функціонують тільки на тлі всього тексту, саме тому текстові уривки необхідно
аналізувати у певній послідовністі (див. також схеми інтерпретації та
стилістичного аналізу на с 58-59):
• визначити джерело, з якого взято уривок, та його автора;
• сформулювати тему, основний конфлікт та головну ідею уривку;
О описати загальний характер уривку (опис, розповідь, міркування або їх
комбі нація);
О ідентифікувати авторський спосіб викладу (об'єктивізований чи суб'єктивізо-
ваний) та, за можливістю, тип оповідача (персоніфікований або
неперсоніфіко ваний, учасник або свідок, автор, герой або другорядний
персонаж тощо);
Q охарактеризувати тип викладу (пряма мова, авторська мова, невласне-пряма
мова, внутрішній монолог), а якщо йдеться про описові уривки — план
зобра ження (широкий, або панорамний, середній, близький);
• визначити композиційно-стилістичну значимість окремих частин уривку та
послідовно, у порядку пріоритетності для даного уривку, ідентифікувати
лексичні, синтаксичні, семасіологічні, морфологічні та фонетико-графічні
виразні засоби та стилістичні прийоми, використані в тексті, описати їхній
взаємозв'язок та стилістичні функції через співвіднесення конкретних мовних
явищ з характером, темою та способом викладу.
Під час аналізу цілісних художніх текстів та великих уривків тексту слід
спочатку: О стисло охарактеризувати ті особливості літературної діяльності
автора (пері од життя, належність до певного літературного напрямку,
культурно-історич ний контекст, основні твори, головна тематика та
проблематика творчості) та стилю, які зумовлюють особливості самого твору
(час написання, жанр, тема
тощо);
• сформулювати основну ідею тексту, задум автора, різні варіанти
інтерпретації назви твору;
О визначити композиційну структуру твору (експозиція, зав'язка, розвиток дії,
кульмінація, розв'язка, кінцівка) або уривку, розкрити взаємозв'язок сюжету
(послідовності подій у реальній дійсності) та фабули (послідовність викладу
подій у тексті);
• розбити текст на частини за змістом і далі просуватися згідно з етапами,
визначеними для аналізу невеликого уривку тексту.
Більш детально основні прийоми стилістичного аналізу художнього тексту
ви кладено у "Замітках щодо стилістичного аналізу художнього тексту"
О.М.Моро- ховського (див. Л.М. Хохаріна-Семерня. Advanced English. - К.: Вища
школа, 1983.
- С. 179-195), а також у посібниках з стилістичного аналізу та інтерпретації
тексту інших авторів (див. список рекомендованої літератури на с.50). В кінці
брошури наведено приблизний список фраз, які можуть бути використані під
час аналізу та інтерпретації тексту.
SEMINA R
SEMINA R 1
PHILOSOPHICAL AND GENERAL SCIENTIFIC FUNDAMENTALS OF STYUSTICS
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Methodological fundamentals of stylistics.
2. Basic approaches to the investigation of language. The functions of language.
3. General scientific fundamentals of stylistics.
a.v Stylistics and the theory of information. The notion of information. Basic and
additional information. Types of additional or connotative information. 't3.~t^ ff.
ЪЦ Principal model of the information transmission. Basic components of this
model. The notions of message, code, signal, transmission channel.
Redundancy and predictability of the signal and its components.
c. Chief processes in the transmission of information: the encoding of the mes
sage, the transmission of the signal, the decoding of the signal. Hindrances
which accompany these processes. The loss and accumulation of information.
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Арнольд И В. Стилистика современного английского языка. - Л.:
Просвещение, 1981.-Є. 18-24.
Стилистика английского языка /А.Н.Мороховский, О.П.Воробь
ева, Н.ИЛихошерст, З.В.Тимошенко. - К.: Вища школа, 1991. - С. 10-21.
Долинин К.А. Интерпретация текста. - М.: Просвещение, 1985. - С. 4-13.
ДОДАТКОВА ЛІТЕРАТУРА '.......
Гальперин И.Р. Информативность единицязыка. -М.: Высш. школа, 1974. - С. 6-39.
SEMINAR 2
BASIC NOTIONS OF STYUSTICS
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Style as a general semiotic notion. Different interpretations of style.
2. The notions of norm and context. Types of context. The notion of foregrounding.'
«3. The theory of image. The structure of image.
4. The subject-matter and aims of stylistics. Types of stylistics: linguistic and literary
stylistics. Kinds of literary stylistics.
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Арнольд И В. Стилистика современного английского языка. - Л.:
Просвещение, 1981.-С.7-82.
Стилистика английского языка /АНМороховский, О.П.Воробьева, Н.И.Лихошерст,
З.В.Тимошенко, К.: Вища школа, 1991. - С. 2642.
Долинин К.А. Стилистика французского языка.-Л.:Просвещение, 1978.-С.5-21.
ДОДАТКОВА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Galperin I.R. Stylistics. -M.: Higher School Publ. House, 1981. - P. 5-
32. 2 1-5491 —5 —
3
 GENERAL LINGUISTIC FUNDAMENTALS AND BASIC NOTIONS OF
STYLISTICS POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Language - speech activity - speech; language and speech units;
syntagmatics and paradigmatics; opposition and contrast; marked and unmarked
members of the opposition; invariant and variant; the notions of selection and
combination.
2. Speech synonyms and language synonyms. Factors that predetermine
speech synonymy. Expressive means and stylistic devices as basic notions of
stylistics. Types of syntagmatic relations behind a stylistic device.
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Стипистика английского языка/А.Н.Мороховский, О.П.Воробьева,
Н.И.Лихошерст, З.В.Тимошенко, К.: Вища школа, 1991. - С. 22-26,42-29.
Galperin I.R. Stylistics. M.: Higher School Publ. House, 1981. - P.9-25.
ДОДАТКОВА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Щерба Л. В. О трояком аспекте языковых явпений и об эксперименте в
языко знании /Щерба Л.В. Языковая система и речевая деятельность. - Л.:
Наука, 1974. - С. 24-26.
Солнцев В.М. Язык как системно-структурное образование. - М.: Наука,
1971. - С. 60-71.
Долинин К.А. Стилистика французского языка. - Л.: Просвещение, 1978. - С.
160-172.
WORKING DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS (TO SEMINARS 1-
3)
The object of a science is a certain phenomenon, or a system of objects which
exict irrespective of the cognizing and transforming role of human mind.
_JffierS4jbject-rrtatter of a science covers one or several aspects of the given
object. Linguistics uses thFee basic approaches to language investigation: a)
substantial, b)
. structural, c) functional.
According to the substantial approach, language units and their subsystems
are viewed through their material form. According to the structural approach.,
language units and their subsystems are viewed from the standpoint of their
structure and the relations between the units. The functional approach aims at
investigating the out ward aspect of language units as well as their subsystems
through studying these units within a wider system or environment.
Function is a role of a language unit or a subsystem of such units in
communication. Aim at large is a presupposed result of conscious human
activity.
Pragmatic aim is the aim which consists in changing the state of the listener
as the result of communication.
Linguistic (constructive) aim lies in building an utterance from the structural
ele ments of a language for achieving a certain pragmatic aim.
Stylistics is a linguistic discipline which studies nominative and communicative
lan guage units and the principles according to which the units of all language levels
are selected for achieving a certain pragmatic aim in different communicative
situations.
There are three main modes of sound arrangement in instrumentation:
Information, in terms of philosophy, is the inner content of the process of
reflection which results in changing the characteristics of some objects due to the
influence of other objects they interact w i t t L ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Denotative information islhe conferral nucleus of a language unit which 1)
names the subject-matter of communication; 2) is not predetermined by the
communication act; 3) directly or indirectly refers to the object or notion of reality.
Connotative information is the contential periphery of a language unit which: 1)
de pends upon different aspects of communication act (time, participants etc.); 2)
expresses the speaker's attitude to the subject-matter of communication, to the
listener or to the social status of the interlocutors.
Message is the information which the speaker intends to transmit to (or, rather,
to provoke in) the listener.
Signal is the information materialized verbally (e.g. Srfa sound form) ornon-
verbally (e.g. a dance, a piece of music etc.), as a text etc.
Communication channel is constituted by the physical, situational, cultural,
social, economic, or political environment in which the signal is transmitted,
Language is the system of signs, the relations between them and the rules of
their usage.
Speech activity is the process of converting the language system into speech
in accordance with fixed rules and patterns.
Speech is the materialization of language in communication.
I Paradigmatics is a set of relations between the language units of one class
which are based on association.
Syntagmatics is a set of linear relations between the speech units of one level
within a unit of a higher language level.
An expressive means (EM) is a marked member of a stylistic opposition which
has an invariant meaning in language. U l w l y ^ w ^ y>, c*\*< ts
A stylistic device (SD) is an intentional change of a fixed (usual) distribution of
language units in speech.
SEMINA R
4
PHONETIC AND MORPHOLOGICAL MEANS OF STYLISTICS
1. PHONETIC MEANS OF STYLISTICS
Phoneme is the main unit of the phonological level. Its chief function is to
differentiate meaningful units of the language. In contrast with the units of other
language levels, pho nemes have the expression side only, i.e. they are not twofold
signs. As no phoneme can be stylistically marked in relation to another one, there
are no EM on the phonological level. However, the English language can be
characterized by certain patterns of sound arrangement. The use of these patterns
(combinations and alterations of sounds in their syntagmatic succession) alongside
with other language means may create various stylis tic effects which give rise to
SD on the phonological level.
The patterns of sound arrangement fall into:
a) versification, i.e. the art of writing poetry in keeping with certain rules based
on language regularities and poets' experience, b) instrumentation, i.e. the sum
total of sound selection and combination modes which impart to the utterance a
certain sound organization as well as emotional and expressive colouring.
•7*
1) alliteration;
 2) assonance;
3) onomatopoeia.
Sometimes euphony is added to this list. By tradition, euphony is understood
as a harmonious sounding of the utterance. It can be also regarded as an
optimum con cordance of sound and meaning in the utterance. In both
interpretations euphony proves to be a generic notion which comprises various
ways of sound arrangement: rhythm, rhyme, epiphora, anaphora, alliteration,
assonance, dissonance, and other kinds of sound repetitions.
^jrt/M^^lliteration is a deliberate reiterated repetition of the same (or acoustically
similar) sounds and sound combinations. It is one of the most ancient SD of
English poetry. An Old English poem was completely alliteral as there were
obligatory sound repetitions in certain parts of the poem. Alliteration is also widely
used in English folklore, in proverbs, sayings and set expressions, e.g. Praise is
not pudding; Seldom seen, soon forgotten; Muck and money go together; Safe
and sound.
Nowadays alliteration can be also found in book titles, eg Man and Mice
(J.Steinbeck); Silver Spoon, Swan Song (J. Galsworthy). It is most frequent in
modern poetry where it creates a certain melodic and emotional effect while
enhancing the expressiveness of the utterance.
,уіиїШІ Assonance is a deliberate reiterated repetition of the same (or acoustically similar)
vowels in close succession aimed at creating a specific sound and contential effect.
Twinkle, twinkle, Httle star,
How I wonder what you
are. Up above the world
so high, Uke a diamond in
the sky.
(Children's Rhymes)
Onomatopoeia is a deliberate reiterated repetition of sounds and their combina
tions which, to a certain degree, imitates natural sounds. Onomatopoeia is basically
the result of alliteration, e.g. Dreadful young creatures—squealing and squawking
(D.Carter). Numerous examples prove the hypothesis of the correlation between the
meaning of the word and its sound structure.
2. STYLISTIC MORPHOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The main unit of the morphological level is a morpheme — the smallest
meaningful unit which can be singled out in a_ word. There are two types of
morphemes: root mor phemes and affix ones. Morphology chiefly deals with forms,
functions and meanings of affix morphemes, .'.,...,.....•,...,. .
Affix morphemes in English are subdivided into word-building and form-building
mor phemes. In the latter case affixation may be: 1) synthetical (hoys, lived,
comes, going);
2) analytical (has invited, is invited, does not invite); 3) based on the alteration of
the root vowel (write - wrote); 4) suppletive (go - went).
There are few language (or paradigmatic) synonyms among English morphemes
and only some of them form stylistic oppositions, e.g. he lives -he does live. Come!
- Do come! Don't forget - Don't you forget. This scarcity of morphological EM which
is predetermined by the analytical character of the English language is
compensated by a great variety of SD.
Morphological SD as a deliberate shift in the fixed distribution of morphemes
can be created by means of: a) the violation of the usual combinability of
morphemes within a word, e.g. the plural of uncountable nouns (sands, waters,
times), or the Continuous forms of the verbs of sense perception (to be seeing, to
be knowing, to be feeling); b) the violation of the contextual distribution of
morphemes, which is called form transposition.
2.1. SD BASED ON THE USE OF NOUNS
The invariant grammatical meaning of the noun, that of substance, is realized
through
grammatical categories of number, case, definiteness/indefiniteness which can be
used for stylistic purposes.
Such SD may be based on a) repeating the same words in a syntactical
construc tion, e.g. women are women, or b) using metaphorically nouns which
belong to different lexico-grammatica) classes, e.g. He is a devil with the women
(S.Barstow).
In the opposition of singular:: plural ihe latter is a marked member, and,
accordingly, the possibilities of its stylistic use are greater. Nevertheless, singular
forms can also acquire stylistic meaning , e.g. to shoot dark, to hunt pig. The
formant 's' as the marker of the category of possessiveness constantly widens the
sphere of its usage and its combinability. It frequently combines with inanimate and
abstract nouns, e.g. kitchen's work, the plan's failure. Sometimes it refers to a word
group or a sentence, e.g. The blonde I had been dancing with's name was Bemice
Crabs orKrebs (J.Salinger). As a result, the opposition N1 of N2 :: N2's N1 loses its
stylistic character.
2.2. SD BASE D ON TH E US E OF ARTICLES
Articles which form the nucleus of the category of definiteness/indefiniteness in
mod ern English may be regarded as analytical formants that might impart to the
noun a stylistic colouring.
There are two ways of achieving a stylistic effect through the usage or non-
usage of articles:
1) the violation of usual combinability of the definite and indefinite articles with
proper names and the nouns denoting unique objects (sun, moon, sky, earth).
The indefinite article with proper names might acquire evaluative meaning. While
the definite article indicates a temporary or permanent quality of the person in
question. Names of unique objects while used with the indefinite article acquire
the meaning "one of many";
2) the transposition of the meaning of an article in context. In this case the
objects or phenomena are introduced by the narrator as if they are familiar to the
reader. This device is sometimes called in medias res (the beginning from the
middle).
2.3. SD BASE D ON TH E USE OF ADJECTIVES
In contrast with nouns, adjectives have only one grammatical category, that of
com parison. The violation of morphemic combinability in adjectives which express
different degrees of comparison are typical of advertising techniques, e.g. the most
Italian car. The meaning of comparison can be also expressed lexically throgh
equonisms, e.g. senior—junior, and adjectives with the -ish suffix, e.g. mannish,
wommanish, which are occasional words which sound less categoric.
3 I-3491 _ q.. .
 2.4. SD BASED ON THE USE OF PRONOUNS mood forms.
Being very abstract, pronouns in contrast with nouns and adjectives are rarely
used stylistically, which makes their stylistic usage especially expressive.
Pronouns may acquire stylistic value if they denote persons or objects that
have not been named or introduced but are still represented as familiar. This
device, in media res plunges the reader into the midst of events, making the
author's narrative more intimate (see E. Hemingway's stories Now I Lay Me and
In Another Country).
A particular stylistic effect may be created due to the usage of archaic (thee,
thou, thy) or low colloquial forms of pronouns. While archaic forms make the
speech sound official, solemn, or poetical, low colloquial forms usually render
some speech character• istics. Pronouns can also undergo various contextual
transpositions:
1) when we is used instead of I (/ «* we transposition):
a) Pluralis Auctoris ("editorial we"), when the author speaks on
behalf of a certain group, party, or class;
b) Pluralis Majestatis, when we is used as a symbol of royal power;
c) Pluralis Modestial, when we is used as a means of involving the
reader or listener into the author's thoughts. It is typical of oral or written
scientific prose;
d) when we is employed to impart to the utterance a jocular
unceremonious colouring;
2) / •* one transposition which gives an utterance a more general,
impersonal character;
3) / <* you transposition which frequently occurs in reported speech and
some descriptions;
4) / •* he/she transposition that takes place when:
a) the speaker tells his/her life story as an onlooker;
b) the speaker addresses himself/ herself as an interlocuter;
c) the speaker overstresses his/her relevance;
d) the speaker laughs away what is said about him/her by the others;
5) you # we ("clinical we") transposition, which conveys a patronizing
attitude of the senior/ superior to the junior/ inferior. It can also create a
humorous effect.

