lead to a liquidity crisis. Without sufficient liquidity, a bank may
be unable to meet its obligations, potentially resulting in a bank crash.

It's important to note that bank crashes are complex events influenced by multiple factors, and the specific
combination and interplay of these factors can vary in each situation.

Here are a few notable examples of bank crashes and some relevant data:

1. The Global Financial Crisis (2007-2008):

 Example: The collapse of Lehman Brothers in September 2008.
 Data: The crisis resulted in massive write-downs and losses for financial institutions globally. The
International Monetary Fund estimated that the total losses stemming from the crisis amounted to around
$4.1 trillion.
2. Savings and Loan Crisis (1980s-1990s) in the United States:
 Example: The failure of Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Company in 1984.
 Data: The total cost of the crisis was estimated to be around $160 billion, of which about $132 billion was
borne by taxpayers as the government intervened to rescue failing institutions.
3. Asian Financial Crisis (1997-1998):
 Example: The collapse of the Thai bank, Finance One, in 1997.
 Data: During the crisis, stock markets and currencies in several Asian countries experienced severe
declines. The International Monetary Fund estimated that the total cost of the crisis exceeded $100
billion.
4. Icelandic Financial Crisis (2008-2011):
 Example: The failure of major Icelandic banks, including Glitnir Bank, Landsbanki, and Kaupthing Bank,
in 2008.
 Data: The collapse of the banking system resulted in the country's GDP contracting by 6.6% in 2009. The
total external debt of the Icelandic banking sector at the time of the crisis was estimated to be around $86
billion, which was more than six times the country's GDP.
5. European Sovereign Debt Crisis (2010-2014):
 Example: The banking crisis in Cyprus in 2013, with the collapse of major banks such as Laiki Bank and
Bank of Cyprus.
 Data: The financial assistance package for Cyprus amounted to €10 billion. As part of the rescue, the
country implemented capital controls and imposed losses on large depositors, which had significant
impacts on the local banking sector.

These examples illustrate different periods and regions where bank crashes occurred, highlighting the
significant economic consequences and costs associated with such events.

Bank crashes can be caused by various economic factors, each with its own level of severity and impact.
One common factor is economic downturns, where a weak overall economy leads to financial hardships
for businesses and individuals, increasing loan defaults and devaluing banks' assets. This can weaken
banks' financial positions and potentially lead to insolvency. Another factor is the burst of an asset
bubble, where a rapid increase in asset values, such as real estate or stocks, suddenly collapses. Banks
heavily exposed to these assets may face substantial losses, straining their balance sheets and potentially
causing a bank crash.
Excessive risk-taking is another significant factor, as banks engaging in aggressive lending practices,
high-risk investments, or inadequate risk management become more vulnerable. If these risky endeavors
result in significant losses that the bank cannot absorb, it can lead to a collapse. Financial contagion is yet
another factor, where the failure of one bank spreads to other banks and the entire financial system.
Interbank lending plays a crucial role in this process, as the failure of one bank can create a loss of
confidence, triggering a withdrawal of funding and causing a cascading effect throughout the system.
Regulatory failures also contribute to bank crashes, as weak oversight, inadequate regulations, lax
enforcement, or supervision gaps allow banks to take excessive risks or engage in fraudulent activities.
When these issues are not addressed promptly, they can undermine the stability of the banking system and
increase the likelihood of crashes. Liquidity problems represent another critical factor, as banks heavily
rely on short-term funding for daily operations. Difficulties in accessing liquidity, such as loss of
depositor confidence or disruptions in the interbank lending market, can quickly lead to a liquidity crisis.
Without sufficient liquidity, a bank may fail to meet its obligations, potentially resulting in a crash.
It is important to acknowledge that bank crashes are complex events influenced by multiple factors. The
specific combination and interplay of these factors can vary in each situation, making it necessary to
carefully analyze and address the unique circumstances surrounding each crash.
Here are a few notable examples of bank crashes and some relevant data:
The Global Financial Crisis (2007-2008):

1. The collapse of Lehman Brothers in September 2008 serves as a poignant example of the global
financial crisis. This event triggered a chain reaction of failures and massive write-downs in
financial institutions worldwide. According to the International Monetary Fund, the total losses
 resulting from the crisis amounted to an estimated $4.1 trillion, making it one of the most
significant financial crises in history.

Savings and Loan Crisis (1980s-1990s) in the United States:

2. The failure of Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Company in 1984 stands out as a
prominent event during the Savings and Loan Crisis. This crisis, characterized by risky lending
practices and inadequate regulatory oversight, led to the collapse of numerous savings and loan
associations. The total cost of the crisis reached approximately $160 billion, with taxpayers
shouldering around $132 billion as the government intervened to rescue failing institutions.

Asian Financial Crisis (1997-1998):

3. The collapse of Finance One, a Thai bank, serves as a representative example of the Asian
Financial Crisis. This crisis had widespread ramifications, as several Asian countries experienced
sharp declines in stock markets and currencies. The International Monetary Fund estimated that
the total cost of the crisis exceeded $100 billion, leading to profound economic turmoil and
necessitating significant international assistance.

Icelandic Financial Crisis (2008-2011):

4. The failure of major Icelandic banks, including Glitnir Bank, Landsbanki, and Kaupthing Bank,
in 2008 marked a severe banking crisis in Iceland. The collapse of the banking system caused the
country's GDP to contract by 6.6% in 2009. At the time of the crisis, the total external debt of the
Icelandic banking sector was estimated to be approximately $86 billion, surpassing the country's
GDP by more than six times.

European Sovereign Debt Crisis (2010-2014):

1. The banking crisis in Cyprus in 2013, exemplified by the collapse of major banks such as Laiki
Bank and Bank of Cyprus, illustrates the challenges faced during the European Sovereign Debt
Crisis. Cyprus required a financial assistance package amounting to €10 billion to mitigate the
crisis's impact. As part of the rescue, the country implemented capital controls and imposed
losses on large depositors, causing significant disruptions to the local banking sector.