2.5. SD BASED ON THE USE OF ADVERBS

Adverbs as one of the means of communicating intensity may be:
a) stylistically neutral, typical of both written and oral spech (exceedingly
quite, too, utterly);
b) stylistically marked, typical of oral speech only (awfully terribly, dreadfully
etc.).
The latter are close to intensifying particles.
Forma! differentiation of suffix and non-suffix adverbs in Modem English is
supported by their stylistic usage. The use of non-suffix adverbs is typical of the oral
form of speech. In belles-lettres style they can become SD which impart greater
vividness and expressiveness to the personage's speech. Both types of adveibs may
be found in the publicistic style.

2.6. SD BASED ON THE USE OF VERB S

The existing diversity of verb categories, forms and constructions makes this
part of speech the richest one as to its stylistic possibilities. The stylistic potential of
the verb finds its obvious manifestations in the use of aspect, tense, voice, and
 Veib aspect forms have a lot of synonyms which allow diverse
synonymous substi• tutions. Present, Past and Future Continuous forms,
being more emotional than Indefi• nite ones, are frequently used instead
of the latter to emphasize the emotional tension of the utterance or to
impart politeness to it.
The interchange of verb tense forms (past with historic present or present
with
past or future) in the narrative makes the events, actions and
situations described more vivid.
Passive constructions which might have a greater emotional charge than
active
ones, because of their implicit agent, can make a literary text more expressive.
Impersonality accounts for either expressive or habitual use of
passive construc• tions in those texts (mostly scientific papers) which are
characterized by impartiality of judgement and objectiveness. Passive
forms are also wide spread in colloquial speech, in the publicistic and
official styles.
The category of mood, due to its modality, the expression of the
speaker's attitude to the events and phenomena described, also enjoys
a great stylistic potential.
While considering the stylistic usage of the imperative mood, it is
important to take into account: social factors (age, social
status,educational background, relations be• tween the interlocutors)
and different attitudional overtones (categoric, pressing, mild,
affectionate, threatening, ironical). These shades of meaning are chiefly
rendered by means of intonation, but they can be also stressed by
syntax (please, kindly, will you? the use of you to intensify the hashness
of tone).
Imperative mood forms in a literary text, especially in its title, are
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка. - Л.:
Просвещение, 1981.-0.138-157,208-221.
Стилистика английского языка /А.Н.Мороховский, О.П.Воробьева, Н.И.Лихо-
шерст, З.В.Тимошенко. - К.: Вища школа, 1991. - С. 50-56, 70-92.
ДОДАТКОВА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Galperin I.R. Stylistics. - M.:Higher School Publ. House, 1981. P. 123-136.
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT
Analyse the excerpts, following the tentative pattern:
1) Name the book or poem the fragment is taken from.
2) Identify the general character of the excerpt (narration, description,
expository spech) and its topic (theme).
3) Identify the manner of presentation (objectivized or subjectivized), the form
of presentation (direct speech, reported speech, first-person narration, interior
monologue, or dialogue etc.) and the type of characterization (direct or indirect). In
case of descrip tion define its plane (close up, middle, or panoramic view).
4) Describe the stylistic effect achieved and identify the means (phonetic,
morpho logical, lexical, syntactical, semasiological EM and SD) used to achieve it.
expand on their interaction and stylistic functions.
Sample
used to create an illusion of the author's or the narrator's immediate contact with
the reader. Such forms are also frequent in the publicistic, oratorical, and
newspaper texts.
Semantics of the subjunctive mood forms which express wish, supposition,
possibility, and unreality predetermine the use of these forms in all the styles of
Modem English.
Thus, the synthetical forms of the subjunctive mood which were looked upon
as obsolete have gained currency especially in American English. Such forms
impart to literary texts colloquial connotations. In the publicistic style do is
preferred to the analyti• cal form with should which is regarded as more formal.
Subjective emotional evaluation may be also conveyed by means of the "emotional
should" or the "would+infmitive" construction, which expresses supposition or the
repeti• tion of actions, e.g. "Why should I be ashamed of myself?-asked Gabriel"(J
Joyce); Now that there was something to be seen for his money, he had been
coming down once,
twice, even three times, a week and would mouse about among the debris for
hours... And he would stand before them for minutes together (J. Galsworthy).
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Phonetic means of stylistics.
2. Morphological means and devices of stylistics:
2.1. SD based on the use of nouns
2.2. SD based on the use of articles
2.3. SD based on the use of adjectives
2.4. SD based on the use of pronouns
2.5. SD based on the use of adverbs
2.6. SD based on the use of verbs
3* — 11 —
And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting On
the pallid bust of Pallas just above my chamber door,
And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming, And
the lamp-light o'er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor,
And my soul from pout that shadow that lies floating on the floor shall be lifted -
nevermore!
(E.Poe. The Raven)
These are the concluding lines of the famous poem by Edgar Рое The Raven which
summarize the mood of the whole text saying that a demonic black bird sitting on the
bust of Pallas will never take his beak out from the heart of the mourning man. The
morbid feeling generated by the supernatural reality of the poem is conveyed through
numerous cases of alliteration and assonance which create the effect of dream-like
transformation of things into each other, all of them having the same thread of associa
tion - the ominous atmosphere emanated by the Raven: flirting - stjll - sitting - pallid - his
- seeming - dreaming - streaming; Raven - never - chamber - demon; seeming -
dream ing - streaming; bust - just; flitting - stilj - pallid - PaHas - jamp - light -
floating; pallid - Paljas; flitting - floating - floor; flitting - still - sitting; shadow - shall.
The sensation of distress and pain which weighs heavily upon the author is ex
pressed through the repetition of "dark and heavy" back vowels and diphthongs: door -
floor - floating - soul - shadow - thows. The row is crowned with the keyword of the
whole poem "nevermore" which is given a special prominence due to its final position
intensi fied by an expressive violation of word order "Shall be lifted nevermore".
1. Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December.
And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the From my books surcease of sorrow - sorrow for me lost Lenore
floor. Eagerly I wished the morrow; - vainly I had sought to - For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels name
borrow Lenore -
Nameless here for evermore
— 12 — (Edgar Allan Рое. Тле Raven)
2. And the light, a wakened heyday
of air Tuned low and clear and
wide,
A radiance now that would
emblaze And veil the most golden
horn
Or any entering of a nedden
clearing To a standing,
astonished, revealed... That the
actual streets I loitered in Lay lit
like fields, or narrow channels
About to open to a burning river;
All brick and window vivid and
calm As though composed in a
rigid water No random traffic
would dispel
(Alvin Feinman. November Sunday Morning)
3. He owned a pet shop. He sold cars and dogs and monkeys, he dealt in
fish food and bird seed, prescribed remedies for ailing canaries, on his shelves
there were long rows of gilded cages. He considered himself something of a
professional man.
There was a constant stir of life in his dusky shop - whispered twitters,
rustling, squeals, cheeps, and sudden squawks. Small feet scampered in frantic
circles, fright ened, bewildered, blindly seeking. Across the shelves pulsed this
sudden endless flicker of life (L.E. Reeve. Caged)
4. "One doesn't fail exams," said Grimsdyke firmly. "One comes down, one
muffs, one is ploughed, plucked, or pipped. These infer a misfortune that is not
one's own fault. To speak of failing is bad taste. It's the same idea as talking
about passing away and going above instead of plain dying" (R. Gordon. Doctor
in the House)
5. Billy wasn't a Catholic, even though he grew up with a ghastly crucifix on
the wall. His father had no religion. His mother was a substitute organist for
several churches around town. She took Billy with her whenever she played,
taught him to play a little, too. She said she was going to join a church as soon
as she decided which one was right. She never did decide. She did develop a
terrific hankering for a crucifix, though. And she bought one from a Santa Fe gift
shop during a trip the little family made out West
during the Great Depression (K.Vonnegut. Slaughterhouse-five)

SEMINA R 5

STYLISTIC LEXICOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE
1. Every notional word of a natural language carries some definite
information. This informatiom may be basic or denotative and additional or
connotative. etc. Practicaliy any word, depending on its context, may acquire certain
The majority of words of the English language posses denotative connotations (honey-bum, sugar-plum).
information only. So, they are stylistically neutral: man, house, to run, red — 13 —
etc. This does not mean that they cannot be used for stylistic purposes. A Л I-3491
word in fiction acquires new qualities de pending on its position, distribution,
In the English language, there are many words which possess not only basic b) the absence of subjective evaluative connotations;
infor mation but additional information as well. c) strict referential borders;
The additional information or connotative meaning may be of four types: d) the lack of synonyms. Synonyms that they may have are purely denotative;
a) functional stylistic meaning which is the result of the constant usage of the e) the lack of antonyms.
word in definite speech spheres or situations: foe, maiden, realm are mostly used
in poetry; terms and nomenclature words are used in scientific prose style and in — 14 —
official documents;
b) evaluative meaning which bears reference to things, phenomena, or ideas
through the evaluation of the denotate: out-of-date-method - time-tested
method, firm - obstinate
- pig-headed;
c) emotive meaning which expresses the speaker's emotional attitude to the
denotate (chit, puppet, jade). Neutral words that name emotions like anger,
pleasure, and pain should be distinguished from the above mentioned emotionally
coloured words;
d) expressive meaning which does not refer directly to things or phenomena of
the objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker. It is based on
the metaphoric transfer (speaking of a man - cockerel, bully, buck).
There are no strict rules for distinguishing between functional-stylistic and
other connotative meanings. Moreover, the functional-stylistic meaning which is
connected with a certain sphere of communication may serve as a starting point
for the word ac quiring other connotative meanings.
2. Stylistic classification of the vocabulary of any language is a very
complicated problem. The existing classifications are based on different criteria,
which take into ac count common semantic and stylistic characteristics of words in
the given period of time (synchronic approach). The two criteria used for our
classification are as follows:
1) paradigmatic criterion, i.e. the absence or presence in the word semantics
of the additional information (evaluative, emotive or expressive meaning);
2) svntaqmatic criterion, i.e. the character of syntagmatic relations between the
lexi cal or lexical-stylistic meaning of the word and its context.
Both criteria are interconnected. Proceeding from them and using
N.D.Arutyunova's ideas of the word semantics, we may divide all words of the
English vocabulary into two major groups:
1. words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm which are characterized by:
a) an indirect reference to the object: fat cat (coll.) о a provider of money
for political uses (neutral) о denotate;
b) subjective evaluative connotations;
c) referential borders which are not strict: these words are of a qualifying
charac ter so they may be used to characterize different referents;
d) synonyms;
e) possible antonyms.
To this group we refer poetic diction; archaisms (archaic words); barbarisms
and foreign words; stylistic neologisms; slangisms; colloquialisms; jargonisms
(social and professional); dialectal words; vulgarisms.
2. words having no lexico-stylistic paradigm are characterized by:
a) a direct reference to the object;
 Here we refer stylistically neutral words; terms; nomenclature words;
historical words; lexical neologisms; and exotic words.
Words having a lexico-stylistic paradigm are not homogeneous; they may
enter the following oppositions'.
colloquial vocabulary — bookish vocabulary
non-literary words — literary words
general literary vocabulary ~ social or dialectal elements special
vocabulary contemporary vocabulary — archaic vocabulary.
However, the mentioned groups of words are not closed; they are
intersecting - one and the same word may belong to two or more groups.
3. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE WORDS HAVING A LEX1CO-STYUSTIC
PARADIGM Lexical expressive means of the English language are words
which do not only have
denotative meaning but connotative as well. Depending on their connotative
meaning such words fall into two major groups: literary (high-flown) words
which are traditionally linked with poetic, bookish, or written speech and
conversational (low-flown) words that are most often used in oral, colloquial
speech. Literary words are more stable due to the traditions of the written type
of speech. Coversational words are constantly changing. Within a period of
time they can become high-flown or neutral, e.g. bet, mob, trip, fun, chap.
„3,1 . STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF LITERARY (HIGH-FLOWN) WORDS
Literary words of the English language can be classified into the following
groups: , poetic diction, archaic words, barbarisms and foreign words, bookish
(learned) words.
Poetic diction.
Lexical ne6logism§ are new words that denote new objects (laser shopping,
pop promo, killer satellite). Stylistic neologisms are new names that denote
already existing objects and notions (mole - a spy who successfully infiltrates an
organization; ageism - discrimination of a person on the ground of age).
Historical words are associated with definite stages in the development of a
society ancTcaTinot be neglected, though the things and phenomena to which they
refer no longer exist. Historical words (yeoman, thane, baldric, goblet) have no
synonyms as compared to archaic words which may be replaced by their modern
synonyms.
Historical words and lexical neologisms having no stylistic meaning, do not
form lexico-stylistic paradigms. But archaic words and stylistic neologisms mark
the text sty listically, distinguishing it from neutral speech.
In fiction, together with historical words, archaisms create the effect of
antiquity, providing a true-to-life historical background and reminding the reader of
past habits, customs, clothes etc. The usage of archaisms, incompatible with
conversational words, might in some cases lead to a humorous or satirical effect.
Barbarisms and foreign words.
There are many borrowings in every language, some of them being
assimilated. We may distinguish four groups of such words in English: foreign
words, barbarisms, exotic words, and borrowings.
Foreign words are close to barbarisms, but they are characteiized by
occasional usage only, mainly in literary speech. They do not form a lexico-stylistic
paradigm, though they may be used to create some stylistic effect.
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not been entirely
assimilated into the English language preserving their former spelling and
Poetic words are stylistically marked, they form a lexico-stylistic paradigm. In
the 17th-18th centuries they were widely used in poetry as synonyms of neutral
words. In modern poetry such a vocabulary barely exists.
Poetic words are diverse; they include:
1) archaic words (commix - mix)
2) archaic forms (vale - valley)
3) historic words (argosy- large merchant ship)
4) poetic words proper (anarch, brine).
Their main function is to mark the text in which they are used as poetic, thus
distin guishing it from non-fiction texts. In modern poetry such words are seldom
used. Their stylistic meaning gets more vivid when they are contrasted to neutral
words.
Archaic words.
Archaic words, i.e. out-dated words that denote existing objects, are divided
into two groups:
a) archaic words proper: words which are no longer recognized in modern English. They
were used in Old English and have either dropped out of language use
entirely or completely changed (troth - faith, losel- worthless),
b) archaic forms of the words: corse instead of comse, an instead of and, annoy
instead of annoyance.
Speaking of archaic words we should distinguish "ageing/newness" of the word
form and "ageing/newness" of the denotate. And then, accordingly, we may
correlate archaic. words and historic words on the one hand as well as lexical and
stylistic neologisms on the other.
(5 _
4*
pronunciation. Most of them (e.g. chic, chagrin, en passant) have corresponding English
synonyms.
Exotic words are borrowed foreign words denoting objects characteristic of a certain
country (canzonet, matador). They have no synonyms in the language-borrower, do not
form a lexico-stylistic paradigm and therefore are not considered to be lexical EM, but
nevertheless they may be used for stylistic purposes.
Borrowings, if they are assimilated, do not differ much from native words as f3r as
their stylistic aspect is concerned. They are usually high-flown synonyms of neutral native
words (to commence - to begin, labour- work, female - woman).
The stylistic functions of barbarisms and foreign words are similar, they are used to
create a local colouring, to identify a personage as a foreigner, or to show his/her man
nerism.
Bookish (learned) words are mostly used in official or high-flown style (catenate,
depicture, disimprove, dalliance). In official usage, they mark the text as belonging to this
or that style of written speech, but when used in colloquial speech or in informal
situations, they may create a comical effect.
3.2. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF CONVERSATIONAL (LOW-FLOWN) WORDS
Here we refer"colloquial words, general slang words (jpterjargon), special slang words
(social and professional jargons), dialectal words and vulgarisms. Some linguists differ
entiate slang and jargon, but the difference is vague and is practically irrelevant for stylistics.
Generally, colloquial words according to their usage may be divided into three big groups:
1) literary colloquial:
--16 —
 2) familiar colloquial:
3) low colloquial.
According to the relations between their form and meaning, all
colloquial words may be divided into three subgroups:
a) words which are based on the change of their phonetic or
morphological form without changing their lexical and stylistic
meaning;
b) words which are the result of the change of both their form and
lexico-stylistic meaning;
c) words which resulted from the change of their lexical and/or lexico-
stylistic mean ing without changing their form.
The first subgroup comprises such varieties of word-form
change as: з) clipping (shortening): serge - sergeant, caff-
caffeteria;
b) contamination of a word combination: leggo - let's go, kinna - kind of, c'mon -
come on;
c) contamination of grammatical forms: I'd go, there's, we're going.
These words have no lexico-stylistic paradigms. They possess denotative
meaning only.
Within the second group of colloquialisms, we may distinguish two
varieties of the word-form change leading to the alteration of its lexico-
stylistic meaning:
a) the change of the grammatical form which brings the change of the
lexico-stylistic meaning: heaps - very many, a handful-a person
causing a lot of trouble;
b) the change of the word-building pattern which causes the emergence
of another lexico-stylistic meaning through:
We can distinguish two varieties of slang: general slang (interjargon) and special
slangs (social as well as professional jargons). Some of the former slangisms may
enter the colloquial or even the neutral layer of the vocabulary (phone, flu, sky-
scraper). Novelty is the most im• pressive feature of slang. As it disappears, they lose
their expressiveness.
Vulgarisms are the words which are not generally used in public. However,
they can be found in modern literature nowadays, though formerly they were
tabooed or marked by the initial letters only.
Dialectal words {'ud- would, "tm - him, 'aseen - have seen, canna - cannot,
dinna - don't, sportin - sporting) are used to intensify the emotive and expressive
colouring of speech which is primarily determined by the peculiarities of social or
geographical envi• ronment.
Conversational words of all kinds are widely used for stylistic purposes. There
are four speech spheres in which they are mostly largely used: everyday speech,
newspa• per language, poetry, and fiction.
In newspaper language, colloquial words and word combinations, and
sometimes general slang words, are used to give an expressive evaluation of
facts and events. In modern poetry, words of all layers are most widely used.
Lyrical poetry allows the usage of various non-poetic words to create the
atmosphere of sincerity, confidence etc. Slang words in fiction (mostly in
dialogues) add to the informality and emotiveness of the character's speech
alongside with indicating social and speech peculiarities of the per• sonages.
— affixation: oldie, tenner, clippie;
— compounding: backroom boy, clip-joint;
— conversion: to bag, teach-in;
— telescopy: swellegant, flush, fruice; »
— shortening and affixation: Archie (Archibald);
— compounding and affixation: strap-hanger, arty-crafty,
All these words form a lexico-stylistic paradigm as they have synonyms among
neu tral and literary words and are characterized by various connotations while
giving addi tional characteristics to the denotate.
The third subgroup of colloquial words is the most numerous and comprises:
a) words with emotive-expressive meaning only: oh, bach, ah as well as word
combinations having a special expressive function: I never, Good (Great)
heavens, God forbid;
b) words and word combinations having both connotative and denotative
meaning where the former one prevails: terribly, you don't say so, did he
really;
c) words in which denotative and connotative meanings interplay: bunny - a
wait ress, colt-team - young team;
d) words in which denotative meaning in certain contextual conditions gives rise
to a new connotative meaning: affair- business, to have an affair-Xo be in
love, beg gar- poor person, lucky beggar- lucky person;
e) words denotative and connotative meanings of which are completely
different from their former meanings: chanter (poetic) - a singer; chanter
(col.) - a person who sells horses at the market.
Slang is composed of highly colloquial words whose expressiveness and
novelty make them emphatic and emotive as compared to their neutral synonyms.
'•-'-З*' _ I7 _
4. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF WORDS HAVING NO LEXICO-STYLISTIC PARADIGM
To this group, we refer terms, nomenclature words, historical words, exotic words,
and lexical neologisms.
Terms are words and word combinations expressing scientific and scholarly
notions in which essential properties of the object or phenomenon are reflected.
Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and, therefore, with
a sei of otner terms belonging to that particular branch of science or humanities. For
example, lan• guage and speech may be used as synonyms in everyday usage, but
in de Saussue's theory, they are opposed to each other as terms.
Nomenclature words are very close to terms: they refer to a definite branch of
hu• man activity, mainly professional, e.g. names of minerals, chemical elements,
types of cars etc.
Historical words denote objects and notions referring to the past.
Exotic words denote notions and objects unknown or rarely met in the given lan•
guage community.
Lexical neologisms are new (or old) words denoting new notions (see p.16).
All the words mentioned above, being used in special texts, have no stylistic func•
tions: their usage is determined by their nominative function, i.e. to define the
denotate. In fiction, they may acquire connotative meaning due to their syntagmatic
relations with both stylistically marked and neutral words. For example, in Live with
Lightning, Say No to Death, The Citadel, Airport, they are used to create the life-like
atmosphere of a laboratory, hospital etc. When used in monologues or dialogues,
terms become a means of the speech characterisation. Sometimes, while
incompatible with their context, terms may be used to create a satirical or humorous
effect. 5. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF PHRASEOLOGY

The question of the status of phraseological units (PhU) is very complicated.

There are many phraseological units which are quite neutral: in facf, in turn, for
instance, in order that, in principle. To this group we should also refer historical
PhU: the secular aim, the Blue and the Grey, the common beam; lexical
neologisms: oil crisis, energy crisis; and terminological PhU: supersentencial
units, expressive means etc.
Additional (connotative) information of PhU, as that of any word, may be of
four types: functional-stylistic, emotional, evaluative, and expressive-figurative.
Accordingly, PhU may be divided into two similar classes: PhU having a
lexico- stylistic paradigm and those having no lexico-stvlistic paradigms.
PhU having a lexico-stylistic paradigm also fall into literary (be in accord with
some• body, play upon advantage, most and least, bring to mould,; ad ovo, ad hoc, a
la carte,; a heart of oak, Achilles heet) and conversational ones (Adams a/e, slit the
bat, askme another, monkey's allowance, to get on the ball, admiral of the red, grab
for altitude, get the bird, sell one's back, get the wind up, a bit of jam, get somebody
on his ears).
Peculiar stylistic usage of PhU is accounted for the possibility of their structural and
contextual transformations which are oriented to achieving a definite stylistic effect.
Structural transformations of PhU may be represented by:
1) expansion of PhU, e.g. When you had a weak case and knew it, Alan
thought, even straws should be grasped at firmly (from to catch at a
straw);
2) reduction of PhU as the result of the compression of proverbs, sayings,
quota• tions etc, e.g. Howaden added severely: "Better too much too early
than too little too late" (from better late than never);
3) inversion of the components of PhU. It implies the change of the PhU
structure while preserving its original components, e.g. Fortunately, it's only
the cat's head and we still have a firm grip on the body (from to let the cat
out of the bag).
Contextual transposition of PhU presupposes that a PhU may be totally
reconsid• ered and reinterpreted in context, e.g. Pooh goes visiting and gets into
a tight place (from to be in a tight comer).
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. Functional-stylistic and
connota• tive meanings of the word. Types of connotations: emotive, evaluative,
and expressive. Criteria for the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary.
2. Words which have a lexico-stylistic paradigm. Words which have no lexico-
stylis• tic paradigm.
3. Stylistic functions of literary words: poetic diction, archaic words, barbarisms,
book•
ish words, stylistic neologisms.
4 Stylistic functions of conversational words: colloquial words, general slang,
spe• cial slang, stylistic neologisms, vulgarisms.
5. Stylistic functions of words which have no lexico-stylistic paradigm: historical
words, exotic words, terms, lexical neologisms.
6. Stylistic functions of phraseology.
 s*
— 19 —
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА party forme, she's got me down pat), conversational fomis (aren't you, isn't),
Стилистика английского языка /А.Н.Мороховский, О.П.Воробьева, НИ. Лихо- emotionally charged words (fceam).and idioms (up from slavery).
шерст, З.В.Тимошенко. - К.: Вища школа, 1991. - С.93 - 135.
Galperin I.R. Stylistics. M.: Higher School Publ. House, 1981. - P. 70 -119.
— 20 —
Долинин К.А. Стилистика французского языка. - М.: Просвещение, 1987. -
С.
150-181.

ДОДАТКОВА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка. - Л.:
Просвещение, 1981.-С. 102-139.
Долинин К.А. Интерпретация текста. - М.: Просвещение, 1985. - С.274-283.

PRACTICAL
ASSIGNMENT
In the the excerpts which follow, define the general character of a piece of
prose. Identify the lexical EM and SD used. Explain their stylistic functions in the
given context. Describe the relations between stylistically charged lexical units.
Sample 1.
"...Great girl, this kid,° Hennessy said, patting Gail's arm. "Interested in my
early life. Up from slavery. Amateur boxer, truck driver, stunt man, pool hustler,
bartender, publicity man ... What else was I, dear?"
"Garage mechanic, farmland..."
"That's it." Hennesy beamed at her. "She's got me down pat. Perfect American
ba nality. I'm famous and she's going to make me famous, aren't you, dear?" He
passed his cigarette to Gail and she drew in a long draught, dosing her eyes as
she did so! This isn't any party for me," Craig thought. "Goodnight", he said. "I just
wanted to tell you I'm leaving for New York tomorrow" (I.Shaw. Evening in
Byzantium)

This fragment is taken from Evening in Byzantium by I.Shaw. It presents a

dialogue, or rather a conversation between a couple (a gentleman and a young
lady, probably a journalist or a writer) who came to see Craig, the maincjjaracter
of the novel, and Craig himself. The topic of their discussion concerns the life-story
of one of the visitors, whose biography of a self-made man seems to be an
embodiment of American Dream (see a series of nomenclature words denoting
various occupations). We can also find out what role Gail might play in Henessy's
life and make inference of Craig's attitude towards the two. Henessy definitely fell
for the young woman, which is clearly seen from his gestures (patting Gail's
arm), facial expression (beamed at her), and the vocabulary used {great girl,
dear, got me down pat). Craig, on the contrary, is exasperated at the small talk
(not any party forme).
This is characters' speech which reproduces syntactical and lexical peculiarities of
the oral type of speech. This is mainly evidenced by a chain of elliptical sentences
(great girl, interested in my early life, up from slavery, amateur boxer, truck
driver, stunt man, pool
hustler, perfect American banality, bartender, publicity man, garage mechanic,
farmhand), question-answer units (What else was I, dear? - Garage mechanic,
famihand), direct addresses (dear), colloquial words and expressions (kid, slunt man,
pool, hustler, isn't

Though, in general, the characters speak standard conversational English,
the gen eral tone of the dialogue is highly emotional and in part ironical,
making almost all the utterances very emphatic. This effect is achieved through
the use of syntactic parallel ism and enumerations that lead to gradation, of
reverse parallelism (I'm famous and she's going to make me famous). .
Sample 2.
His short grey cloak and robe were rather of Flemish than of French
fashion... Over his left shoulder hung an embroidered scarf which sustained a
small pouch of scarlet velvet, such as was then used by fowlers of distinction
to carry their hawks food. Instead of the boots of the period, he wore buskins
of half dressed deer's skin (W.Scott. Quentin Dunvard).
This is a fragment taken from Quentin Durward, historical novel by
W.Scott, which presents an objectivized description of a character. The
author resorts to his direct characterization through a close-up description of
the personage's appearance and clothing. In each of the three sentences, the
author concentrates on this or that article of clothing (a dress, a scarf, a
pounch, boots), thus organizing the excerpt logically. The logical organization
and connection of the sentences are emphasized with the help of stylistic
inversion in the second sentence and inversion with detach ment in the third.
Peculiar lexical units, namely historical (fowler, buskins, pounch) and
archaic (robe) words, show that the personage described lived several
centuries ago. That's why his appearance gives an indirect ctiaracterization of
the epoch, creating a true-to-life at mosphere of antiquity.
1. "I've been thinking of goin' into business, Mr.Charles..When you're
5. A bird in the hand was worth two in the bush, he told her, to which she
retorted that a proverb was the last refuge of the mentally destitute. He suggested to
her the possibil ity that his income would be halved and he knew that there was no
argument which could have greater weight with her. She would not listen (S.
Maugham. The Painted Veil)
6.1 ranged about the kitchen in the dirty muted haze, touching things here and
there. I ached with discomfort and distress. "God, what a rotten light. You couldn't
possibly sew by this light, I hope you don't try. Lydia was so mean. Are there any
stronger bulbs in the cupboard? Ah yes, a hundred watts, that's better. Could you
turn the light out again? All right, I'll take my shoes off' (I.Murdoch. The Italian Girt)
7. I went back into the kitchenette and made the coffee and waited for it to drip.
Randall followed me out this time and stood in the doorway himself.
"This jewel gang has been working in Hollywood and around for a good ten
years to my knowledge", he said. They went too far this time. They killed a man. I
think I know why" (R.Chandler. Farewell, My Lovely)
8. "Why, uncle", replied Lambourne, "thinkest thou I am an infidel, and would
harm those of mine own house?"
"It is for no harm that I speak, Mike," answered his uncle, "but a simple humour of
precaution which I have, Tim, thou art as well gilded as a snaks when he casts his
old slough in the spring-time (W.Scott. Kenilworth)
9. "I can just remember her. She's (Irene) a skeleton in the family cupboard, isn't
she? And they're such fun."
"She wasn't much of a skeleton as I remember her", murmured Euphemia, "ex
tremely well covered" (Galsworthy. In Chancery)
settled, that is, Mr. Charles. Hope you know I should never leave you in the lower
of need."
"Business! What business?
"I've set my 'earl on 'aving a little shop, Mr.Charles." Charles placed the cup
back on the speedily proffered salver (J. Fowles. The French Lieutenants
Woman)
2. Craig asked the operator for Wadleigh's hotel. "Calm down, Bayard," he
said, while waiting for the call to be put through. "Calm down, you say. You're her
father. Are you calm?" Patty strode over and stood close to him as though he
didn't trust any mes sage that Craig might give or receive and wanted to hear
everything that was said with his own ears. When the operator at Wadleigh's
hotel answered, Craig said, "Monsieur Wadleigh, s'il vous plait" (I. Shaw. Evening
in Byzantium)
3. Later she was waken as usual by Arthur's return. But this night he did not
allow her to go to sleep again. "Christ Almighty! What have you been doing
upsetting Harold like this?"
"There wasn't any job there really, Arthur. It was silly..."
"What the hell do you mean silly? Harold wanted you to do it, didn't he? I've
never heard such damned selfishness" (A.Wilson. Late Calf)
4. Towards the end of the following month, parcels of books began to arrive
periodi cally at Vale View from the London branch of the International Medical
Library.. He discov ered and was swamped by the therapeutic advance of
biochemistry. He discovered reual thresholds, blood ureas, basal metabolism, and
the ballibility of the albumen test. As this keystone of his student's days fell from him
he groaned aloud (A.Cronin. The Citadel)
6 I-3491
21 —
After sounding him (Old Jolyon), the fellow pulled a long face as long as your
arm, and ordered him to stay in bed and give up smoking (J. Galsworthy. The
Forsyte Saga)
SEMINAR 6
STYLISTIC SYNTAX OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
n- і 1. The study of the texts in terms of their syntactical organization is regarded as
one the crucial issues in stylistic analysis, though the peculiarities of syntactical
arrange
ment are not so conspicuous as the lexical and phraseological ones.
Stylistic syntax deals with specific patterns of syntactic usage, i.e. syntactical ex
pressive means (EM) and stylistic devices (SD). In stylistic syntax, EM are recognized
by less rule-bound modelling of sentences. All the deviations from the stylistically un
marked sentence pattern (S - P - 0 - D) are treated as its transforms that may acquire
stylistic connotations, in which cases they are regarded as EM. The transformation of
the pattern in question into negative and interrogative sentences rarely leads to any
stylistic changes. Other transformations might create stylistically marked sentence pat
terns.
According to the type of transformation of the neutral syntactical pattern, all EM
in English fall into three groups:
1 • EM based on the reduction of the syntactical pattern that results from the
deliber ate ommission of some obligatory element(s) of the sentence structure.
This group includes ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, and asyndeton.
 2. EM based on the redundancy of the syntactical pattern that results from the
— 22 — addi tion of some sentence elements or their deliberate repetition. To this group
we refer repetition, enumeration, syntactic tautology, polysyndeton, emphatic
constructions, parenthetical clauses or sentences.
3 EM based on the violation of the grammatically fixed word order within a sen
tence or a deliberate isolation of some parts of the sentence. Here belong
stylistic inversion, syntactical split, and detachment.
The stylistic effect in syntax may be created not only due to the intrasentential
rela tions (those between the elements of a sentence), but also due to the
mtersentential (i.e. the relations between several sentences) relations within
paragraphs and other supraphrasal unities.
The stylistic effect in supersyntax may be achieved by the use of SD, i.e.
stylistically marked means and patterns of combination of sentences within a larger
context. SD may also be created due to the transposition of the syntactical meaning
of a sentence in context. In this case a sentence acquires an additional meaning
which is not typical of the corresponding syntactical structure.
Thus, taking into account the character of the relations between syntactical struc
tures, possible transpositions of meanings in a context, and the means and types of
connection within a sentence, we distinguish the following groups of syntactical SD:
1. SD based on the peculiar formal and semantic interaction of syntactical
con structions within a sentential or suprasentential context: parallelism,
chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora.
2. SD based on the transposition of the syntactical meaning in context:
rhetori cal questions.
3. SD based on the transformation of the types and means of connection
within or between sentences: parcellation, subordination instead of
coordination, and coordination instead of subordination.

2. EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF ENGLISH SYNTAX

2.1. EM BASED ON THE REDUCTION OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE.
Ellipsis is the omission from a syntactical construction of one or more words which
might be clearly understood from context. Elliptical sentences are regularly employed in
conversa tional English. Being used in fiction, they result in achieving some stylistic effect
by:
1) giving speech characteristics, e.g. Not him, sir. Too pleased with himself.
Some gentlemen can't act... Too stiff (A. Christie);
2) emphasizing some fact(s), e.g. The robbery. Long Ago. Very valuable
emeralds... The lady's made and the tweeny (A. Christie);
3) imitating spontaneity, e.g. "Quick - in here," Poirot led the way into the nearest
room..."Andyou - behind the curtain" (A. Christie).
Aposiopesis is a break in speech, while the thought is not completed, which is
caused by the speaker's inability or unwillingness to finish the utterance, e.g. "Are
you - are you and Paul...? " she stopped, squeezing my arm (D.Hammett); "It cant
be - you don't mean.."(A. Christie).
Nominative sentences are one-member sentences with a noun, a prepositional noun-
phrase, or an adverb. These verbless sentences are grammatically independent. In
contrast with elliptical sentences, they have only one principal part, with or without words
modifying it.

b* — 23 —
Nominative sentences may produce the effect of: 1) increasing the dynamism of narration, e.g. A remarkable woman - a
 dangerous woman. No waiting - no preparation. This afternoon - this very
afternoon - with him here as witness... (A. Christie);
2) acquainting the reader with the place or background of action, e.g. Three
blocks more... Another three blocks. (D.Hammett).
Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions used to connect sentences,
clauses, or words. As far as its stylistic role is concerned, asyndeton creates a certain
rhythmical arrangement, usually making the narrative measured, energetic, and tense,
e.g. That's all
I'm to do, all I want to do (D.Hammett); Tree and hall rose peaceful under the night
sky and clear full orb; pearly paleness gilded the building; mellow brown gloom
3)
bosomed it ivund; shadows of deep green brooded above its oak-wreathed roof (Ch.
Bronte).
2.2. EM BASED ON THE REDUNDANCY OF SENTENCE
STRUCTURE Repetition is a reiteration of the same word or phrase to lay an
emphatic stress on
certain parts of the sentence.
Various types of repetition can be found in fiction:
1) ordinary repetition, i.e. a repetition of a word in close succession, e.g. She
talked, in fact, and talked, and talked (A.Berkley);
2) framing or ring repetition, i.e. a repetition in which the opening word or phrase
is repeated at the end of the sentence or a group of sentences, e.g. / cooled
off where Frank was concerned; he didn't notice, but I cooled offQJ.
Pritchett);
3) anadiplosis or catch repetition, i.e. a repetition of the last word in a sentence or
clause at the beginning of the next one, e.g. Yes, but I was afraid, afraid I'd
go to one who'd tell Paul. I didn't know who to go to, who I could trust
(D.Hammett);
4) chain repetition, i.e. a combination of catch repetitions, e.g. A smile would come
into Mr.Pickwick's face. The smile extended into laugh; the laugh into roar, the
roar became general (Ch. Dickens).
Enumeration is a repetition of homogeneous parts of the sentence, aimed at
em phasizing the whole utterance, e.g. I found buttlers, secondmen, chauffeurs,
cooks: maids, upstairs girs, downstairs girls, and a raft of miscellaneous flunkies -
he had enough servants to run a hotel (D.Hammett).
Syntactical tautology is a superfluous repetition of semantically identical words
or phrases to lay stress on a certain part of the sentence e.g. She's always one for
a change, Gladdie is... (A.Christie).
Polysyndeton is a repetition of conjunctions in close succession which are used
to connect sentences, clauses, or words and make the utterance more rhythmical,
e.g. She had herself a rich ruby look, for what with eating and drinking, and
shouting and laughing and singing her face was crimson and almost steaming
(J.Priestley).
Emphatic constructions may intensify or contrast any part of the sentence, giving
it an emotive charge. The emphatic construction with "do"'\s used as a predicate
intensi- fier. The construction "it is smb/smth who/that" intensifies the subject; the
construction It is then that" stresses the adverbial modifier of time; "it is
by/with/through smth that" makes prominent the adverbiai modifier of manner. "It is
to that/smth there that" brings to the foreground the object of the sentence, e.g. That
evening it was Dave, who read to
the boys their bed-time story (D.Carter); It was then that Poirot received a brief note
from Sady Willard (A.Christie); / do know it! (D.Hammett).
Parenthetical clauses are sentences or phrases inserted into a syntactical
structure without being grammatically connected with it. The functions of
parenthesis are those of exemplification, deliberation, or reference. Parenthetical
clauses may produce various stylistic effects:
1) creating two layers of the narrative, e.g. He tried to shake Wynant down by
threat ening to shoot him, bomb his house. Kidnap his chidren, cut his wife's
throat - I don't know what all-if he didn't come across (D.Hammett);
2) emphasizing this or that fact, e.g. He laughed - not loud but in complete delight -
and stood up exclaiming: "Judith herself!" (D.Hammett);
exemplifying certain points, e.g. The dog - a shapeless monster in the night -
buried itself at the other side of the gate and barked terrifically
(D.Hammett).
2.3. EM BASED ON THE VIOLATION OF THE WORD-ORDER
Inversion is the violation of the fixed word order within an English sentence.
There are two major kinds of inversion:
1. that one which results in the change of the grammatical meaning of a syntactic
struc
ture, i.e. grammatical inversion (exclamatory and interrogative sentences), and
2. that one which results in adding to a sentence an emotive and emphatic
colouring,
i.e. stylistic inversion, e.g. And the palm-trees I like them not
(A.Christie). Inversion may be of two types.
1) complete, i.e. comprising the principal parts of the sentence, e.g. From behind
me
came Andrews voice (S. Chaplin);
2) partial, i.e. influencing the secondary parts of the sentence, e.g. Straight into
the arms of the police they will go (A.Christie).
Separation or syntactical split is the splitting of a noun phrase by the attribute
ad junct which is removed from the word it modifies. Stylistically, syntactical split is
used to emphasize the phrase which was separated, e.g. He had never seen the
truth before, about anything (R.Warren).
Detachment is a separation of a secondary part of the sentence with the aim of
em phasizing it, e.g. Fonnidable and ponderous, counsel forthe defence arose
(A.Christie). Detachment is to be regarded as a special kind of inversion, when
some parts of the sentence are syntactically separated from its other members with
which they are gram
matically and logically connected.
3. SYNTACTICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES
3.1. SD BASED ON FORMAL AND SEMANTIC INTERACTION OF
SYNTACTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
Parallelism is a repetition in close succession of the constructions formed by a
simi lar syntactical pattern. Like inversion, parallelism may be complete and partial.
Com plete parallelism is obseved when the syntactical pattern of the sentence that
follows is completely similar to the proceeding one, e.g. He door-bell didn't ring. His
telephone- beli didn't ring (D. Hammett).
ss (
rSZ ~~ №/[
Parallelism is considered to be partial when either the beginning or the end of
several neighbouring sentences are structurally similar, e.g. / want to see the
Gorgensens together at home, I want to see Macawlay, and I want to see Studsy
Burke (D.Hammett).
 7
I-349I _ _ 2 5_

Chiasmus (reversed parallelism) is a kind of parallelism where the word order — 26

of the sentence or clause that follows becomes inverted, e.g. He sat and watched —
me, I sat and watched him (D.Hammett).
The main stylistic function of chiasmus is to emphasize this or that part of the
utter ance , to break the rhythm and monotony of parallelism, e.g. Guild waited
forme to say something, I waited for him (D.Hammett).
Anaphora is a repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive
clauses or sentences, e.g. Ergo, she didn't. Ergo, there never was such a bet.
Ergo, Beresford was lying. Ergo, Beresford wanted to get hold of those
chocolates for some reason otherthan he stated (A.Berkley). •••;.
Anaphora contributes greatly to creating a certain rhythm of the narrative.
Epiphora is the repetition of the final words or word-groups in succeeding
sentences or clauses, e.g. / come to you on the level. Studsy says you are on the
level. Be on the level (D.Hammett).
3.2. SD BASED ON THE TRANSPOSITION OF- SYNTACTICAL MEANING
Rhetorical questions are negative or affirmative statements rather than
questions,
possible answers being implied by the question itself, e.g. Is the day of the
supernatural over? (A.Christie).
Rhetorical questions can often be found in modern fiction in the descriptions of
the character's inner state, his/her meditations and reflections, e.g. And then, like a
douche of cold water, came the horrible thought, was she right? (A.Christie).
3.3. SD BASED ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF TYPES AND MEANS OF
SYN TACTIC CONNECTION
Parcellation is a deliberate break of the sentence structure into two or more
isolated parts, separated by a pause and a period. Parcellation is typical of
colloquial speech. The main stylistic functions of parcellation are as follows:
1) specification of some concepts or facts, e.g. His wife had told him only the
night before that he was getting a habit of it. Curious things, habits
(A.Christie);
2) characterization of the personages' emotional state, e.g. It angered him finally.
With a curious sort of anger. Detached, somehow, separate from himself
(C.B.Gilford);
3) description of the events or giving the personages' portrayal, e.g./'d say he was
thirty-five or-six. Sallow, dark hair and eyes, with the eyes set pretty close
together, big mouth, long limp nose, bat-wing ears - shifty-looking (D.Hammett);
A touring car, large, black, powerfully engined and with lowered curtains, came
from the rear... Possibly a scout (D.Hammett).
The usage of coordination instead of subordination helps the author to show
differ ent planes of narration. In this case the connection itself is more important
stylistically than the contents of the sentence, e.g. He was more enthusiastic about
America than ever, and he was not so simple, and he was not so nice
(E.Hemingway).

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1. The notion of EM and SD on the syntactical level. EM as stylistically marked
sentence patterns, SD as selection and combination of sentence patterns.
2. Expressive means of English syntax based on:
1) the reduction of the sentence structure (ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative
sentences, and asyndeton)';
2) the redundancy of sentence structure (repetition, anadiplosis, tautology,
polysyndeton, emphatic constructions, and parenthetical clauses);
3) the violation of word order in the sentence structure (stylistic inversion,
syntactical split, and detachment).
3. Stylistic devices of English syntax based on: \ peptonised Milk and Baby Soother people - for a long term of years (G.Wells. The
1) the interaction of syntactical constructions (parallelism, chiasmus, anaphora, and
epiphora);
2) the transposition of syntactical meaning in context (rhetorical questions);
3) the transformation of types and forms of connection between clauses and sen
tences (parcellation, coordination instead of subordination, subordination instead
of coordination).
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Galperin 1 .R. Stylistics. - M.: Higher School Publ. House, 1981. - P. 202-231,234-
252. Стилистика английского языка/ А.Н.Мороховский, О.П.Воробьева,
Н.И.Лихошерсг, З.В.Тимошенко. - К.: Вища школа, 1991. - С. 137-162.
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT
In the excerpts which follow, define the general character of a piece of prose. Find
the syntactical EM and SD used. Explain their stylistic functions in the given context.
Describe the relations between the stylistically charged sentence structures and word-
groups.
1. Everyone knows the glories of Shonts. Its facade. Its two towers. The great
marble pond. The terraces where the peacocks walk and the lower lake with the black
and white swans. The great park and the avenue. The view of the river winding away
Only for telling a man he was
wrong, Two-
There we broke down. The unutterable pathos of George's accompaniment to
that "two" we were, in our then state of depression, unable to bear. Harris sobbed
like a little child, and the dog hawled till I thought his heart or his jaw must surely
break (Jerome K. Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
5. It meant still more than that: it meant - after years of movement from one
house to another - a home. For it was my mother's first thought - if indeed it has not
been a cherished dream - to buy land and build (R.Kent. It's Me, Oh Lord)
6. It was not Steve's face; nor his serious dark eyes, alive as they seemed with
intelligence, that reduced Anthony to a state of confused inferiority; nor was it the
knowl edge that his brother bore in that obvious pigmentation the sinister evidence
which could destroy him. It was the thinly veiled contempt that shattered Anthony's
assurance (G.Gordon. Let the Day Perish)
7. Up Broadway Chandler moved with the vespertine dress parade. For this
evening he was an exhibit as well as a gazer. For the next sixty-nine evenings he
would be dining in cheviot and worsted at dubious table d 'hotes, at whirlwind
lunch counters, on sand wiches and beer in his hall bedroom (O.Henry. Lost in
Dress Parade)
8. Michael remarked again in the straightness of his short nose, the length of his
eye lashes, and his shy wild expression, tentative, gentle, untouched (I.Murdoch. Ttie
Bel!)
9. I liked Dresden. I liked its old-world streets, its monumental places. I liked the
great church which the royal family attended. I liked seeing royalty all dressed up. I
liked the choir with real opera singers. I liked the great art museum and its
wonderful pictures (R.Kent. It's Me, Oh Lord)
across the btie country. And of the Shonts Velasques - but that is now in America, and
the Shonts Rubens, which is in the National Gallery. And the Shonts porcelain. And
the Shonts past history. It was a refuge for old faith; it had priest holes and secret
passages. And how at last the marques had to let the Shonts to the Laxtons - the
Story of Shonts)
2.....but her words, everybody's words were soon lost under the incessant flow of
Miss Bates, who came in talking, and had not finished her speech under many
minutes after being admitted to the circle of the fire...
"So very obliging to you. No rain at all. Nothing to signify. I do not care for myself.
Quite thick shoes. And Jane" declares Well! - (as soon as she is within the door) -
Well! This is brilliant, indeed! - this is admirable! - Excellently contrived, upon my
word. Nothing wanting. Could not have imagined it. So well lighted up. - Jane,
Jane, look - did you ever see anything?" (J. Austen. Pride and Prejudice)
3. They said But why continue? Why go on? It is desolating, desolating. And then
they dare wonder why the young are cynical and desparing and angry and chaotic!
And they still have adherents, who still dare to go on preaching to us! Quick! A
shrine to the godness Cant and Impudence (RAIdington. Death of a Hero)
4. When the chorus came, we even made a desperate effort to be merry. We
refilled our glasses and joined in; Harris, in a voice trembling with emotion, leading,
and I follow ing a few words behind:
Two lovely black
eyes; Oh! What a
surprise!
7* — 27 —
SEMINAR 7
STYLISTIC SEMASIOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
1. Semasiology is a branch of linguistics which studies semantics or meaning of
linguistic units belonging to different language levels.
Lexical semasiology analyses the meaning of words and word combinations, rela tions
between these meanings and the changes these meanings undergo.
Stylistic semasiology is concerned only with those semantic relations and changes
which form the basis of EM and SD.siy'/vkc d&ico ; г«/»гмяп>* т а а л і
The subject-matter of stylistic semasiology is stylistic semantics ,i.e. additional mean ings
of a language unit which may be given rise to by:
1) the unusual denotative reference of words, word-combinations, utterances and texts
(EM); or
2) the unusual distribution of the meanings of these units (SD).
Semasiological EM are figures of substitution, i.e. different means of secondary
nomination. The latter is based on the usage of existing words and word-combinations to
denote new notions or to give a new name to the already known objects.
Secondary nomination is not completely arbitrary, it is carried out according to cer tain
principles or rules. Most commonly the transfer of a name occurs:
1) on the basis of similiarity or likeness (real or imaginary) of two objects belonging to
different areas of reality, which are regarded as such due to individual or collective
perception (rat- spy, rabbit - coward);
— 28

2) on the basis of contiguity or some logical (usually objective) relations
or associa tions between different objects (chicken - food, hat - man
in a hat).
Figures of substitution are secondary nomination units which either exist
in the lan guage as a system or are formed in speech on the basis of
recurrent patterns. Secondary nomination units or tropes stand in
paradigmatic (synonymic, or rather home-functional) relations to
corresponding primary nomination units. They are marked members of stylis
tic oppositions because they have connotations or additional stylistic
meanings. Figures of substitution in English can be presented in the following
table:
FIGURES OF SUBSTITUTION
F1GCKES OFQfcbVWTT FIGURES OF QUALIFICATION (QUALITY)
Metaphor
Metonymy
Antonomasia
Meiosis Syncchdoche
ilypcrbeic Personification Irony
Litotes Periphrasis
і Allegory
Euphemism
Epithet
2. FIGURES OF QUANTITY
Here we refer tropes and figures of speech based on the comparison
of two different objects or phenomena having a common feature expressed
with a certain degree of intensity, if this feature characterizes the referent in
a deliberately greater degree, it may be regarded as hyperbole, if this
This EM is used in oral speech to weaken positive characteristics of a thing or
per son; to convey the speaker's doubts as to the exact value or significance of
the object of speech, e.g. Her face was not unpretty (K.Kesey).
In scientific prose litotes underlines carefulness of judgement or stresses the
writer's uncertainty.
3. FIGURES OF QUALIFICATION
To this group we refer tropes and figures of speech based on comparison of
features and qualities of two objects belonging to different areas or classes, which are
perceived as having a common feature. The basic tropes in this group are metaphor,
metonymy, and irony.
Metaphor and metonymy are universal means ot reinterpretation and transfer
of a name from one denotate to another. The difference between them is that
while in meta phor this transfer is realized on the basis of likeness (real or
imaginary) of the two objects (e.g. He is a brick, a log, a bear), in case of
metonymy it is realized on the basis of contiguity between the two objects (e.g. /
like Beethoven).
The latest linguistic investigations prove that metaphorical and metonymical
trans fers differ not only semantically but syntactically and lexically as well.
Metonymy is more often found in the subject and object groups, while
metaphor is commonly found in the predicate group (e.g. The hat is still here. She
is a monkey.) When metaphor is used as a subject, it takes on an anaphoric
feature is ascribed to the referent in a deliberately less degree, it is considered to
be meiosis or litotes, as a structural variety of the latter.
Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration aimed at intensifying one
of the features of the object in question. An overstatement may be considered hyperbole
only when the exaggeration is deliberate and both the speaker and the listener are
aware of it. Hyperbole is mainly used to intensify physical qualities of objects or people:
size, colour, quantity, age etc., e.g. Her family is one aunt about a thousandyears old
(F.Sc. Fitzgerald).
The use of hyperbole may show the overflow of emotions, e.g. I loved Ophelia; forty
thousand brothers could not, with all their quantity of love, make up my sum
(W.Shakespeare).
Hyperbole in oral speech is often used to intensify a statemenLe.g. She was a
giant of a woman (Fl. O'Connor).
Hyperbole, as any other semasiological EM, may become trite through
frequent repetition: e.g. forages, scared to death, I beg thousand pardons etc.
Meiosis is a figure of speech opposite to hyperbole. This is a deliberate
understate ment, oranderestimgrtiorT of some feature of an object or phenomena
with the aim of intensifying the expressiveness of speech. The features stressed
are usually size, vol ume, distance, time etc. Meiosis is mainly used in oral speech
where it usually empha sizes the insignificance of an object, e.g. She wore a pink
hat, the size of a button (J.Reed), a pretty penny, Tom Thumb etc.
Litotes differsjrom meiosis by both its contents and structure. Litotes presents a
statement in the form of negation. Like rhetorical questions, litotes can be regarded
as the transposition of a syntactical construction. Litotes has a specific semantic
and syn tactic structure: the usage of not before a word with a negative prefix, e.g.
Julia was not dissatisfied with herself (W.S.Maugham).
8 - I -3491 — 29 —
pronoun, e.g. He is a bear. That bear broke the vase. Irony is also a transfer of meaning,
but if metaphor is based on similarity and metonymy on contiguity, irony is based on
opposition of the two meanings of a speech unit.
To the Metonymical Group we refer metonymy, synechdoche, periphrasis, and eu
phemism. " ""
Metonymy as a secondary nomination unit is based on the real association of the
object of nomination with the object whose name is transferred. The simplest kind of
metonymy is lexical metonymy, when the name of an object (most often, a proper name)
is transferred to another object (Lewis, Makintosh, volt, amper). Such metonymies have
no stylistic value as they become common nouns. Stylistic metonymy suggests a new,
unexpected association between the two objects. In metonymy, the associations be tween
the object named and the object implied vary. They may bring together some features of a
person and the person him/herself; an article of clothing and the person wearing it; an
instrument and the action it performs; the two objects whose functions coincide, e.g. She
was a sunny, happy sort of creature. Too fond ofthe bottle (A.Christie); He made his way
through the perfume and conversation (I.Shaw).
Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy in which the transfer is based on the associa
tion between a part and the whole, the singular and the plural. This type of metonymical
relationship may be considered a quantitative one, e.g. Since I left you, mine eye is in
my mind (W. Shakespeare).
JMetonymy and synecdoche as genuine EM are used to achieve concreteness of
description. By mentioning only one seemingly insignificant feature or detail connected
with the object, person, or phenomenon, the author draws the reader's attention to it and
makes him/her visualize the object or the character he describes.
 Periphrasis (Greek: pen<- around; phraseo - speak) is a stylistic figure which
substi tutes a word designating an object for a word-combination which describes
its most
— 30
— As a result of frequent repetition, periphrasis can become well-established as a
essential and characteristic features. Periphrasis both names and describes. Every
periphrasis indicates a feature which the speaker or writer wants to stress and
often conveys an individual perception of the object or phenomenon named, e.g.
The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products {the wounded}
of the fighting in Africa (I. Shaw).
syn onymous expression for the word generally used to designate the object. It is
called tradi tional, dictionary or language periphrasis, e.g. gentlemen of the long
robe (lawyers), the better (fair, gentle) sex, my better half (my spouse), the
minions of the law (police).
Euphemism (Greek: eupheme - speaking well) is a variety of periphrasis which
is used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more
acceptable one.
Euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to the spheres of usage:
1) religious euphemisms: God may be replaced by Goodness, Lord, Jove, Heaven
etc.; Devil- by the dence, the dickens, old Nick, old Harry;
2) euphemisms connected with death: to join the majority, to pass away, to go
the way of all flesh, to go west, to breathe one's last, to expire, to depart
etc;
3) political euphemisms, widely used in mass media: undernourishment for
starva tion, less fortunate elements for the poor, economic tunnel for the
crisis etc.
Euphemisms as well as periphrases have no direct reference to the denotate,
which is known to both the author and the reader. The euphemistic transfer of a
name is often based on metaphor or metonymy. In fiction, euphemisms are used to
give more positive characteristics to the denotate, e.g. Jean nodded without turning
and slid between two vermilion-coloured buses so that two drivers
simultaneously used the same qualitative word (J.Galsworthy).
ln_coJloguial speech euphemisms are typical of more cultured and educated people.
Jfletaphqrjs) a secondary nomination unit based on likeness, similarity or affinity
(real or imaginary) of some features of two different objects. Metaphor is usually
used in the predicate group, because it aims at individualization and characterization
of the object.
Linguists distinguish four types of metaphor, the stylistic value of each type
being different:
1) nominative metaphor, i.e. one name which is substituted for by another. In
this case, nominators or identifying lexical units undergo metaphorization. The
nominative metaphor gives a new name to a class of objects. Such metaphors are
a mere technical device for extracting a new name, from the old word-stock, e.g.
the apple of the eye, a leg of the table, an arm of the clock, the foot of the hill.
2) cognitive metaphor is created as a result of the shift in the combinability of
qualifying lexical units, when their meaning becomes more abstract. In this case,
ob jects named are ascribed the features of quite different objects, sometimes
even alien qualities, e.g. black night (water, heat, despair etc). It may be based
on implied simile,
e.g. Time flies (as a bird).
3) generalizing metaphor leads to polysemy as it destroys the borderline
between different notions. In this case, predicative lexical units undergo
metaphorization and transform into identifying lexical units. This metaphor is
somewhat artificial and it indi cates the feelings some artefacts can evoke in the
customers rather than the qualities of some goods. Its stylistic effect is weak, e.g.
восторгаться о шоколад "Восторг".
 4) figurative or image-bearing metaphor presupposes that identifying
lexical units are transferred into the predicate-slot and, as a predicate, refer
to other objects or a
class of objects. Here, metaphor is a means of individualization, evaluation, and dis
crimination of the shades of meaning. Such metaphor appeals to the reader's
intuition, giving him/her a chance to interpret the text creatively. The stylistic effect of
this meta phor is great, e.g. They walked along, two continents of experience and
feeling, unable to communicate (W.S.Gilbert).
According to its structure, metaphor may be:
a) simple or elementary, which is based on the actualization of one or several fea
tures common for two objects;
b) prolonged or sustained, which is not confined to one feature that forms the
main, central image but also comprises other features linked with and developing this
image in context, e.g. He was surprised that the fire which flashed from his eyes did
not melt the glasses of the spectacles (A. Huxley). In this example, subsidiary images
flashed and melted are connected with the main image expressed by the word fire.
According to the peculiarities of its semantics, metaphor may be trite (traditional,
language) and genuine (speech). Stylistic functions of metaphor are twofold. By
evok ing images and suggesting analogies, it:
1) makes the author's thought more concrete, definite, and clear, and
2) reveals the author's emotional attitude towards what he/she describes
The main function of figurative metaphor is not merely communicative but aesthetic.
It appeals to imagination rather than gives information.
_^0І003ПШ§іа (Greek: antonomasia - renaming) is a peculiar variety of metaphor.
There are two types of antonomasia:
1) the usage of a proper name for a common noun (Othello, Romeo, Hamlet);
2) the usage of common nouns or their parts as proper names (Mr. Snake,
Mr.Backbite etc.), e.g. "Don't ask me," said Mr. Owl Eyes washing his hands off the
whole matter (F.Sc. Fitzgerald).
The main stylistic function of antonomasia is to characterize a person simultane
ously with naming him/her.
1
Personification {Latin : persona - person, facere - do) is also a variety of
metaphor. It is based on ascribing isome features and characteristics of a person to
a thing, e.g.
Autumn comes
And trees are shedding their
leaves And Mother Nature blushes
Before disrobing
(N. West)
Unlike metaphor, personification^
1) is used only in fiction while metaphor can be found practically in every style; 2)
can appear only within context, no matter how short.
AllegonJ is another variety of metaphor. It differs from metaphor as it is mainly
used in fiction and it differs from personification as it appears only in a text, no matter
how short it may be (e.g. proverbs, fables or fairy tales).
/romyfGreek: eironeia - concealed mockery). The difference between metaphor
and metonymy, on the one hand, and irony, on the other, can be defined as follows: in
meta phor and metonymy, the transfer is based on affinity of the objects, in irony, it is
based on their opposition. The relations of opposition here are not objective but
subjective because irony always suggests evaluation. It is positive in form but negative
• ^ H H ^ B ^ H i H I ^ H H H g
In a narrow sense, irony is the use of a word having a positive meaning to express
a negative one. In a wider sense, irony is an utterance which formally shows a positive
or neutral attitude of the speaker to the object of conversation but in fact expresses a
negative evaluation of it, e.g. She was a gentle woman, and this, of course, is a very
fine thing to be; she was proud of it (in quite a gentlewomanly way), and was in the
habit of saying that gentlefolk were gentlefolk, which, if you come to think of it, is a
profound remark (W.S.Maugham).
In contrast with metaphor and metonymy, irony does not employ any particular
syn tactical structure or lexical units. In context, there are usually some formal
markers of irony pointing out to the meaning implied.
In oral speech, a word used ironically is strongly marked by intonation and other
paralinguistic means. In written speech, such markers are not easily found.
Language irony comprises words, word-combinations and utterances which, due
to regular usage, have acquired connotative ironical meaning which does not depend
on context, e.g. to orate, a speechmaker, too clever by half, mutual admiration
society.
More often, however, words or word-combinations acquire ironical meaning due to
particular syntagmatic relations between the meanings of different speech units in
macrocontext (a fragment of a text) or megacontext (the whole text), e.g. An Ideal
Hus band, A Devoted Friend, The Quiet American. The ironical meaning appears,
when lexical units expressing positive evaluation in a certain context acquire a negative
meaning,
e.g. This naturally led to some pleasant chat about... fevers, chills, lung deseases
... and bronchitis (J.К Jerome).
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. General characteristics of figures of substitution as semasiological EM.
Classifi cation of figures of substitution; EM based on the notion of quantity, EM
based on the notion of quality.
2. Figures of quantity (hyperbole, meiosis, litotes).
3. Figures of quality (qualification). General characteristics.
4. Metonymical group: synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism.
5. Metaphorical group. Syntactical and semantic differences of metaphor and me
tonymy. Types of metaphor. Antonomasia, its types. Personification. Allegory. Epithet.
6. Irony. Context types of irony.
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Стилистика английского языка / А.Н.Мороховский, О.П.Воробьева,
in meaning.
Н.И.Лихошерст, З.В.Тимошенко. - К.: Вища школа, 1991 . - С. 163-186. Серия питературы и языка . - 1978. - Т. 37. - №3.
Galperin I.R. Stylistics. - М.: Higher School Publ.House, 1981. P. 136-153,157-177.
ДОДАТКОВА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Арутюнова Н Д. Функциональные типы языковой метафоры //Известия АН
СССР. Серия литературы и языка. - 1978. - Т. 37. - N 4.
Арутюнова Н.Д. Синтаксические функции метафоры //Известия АН СССР — 33 —
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT close above your head, are brothers, and you stretch your arms to them
In the excerpts which follow, define their general stylistic character. Find out (J.K.Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
figures of qualification used. Explain their stylistic functions in the given excerpts. 6. But no fish at all was in it, no any monster or thing of horror, but only a little
Define the relations which can be traced between these figures and their impact on Mermaid lying fast asleep.
the general character of the excerpts. Her hair was wet fleece of gold, and each separate hair as a thread of fine gold
in a
1. Huddled in her grey fur against the sofa-cushions, she had a strange
cup of glass. Her body was as white ivory, and her tail was of silver and pearl.
resemlance to a captive owl, bunched in its soft feathers against the wires of a cage.
Silver and
The supple erect- ness of her figure was gone, as though she had been broken by
cruel exercise, as if there were no longer any reason for being beautiful, and supple, _ 34
and erect {J. Galsworthy. The Man of Property)
2. Already at six and six-thirty in the morning they have begun to trickle; small
streams
of human beings Manhattan or city-ward, and by seven and seven-fifteen these
streams have become sizable affairs. By seven-thirty and eight, they have changed
into heavy, turbulent rivers, and by eight-fifteen and eight-thirty and nine, they are
raging torrents, no less. They overflow all the streets and avenues and every available
means of convey• ance. They are pouring into all available doorways, shops,
factories, office-buildings - those huge affairs towering significantly above them. Here
they stay all day long, causing those great hives and their adjacent streets to flush
with a softness of colour not indig• enous to them, and then at night, between five
and six, they are going again, pouring forth over the bridges and through the
subways and across the ferries and out of the trains, until the last drop of them
appears to have been exuded, and they are pocketed in some outlying side-street or
village of metropolital hall-room and the great turbulent night of the city is on once
more (Th. Dreiser. Sister Carrie)
3. Fog
The fog
comes On
little cat feet It
sits looking
Over harbour and
city On silent
haunches And then
moves on
(C.Sandberg)
4.1 knew them all, or knew what they did for a living: timber, flour, textiles,
insurance. Timber and flour were standing at the counter discussing the cost of
labour. Textiles at a table in the opposite side of the room was complaining about
his garage bills. Insurance was listening waiting his turn (J.Brain. Room at the Top)
5. There is no more thrilling sensation I know of than sailing. It comes as near to
flying as man has got to yet - except in dreams. The wings of the rushing wind seem
to be bearing you onward, you know not where. You are no longer a slow, plodding
puny thing of clay, creeping tortuously upon the ground; you are a part of Nature!
Your heart is throbbing against hers. Her glorious arms are round you, raising you up
against her heart! Your spirit is at one with hers; your limbs grow light! The voices of
the air are singing to you. The earth seems far away and little; and the clouds, so

pearl was her tail; and the green weeds of the sea coiled round it; and like sea-
shells were her ears, and her lips were like sea-corals (O.Wilde. The Fishman and
His Souh
7. Well, that's the way I was. A dusty little thinker thinking stony little thoughts
and casting them at oblivious shadows, when my meditations where interrupted. I
thought I heard a voice. Then I thought perhaps it was the noise of the machinery.
Stresses and strains make conveyers talk. They scream curses, they grumble and
complain. When they can take the load they whistle like butcher boys used to
whistle when there was meat for the butcher to deliver (S. Chaplin. The Thin Seam)
8. Across country we went like wind followed by a couple of black cars full of
mous• taches. They were gaining on us. "Faster," cried OToole, and Raoul pressed
down until the thing was level with the floorboards. We were cornering much too fast
to judge by the scraping noise. Nor could this speed be maintained (L. Durrell. 77)e
Little Affair in Paris)
9. German's eyes no sooner fell upon the object of his old passion, than it
shivered and broke to pieces.
Flora, always tall, had grown to be very broad too, and short of breath; but that
was not much. Flora whom he had left a lilly, had become a peony; but that was not
too much. Flora who had seemed enchanting in all she said and thought, was
diffuse and silly. That was much. Flora, who had been spoiled and artless long ago,
was determined to be spoiled and artless now. That was a fatal blow (Ch. Dickens.
Little Dorril)
10 Did you ever see anything in Mr.Pickwick's manner and conduct towards the
opposite sex to induce you to believe (Ch. Dickens. The Posthumous Papers of
the Pickwick Club)
11. Deborah Franklin was beautiful in the grand classic manner. She didn't look
There are three basic types of semantic relations between words, phrases,
and utterances:
1) those involving similar (synonymous) meanings of such units. The speaker
com• bines within an utterance or text the units whose meaning he/she considers
similar, thus figures of identity are formed;
2) those based on opposite (antonymous) meanings of the units. The speaker
com• bines within an utterance or text two semantically contrasting units. As a
result, figures of opposition are formed;
3) those comprising somewhat different meanings of the units. The speaker
com• bines within an utterance or text lexical units denoting different but close
notions As a result, the figures of unequality are formed.
FIGURES OF COMBINATION
FIG. OF IDENTITY FIG. OF OPPOSITION FIG. OF INEQUALITY
Climax
Simile
Antithesis Anticlimax
Synonyms-substitutes
Oxymoron Pun
Synonyms-specifiers
Zeugma
2. FIGURES OF IDENTITY
Relations of identity are realized in context where close or synonymous units
in the least like a film star or a model. She had never been a deb. which was just
as well, for she would have made the other debs look more than ordinarily silly. I
suppose her vital statistics were in order, but looking at her you forgot about them. It
was the sheer beauty of her face that took your breath away (Cyril Hare. Fair of
Face)
12. Sleep navigates the tides of
time: The dry Sargasso of the
tomb
Gives up its dead to such a working
sea; And sleep rolls mute above the
beds Where fishes' food is fed the
sbades Who periscope through flowers
to the sky
(D.Thomas. Sleep)
13. Stoney smiles the sweet smile of an alligator (J.Steinbeck, in Dubious Battle)
SEMINA R
8
STYLISTIC SEMASIOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (CONTINUED)
1. FIGURES OF COMBINATION.
Figures of combination are SD of semasiology. They are stylistically relevant
se• mantic means of combining lexical, syntactical and other units (including EM)
belonging to the same or different language levelsASo, the realization of the figures
of combination is possible only in context. Frequently, these figures of speech are
the result of the interaction of word meanings or the meanings of word-
combinations, seldom - of para• graphs or large/ text fragments .
— 35 —
refer• ring to the same object, or phenomenon are used. Here we refer simile and two
kinds of synonyms - specifying and substituting ones.
CSJm//&-<Xatin: similie - similar) is a partial identification of two objects belonging to
different spheres or bringing together some of their qualities. The objects compared
are not identical, though they have some resemblance, some common features.
Emphasiz• ing their partial identity gives new characteristics to the referent.
Simile is a structure consisting of two components: the subject of comparison, and
the object of comparison which are united by formal markers: as, as...as, like, as
though, as if, such as etc, e.g. Unhappiness was like a hungry animal waiting beside
the track for any victim (G.Greene).
If formal markers are missing but the relations between the two objects are those of
similarity and identity, we have implied simile. In such similes, notional or seminotional
words (verbs, nouns etc.) substitute formal markers (Cf: to resemble, to remind, to
seem, resemblance etc.: e.g. H.G.Wells reminded her of the nice paddies in her native
Califor• nia (A.Huxley).
We should distinguish simile which is stylistically charged from logical comparison
which is not. The latter deals with the notions belonging to the same sphere and it
states the degree of their similarity and difference. In case of comparison, all qualities
of the two objects are taken into consideration, but only one is brought to the
foreground, e.g. He was a big man, as big as Simon, but with sandy hair and blue
eyes (D.G-arett).
Both simile and metaphor are based on comparison. Metaphor is often called a
compressed simile which differs from simile proper structurally. However, the difference
between the two is not only structural but semantic as well. Simile and metaphor are
different in their linguistic nature:
fa
1) metaphor aims at identifying the objects; simile aims at finding some point of
re• semblance by keeping the objects apart;
2) metaphor only implies the feature which serves as the ground for comparison,
simile, more often than not, indicates this feature, so it is semantically more
definite.
Synonyms-substitutes (substituting synonyms) are words used to denote object or
action, supplementing new additional details, which helps to avoid monotonous repeti•
tions, e.g. But he had no words to exptvss his feelings and to relieve them would
utter an obscene jest; it was as though his emotion was so violent that he needed
vulgarity to break the tension. Mackintosh observed this sentiment with an icy
disdain (W.S.Maugham).
Substituting synonyms are characterized by contextual similarity giving rise to
emo• tive-evaluative meaning. That is why some synonyms can be treated as
such only in context. Synonyms-substitutes are widely used in publicistic style.
They are also re• garded as situational synonyms.
Synonyms-specifiers, (specifying synonyms) are used as a chain of words
which express similar meanings. Such synonyms are used for a better and more
detailed description of an object or person, when every other synonym adds new
information about it. There are two ways of using specifying synonyms: 1) as
paired synonyms, and
2) as synonymic variations.e.g the intent of which perjury being to rob a poor native
widow and her helpless family of a plantation-patch, their only stay and support
in their bereavement and desolation (M.Twain).
These synonyms specify the utterance, adding some new information. Though
the given synonyms are very close in their meaning, they are different in stylistic
colouring. Synonymic variations specify the utterance, intensifying its emotional
value. Such syno• nyms are widely used in fiction and the publicistic style. In
scientific prose and official style, their usage is limited.
3. FIGURES OF OPPOSITION
This group of semasiological SD is characterized by the combination in context
of two or more words or word-groups with opposite meanings. Their relations are
either objectively opposite or are interpreted as such by the speaker. Here we refer
antithesis and oxymoron.
Antithesis^ (Greek - opposition) is a stylistic device which presents two
contrasting ideas in close proximity in order to stress the contrast. There are
several variants of antithesis based on different relations of the ideas expressed:
1) opposition of features possessed by the same referent, e.g. Some people
have much to live on, and little to live for (O.Wilde);
2) opposition of two or more different referents having contrasting features, e.g. Their
pre-money wives did not go together with their post-money daughters
(E.Hemingway);
3) opposition of referents having not only contrasting features but embracing a
wider range of features, e.g. New England had a native literature , while
Virginia had none; numerous industries, while Virginia was all agricultural
(Th.Dreiser).
Antithesis often goes along with other stylistic figures: anaphoric repetition,
parallel• ism, chiasmus, in particular. It is widely used in all kinds of speech:
fiction, publicistic, scientific and colloquial English. It performs various stylistic
functions: stressing the contrast and rhythmically organizing the utterance. Due to
the last quality antithesis is widely used in poetry in combination with anaphora,
epiphora, and alliteration.
 — 37
—
ҐОхутогоп)- (Greek: oxymoron - witty - foolish) is also a combination of opposite was unconsolable-for an afternoon (J.Galsworthy).
me"a7flng^rwfiich exclude each other. But in this case, the two semantically contrasting
ideas are expressed by syntactically interdependent words (in predicative, attributive or — 38 —
adverbial phrases), e.g. He was certain the whites could easily detect his adoring
hatred to them (R.Wright).
Oxymoron reveals the contradictory sides of one and the same phenomenon. One
of its elements discloses some objectively existing feature while the other serves to
convey the author's personal attitude towards this quality (pleasantly ugly, crowded
loneliness, unanswerable reply). Such semantic incompatibility does not only create
unexpected com binations of words, violating the existing norms of compatibility, but
reveals some unex pected qualities of the denotate as well.
As soon as an oxymoron gets into circulation, it loses its stylistic value, becoming
trite: pretty bad, awfully nice, terribly good.
Original oxymorons are created by the auhtors to make the utterance emotionally
charged, vivid, and fresh, e.g. Oh brawling love! Oh loving hate! Oh heavy
lightness! Serious vanity! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health!
(W.Shakeppeare).
4. FIGURES OF UNEQUALITY
Relations of unequality are the realtions of meanings of words and wcrd-
cornbinations which differ in their emotive intensiveness or logical importance. To this
group we refer:
1) figures based on actualizing the emotional power of the utterance (climax or anti
climax);
2) figures based on two different meanings of words and word-combinations (pun,
zeugma).
Climax/эг gradation (Latin: gradatio - gradualness; Greek: climax - a ladder) is a
structure^ in which every successive word, phrase, or sentence is emotionally
stronger or logically more important than the preceding one, e.g. Like a well, like a
vault, like a tomb, the prison had no knowledge of the brightness outside
(Ch.Dickens).
There are three types of climax:
1) the arrangement of some lexical units characterizing the object in the same
emo tional direction, e.g. As he wondered and wondered what to do, he first
rejected a stop as impossible, then as imptvbable, then as quite dreadful
(W.S.Gilbert);
2) the arrangement of lexical units with logical widening of notions, e.g. For that
one instant there was no one else in the room, in the house, in the world,
besides themselves (M.WHson);
3) emphatic repetition and enumeration, e.g. Of course it is important.
Increadibly, urgently, desperately important (D.Sayers).
Gradation is widely used in fiction and the publicistic style. It is one of the main
means of emotional and logical influence of a text upon the reader and listener.
Anticlimax presents a structure in which every successive word, phrase, or sen
tence is emotionally or logically less strong than the preceding one, e.g. Fledgeby
hasn't heard anything. "No, there's not a word of news," says Lammle. "Not a
particle," adds Boots. "Not an atom," chimes in Brewer (Ch.Dickens).
We can distinguish two types of anticlimax:
1) gradual drop in intensity:
2) sudden break in emotive power. In this case, emotive and logical importance is
accumulated only to be unexpectedly brought up to a sudden break, e.g. He
 Anticlimax is mostly used as a means of achieving a humorous effect.
Pun 's a device based on polysemy, homonymy, or phonetic similarity to achieve a
humorous effect.
There are several kinds of pun:
1) puns based on polysemy. They had the appearance of men to whom life had
ap peared as a reversible coat- seamy on both sides. (O.Henry)
2) puns based on complete or partial homonvmv:
Diner: Із it customary to tip a waiter in this restaurant?
Waiter: Why-ah-yes, sir.
Diner: Then hand me a tip. I've waited three quarters of an hour.
3) puns based on phonetic similarity:
- / Ve spent last summer in a very pretty city of Switzerland.
- Berne?
- No, I almost froze.
Pun is used for satirical and humorous purposes. Many jokes are based oh
puns.
Zeugma (Greek: zeugyana - to join, to combine) are parallel constructions with
unparallel meanings. It is such a structural arrangement of an utterance in which the
basic component is both a part of a phraseological unit and of a free word-combination.
So, zeugma is a simultaneous lealization within the same short context of two meanings
of a polysemantic unit. e.g. If the country doesn't go to the dogs or the Radicals, we
shall have you Prime Minister some day (O.Wilde). The verb "to go" here realizes two
meanings: to go to the dogs (to perish) and to go to the Radicals Цо become politically
radical).
Zeugma combines syntactical and lexical characteristics. Syntactically, it is
based on similar structures, semantically it comprises different meanings, which
leads to logical and semantic incompatibility. Zeugma is mainly a means of creating
thought that fever was curable by the administration of sedative drugs. Now we know
that it isn't. For the matter of fact, as recently as thirty years ago, doctors thought they
could heal a fever by means of low diet and the application of ice; now they are abso
lutely certain that they cannot (S.Leacock. Perfect Lovers' Guide)
2. Perjury, - Perhaps, now that Mark Twain is before the people as a candidate for
Governor, he will condescend to explain how he came to be convicted of perjury by
thirty-four witnesses in Warwak, Cochin China, in 1863, the intent of which perjury
being to rob a poor native widow and her helpless family of a meagre plantain-patch,
their only stay and support in their bereavement and desolation. Mr. Twain owes it to
himself, as well as to the great people whose suffrages he asks, to clear this matter
up. Will he do it? (M.Twain. Running for Governor)
3.1 remember a friend of mine buying a couple of cheeses at Liverpool. Splendid
cheeses they were, ripe and mellow, and with a two-hundred horse-power scent about
them that might have been warranted to carry three miles, and knock a man over at
two hundred yards (J.K.Jerome. Three Men in a Boat)
4. At a sign from him, Neilson knew, that, notwithstanding his love, his
tenderness, his sympathy, his generosity, she would leave him without a moment's
hesitation (S.Maugham Red)
5. He was like Apollo, with just that soft roundness which Praxitele gave him, and
that suave, feminine grace which has in it something troubling and mysterious. His
skin was dazzling white, milky, like satin, his skin was like a woman's (S.Maugham.
Red)
6. "Yes, yes", he said, "except in your case you told me to get a position. The
a humorous effect.
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. General characteristics of figures of combination as semasiological SD.
2. Classification of figures of combination. Figures of equivalence: simile,
synonyms- substitutes, and synonyms-specifiers.
3. Figures of non-equivalence: climax, anticlimax, pun, zeugma.
4. Figures of opposition: antithesis, oxymoron.
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка.- Л.: Просвещение,
1981. - С. 139-159.
Стилистика английского языка/А.Н.Мороховский, О.П.Воробьева,
Н.И.Лихошерст, З.ВТимошенко.-К.: Вища школа, 1991.-С. 186-199.
Galperin I.R. Stylistics. -М.: Higher School Publ. House, 1981. -P. 136 -153,157-177.
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT
I. In the excerpts which follow, define their general stylistic character. Discover
which figures of combination are used. Explain their stylistic functions within the
context ol these excerpts.
1. A hundred years ago it used to be supposed that fever could be cured by the
letting of blood; now we know positively that it cannot. Even seventy years ago it was
— 39 —
—
homely word "job", like much that I have written, offends you (J.London. Martin
Eden)
7. With wild cries and desperate energy she leaped to another and till another
cake
- stumbling - leaping - skipping - springing upwards again (H.Beecher-Stowe.
Uncle Tom's Cabin)
8. " I was з young man then - Good Heavens, it's a quarter cf a century ago - and
I wanted to enjoy all the loveliness of the world in the short time allotted to me before
I passed into the darkness" (S.Maugham. Reef)
9. He was an actor and a clever one, but he was difficult to suit and so was often
out of work. He was about thirty, a man with a pleasantly ugly face and a clipped way
of speaking that made what he said sound funny (S.Maugham. Theatre)
10. Sprinting towards the elevator he felt amazed at his own cowardly courage
(G.Markey)
11. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom,
it was
the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it
was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it
was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us,
we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going the other way (Ch. Dickens)
12. Women have a wonderful instinct about things. They can discover everythir.g
except the obvious (O.Wilde)
13. - Did you hit a woman with a child?
- No, sir, I hit her with a brick. II. Fill out the crosswords, that follow.
(Th. Smith)
__ 40 — Crossword I
1. It was an unforgettable face, and a tragic face. Its sorrow welled out of it as
purely, naturally and unstoppably as water out of a woodland spring (J.Fowles)
2. He would make some money and then he would come back and marry his
dream from Blackwood (Th .Dreiser)
3. She wanted to have a lot of children, and she was glad that things were that
way, that the Church approved. Then the little girl died. Nancy broke with Rome the
day her baby died. It was a secret break, but no Catholic breaks with Rome casually
(J.O'Hara)
4 He smelled the ever-beautiful smell of coffee imprisoned in the can
(J.Steinbeck)
5 A stout middle-aged man, with enormous owl-eyed spectacles, was sitting ... on
the edge of a great table. I turned to him.
"Don't ask me," said Mr. Owl Eyes washing his hands off the whole matter (F.Sc.
Fitzgerald) j
6. After so many kisses and promises-the lie given to her dreams, her words,
the lie given to kisses, hours, days, months of unspeakable bliss (Th. Dreiser)
7. She wore a pink hat, the size of a button (J. Reed)
8. "Year, what the hell," Anne said and looking at me, gave that not unsour smile
(R.RWarren)
9. You have got two beautiful bad examples for parents (F.Sc.Fitzgerald)
10. After a while and a cake he crept nervously to the door of the parlour
(A.Tolkien)
11. The car which picked me up on that particular guilty evening was a Cadillac
about seventy-three blocks long (J.Baldwin)

Crossword 2
1. The little woman, for she was of pocket size, crossed her hands solemnly on
her middle. (J.Galsworthy)
2. He was quiet, but not uncommunicative, reserved, but not reclusive, energetic
at times, but seldom enthusiastic. (J.Barth)
3.1 am thinking an unmentionable thing about your mother (I.Shaw)
4. "Is it shark?" said Brody. The possibility that he at last was going to confront the
fish -the beast, the monster, the nightmare - made Brady's heart pound (P. Benchley)
5. Mrs.Nork had a large home and a small husband (S.Lewis)
6. Cold
The Cold comes
On huge frozen feet
It sits looking
At poor students
and their teachers,
trembling but so neat
(L.Ganetskaya)
7. He made his way through the perfume and conversation (I.Shaw)
8. The menu was rather less than a panorama, indeed, it was as repetitious as a
snore (E.O'Neill)
9. He telt the first watery eggs of sweat moistening the palms of his hands
(W.Sansom)
 _4 I _
10. But no fish at all was in it, nor any monster or thing of horror, but only & little
Mermaid lying fast asleep. Her body was as white as ivory, silver and pearl was her SEMINAR 9
tail, her lips were like sea-corals (O.Wilde)
11. Up the Square, from the comer of King Street, passed a woman in a new STYLISTIC DIFFERENTIATION OF MODERN
bonnet with pink strings, and a new blue dress that sloped at the shoulders, Through ENGLISH
the silent sunlit solitude of the Square this bonnet and this dress floated northwards 1. Stylistics analyses language from the functional point of view. That is why
in search of romance (A.Bennett) defining the notion of "function", its differentiation from the notion "aim" seems to be
an essential starting point.
Speech activity, as any other human activity, is predetermined and conditioned by
human needs and aims. The aim of human activity is a certain conceivable practical
Crossword 1 result which is considered to be desirable Two types of hierarchically related aims
1
s should be distinguished: the main aim and the intermediate one, the latter
presupposes creat ing and applying definite means of achieving the main aim. The
2 E •.L. I I I main aim of verbal communication is of pragmatic (nonlingual) character, while the
'I M
A
intermediate aim is of constructive (lingual) character. Commonly, the aim of
communication is said to consist In conveying information, but it is not quite correct.
4
I Whenever the speaker intends to say something he intends to change either the
II S psychological and mental state of the hearer or his physical state To achieve this
6 I aim the speaker should first set a constructive (lingual) aim, i.e. constructing an
7 О utterance (a text) which is the most suitable for attain ing the pragmatic aim in a
concrete speech situation.
8 L Function is usually defined either as a relation of one element to another or as a
•I О
G
role of an element in a system as well as a role of the whole system in wider
environment.

~лл
10 As modern linguistics distinguishes three areas of language, namely, language
_ Y
11 sys tem (langue), speech activity (performance) and speech material (speech,
parole), the notion of function has certain peculiaritis when applied to each of these
areas. Accord ingly, three types of stylistics may be distinguished: stylistics of
language, stylistics of speech activity, and stylistics of speech.
Crossword 2 2. Language, being a system by itself, is part of other system of a higher order - lan
guage and reality, language and thinking, language and society. In relation to reality,
1 S thinking and society, language has two main functions - communicative and cognitive.
These func tions predetermine the properties of both language system and its
2 E components.
3
M Stylistics of language does not only cover the system of expressive means but
I also all language means which are used for nomination and communication.
4 A As language is closely related to thinking, which may be logical and imaginative,
5 S at the very early stages of its development it developed two related subsystems - the

s C 7
I
0
XJ practical language and the poetic language having different structural and functional
organization. Each of the two subsystems first existed in the oral forms only. Much
later, the written form came into being. Written language was used for specific
8 L purposes and became a type of language with its formal, structural, and semantic
О peculiarities. It is known as a bookish language. The orai language also became a
| type of language with its formal,
10 G structural, and semantic peculiarities, too. It is known as a conversational language.
11 Y I I The main unit of written language is the text, whereas that of oral type is the
utter
ance. They differ in many respects: in substance, in functions, and in their norms.
— Practical oral, practical written, poetic oral and poetic written subsystems can be
42 defined as functional types of language. They constitute the basis for the stylistic
differ entiation of speech activity and speech.
 3. The notion ofjfunctional style is interpreted in stylistics differently. There are *пс*эпг* ? s:caltv
two main approaches toTts~definition, both originating from Ac.V.V.Vinogradov's
conception. According to the first approach, style is defined on the criterion of -41
not homoge neous at all.
accepted, functionally conditioned and internally organized system of the ways of
us age, choice and combination of communicative verbal means which correlate _44
with other similar systems serving other aims and: fulfilling other functions in speech _
practice of a nation. According to the second approach style is defined with regard
to its components. It is regarded as a system of language means united by the
similarity of their function or by the sphere of usage.
Our interpretation of functional style somewhat differs from those mentioned
above.
Any human activity, speech activity including, presupposes the existence of
means or tools of such activity as well as devices or ways of using these means.
As human activity is always purposeful, both means and devices are functionally
oriented. So, if function is a role of units, style is their property. We are to
distinguish styles as the properties of speech activity from styles as the properties of
speech.
We define thespeechf unictional style as a socially accepted stereotype of
speech behaviour closely connected with human social activity. These stereotypes
are sets of norms and rules for generating utterances and texts together with the
means and de vices supplied by the language system for achieving various
pragmatic aims. A func tional style carries information about the speaker: the social
role he has assumed, his social status, his psychological state, and his attitude to
the hearer as well as to the subject-matter of speech. Its meaningfulness is a result
of the speaker's choice of a certain manner of speech behaviour from the existing
accepted stereotypes.
The choice of a stereotype is conditioned by many factors, the main of which are as
follows: a) social roles (social relations) of the communicants, which may be equal and
non- equal; b) social situation of communication, which may be formal and informal; c)
pragmatic aims of the communicants. These factors do not exclude the influence of a
personal factor, the factor of the author's or the speaker's personality.
4. The problem of functional style classification is also very complicated.
There arejwo ajagroacties to it- ^ ^ У в Л г п т the general to the specific) and
inductive (from the specific to the general). But, irrespective of the approaches
adopted, scholars usu ally distinguish the following styles: conversational,
publicistic and oratorical, official, scientific, newspaper style, and belles-lettres style.
The status of some of these styles seems refutable. Following the differentiation
of the primary and secondary semiotic systems we assume that the poetic
language, the language of fiction does not constitute a functional style comparable
with other func tional styles but it constitutes a functional type of language. Literary
texts are objects of art which have their own specific structures whose functions
differ in many respects from those of practical texts and utterances.
The status of the newspaper style is also doubtful. Some scholars consider that
the existence of this style is conditioned by the specific aims of mass media and by
the peculiarities of the linguistic means used in newspapers. But these peculiarities
are confined to very limited newspaper units - headlines, brief news items and
editorials. Thus, it is more reasonable to speak about the newspaper language
rather than about the newspaper style.
I.R.Galperin excludes conversational style from the inventory of functional styles,
because his classification was based entirely on the written type of language.
Though conversational style is used even more widely than written language and is
 The following speech functional styles can be distinguished:
Official style is based on the practical language and is absolutely impersonal.
It is used in formal situations with the social roles of the communicants being
equal or non-equal.
Scientific style is mainly based on the practical language, being mostly
impersonal. It may include etements of ihe poetic language. The criteria of social
situation and social roles are irrelevant for it.
Publicistic (oraloncal) style is mainly based on the practical language, being
per sonal. It may widely employ elements of the poetic language. '
Literary conversational style is mainly based on the practical language. Mostly
it widely employs elements of the poetic language. It is used in formal situations,
where social roles of the communicants may be equal or non-equal.
Colloqwal style is based on the practical language, though also employs
elements of the poetic language. It is used in informal situations where the social
roles of the communicants are as a rule equal.
5. A certain manner of behaviour results in the fact that the product of this
activity - utterances and texts - have certain structural and semantic properties.
These proper ties are the subject-matter of stylisiics of speech.
Utterances and texts haviricTsimilar or different semantic and structural
properties conditioned by functional styles, they may be classified according to
semantic and struc tural criteria. On the basis of these criteria, three major classes
of texts hierarchically related to one another can be distinguished:
a) types of the texts. These are different classes of texts within a functional style
which differ in their semantic and thematic characteristics. Thus, texts of
ДОДАТКОВА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка. - П.: Просвещение,
1981.-С. 242-250.
Долинин К.А. Стилистика французского языка.-Л.: Просвещение. 1978. -С. 5-
52, 53-88, 110-111.
SEMINA R 1 0
FUNCTIONAL STYLES IN MODERN ENGLISH POINTS
FOR DISCUSSION
1. Official style in Modern English.
2. Publicistic style in Modern English.
3. Scientific style in Modern English.
4. Literary conversational style In Modern English.
5. Familiar-colloquial style in Modern English.
TOPICS FOR REPORTS
1. Lexical peculiarities of the oral type of speech,
2. Lexical peculiarities of the written type of speech.
3. Syntactical peculiarities of the oral type of speech.
4. Syntactical peculiarities of the written type of speech.
5. Supersentential units in oral speech.
6. Variants of non-standard conversational English.
7. Figures of substitution in oral speech.
8. Figures of combination in oral speech.
9. Stylistic peculiarities of the oratorical style.
10. Stylistic peculiarities of the publicistic style.
official style may be subdivided into administrative, judicial, military,
commercial, diplo matic etc;
p
) .genres of the texts. These are types of texts further subdivided according to
their
compositional and stylistic peculiarities. Thus, military texts are divided into
orders, reports, instructions, regulations etc;
c) individual texts, mostly influenced by the author's personality. The study of such
texts constitutes the subject-matter of stylistics of individual speech.
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1. The notion of aim and function. Pragmatic and linguistic aims. Functions of
the language system, speech activity, speech.
2. Stylistics of language. Practical and poetic languages. Oral and written types
and forms of language. The utterance and the text.
3. Stylistics of speech activity. The notion of functional style. Factors which
deter mine the choice of a style.
4. The problem of functional style classification.
5. Stylistics of speech. Types of texts. Genres of texts. Stylistics of individual
speech.
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Стилистика английского языка/А.Н.Мороховский,
О.П.Воробьева, 1I И.Лихошерст, З.В.Тимошенко. - К.: Вища
школа, 1991. - С. 26-27, 235-244.
SEMINA R 1 1
LINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF TEXT INTERPRETATION
11. Business correspondence in English.
12. Stylistic peculiarities of diplomatic documents.
13. Stylistic peculiarities of legal documents.
14. Stylistic peculiarities of scientific prose.
15. Stylistic peculiarities of military documents.
РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка. -Л.: Просвещение,
1981.-С. 257-263, 271-281.
Galperin I.R. Stylistics. - М.: Higher School Publ. House, 1981. - P. 296-305,319-332.
Стилистика английского языка /А.Н.Мороховский, О.П.Воробьева,
Н.И.Лихошерст, З.В.Тимошенко. - К.: Вища шк., 1991. - С. 245-266.
— 46 --
 POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1 Text interpretation as a linguistic discipline. Its gubject-matter, ajms and tasks.
I inguostylisticsTtext linguistics and text interpretation asrelated disciplines.
2. Interpretation of a literary text: hermeneutic, logical, psychological, and
philologi cal perspectives.
3 Basic notions of literary text interpretation. Textual reference and the artistic
model 0( the world. Fictitious time and space. Text partitioning and composition.
Implication (ind artistic details.
4. Intentional, interactional, and receptive components of literary text semantics.
I heir general characteristics.

РЕКОМЕНДОВАНА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
і Кухаренко В.А. Интерпретация текста.-Л.: Просвещение, 197S -С . 5-12, 39-
Ьг, 62-65, 92-100.
\ Долинин К.А. Интерпретация текста. -М.: Просвещение, 1975. - С. 4-
34,63-180. yj Домашнее А.И., Шишкина И.П., Гончарова Е.А. Интерпретация
художественного іокста. - М.: Просвещение, 1989. - С. 15-68, 76-96.
Гураева 3 Я. Лингвистика текста. -М.: Просвещение, 1986

ДОДАТКОВА ЛІТЕРАТУРА
Стилистика английского языка /А.Н.Мороховский, О.П.Воробьева,
Н.И.Лихошерст, З.В.Тимошенко. -К.: Вища шк., 1991. - С. 200-234.
Воробьева О.П. Текстовые категории и фактор адресата. - К.: Вища шк., 1993.
С 9-17, 54-89.

SEMINA R 1 2

AUTHOR'S IMAGE AS A LITERARY TEXT CATEGORY

POINTS FOR DISCUSSION

1. The notion of the author of a narrative text. Internal and external aspects of the
.lulhor's textual presence.
2. The notion of the narrative perspective Types of narrative perspectives:
omniscient (unlimited) vs concentrated (limited)
- constant vs variable.
3. The narrator in a literary text. Types of narrators with regard to the author, and
with regard to the textual world:
a) omniscient (authorial) narrator;
b) narrator-personage;
c) narrator-(witness) observer;
d) false author.

— 47 —