Organ systems of the human body 2 MAJOR TISSUE LAYERS OF THE SKIN

I Integumentary system I Digestive system

I Skeletal system I Urinary system Epidermis Dermis
I Muscular system I Nervous system -
Top layer True skin statisti

i
I Cardiovascular system I Endocrine system -
Thinner Layer of dense connective tissue with
I Iune system I
Reproductive system -
Avascular fibroblast, feat cell, macrophages
I Respiratory system /
Layer of stratified squamous -
Collagen & elastic fibers are responsible for
epithelium most of the structural strength
Integumenty System /
Prevents water loss /
Cleavage or tension lines
I Largest organ in the body -
Resists abrasion I
Dermal papillae
[MAKES
Keratinization SOME PART THICK & STRONG]
I
Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and produces . Nails
eg , palm ,
soles

vitamin D precursors Forms strata or layers

I Consists of skin, hair, nails, & sweat glands

FUNCTIONS:
⑭
Protection DERMAL PAPILLA

-
Dehydration (to protect from loss of water)
-
UV (shield from UV rays) *
DISEASE-CAUSING

-
Microbes (protects body from pathogenic microbes)
⑭
sensation
Sensory receptors (nerves) detect heat, cold, touch, pressure, pain
-

⑭
Vitamin D production
Needed in calcium homeostasis [VITAMIN
< D IS NEEDED FOR THE CALCIUM TO BE ABSORBED FASTER]
⑭
Temperature regulation
-
Amount of blood flow & activity of sweat glands STO MAINTAIN THE TEMPERATURE OF THE BODIT

Excretion ARTERIES VEINS

· Release waste products through gland secretion
-

Oxygenated blood -

deoxygenated blood

STO REMOVE TOXINS IN THE BODY]

DERMAL PAPILLA

placed on the dermis that is projected as FINGERPRINTS on the epidermis

 KEY TERMS
Page 205
-

5 strata of epidermis M
Stratum CORNEUM
Stratum basale STRATUM
is the most superficial layer of the epidermis and is the layer
ala
GERMINATIUM
M -

is the deepest epidermal layer and attaches the epidermis to exposed to the outside environment
the basal lamina, below which lie the layers of the dermis. usually 15 to 30 layers of cells
-
A finger-like projection, or fold, known as the dermal papilla This dry, dead layer helps prevent the penetration of microbes

·
is found in the superficial portion of the dermis. and the dehydration of underlying tissues, and provides a
mechanical protection against abrasion for the more delicate,
,
made of epidermal stem cells underlying layers.
stratum basale is a single layer of cells primarily made of basal cells.
⑭ BASAL CELL - is a cuboidal-shaped stem cell that is a precursor of the
keratinocytes of the epidermis

M
Stratum spinosum
s
layer of the epidermis superficial to the stratum basale,
characterized by the presence of desmosomes
-
spiny in appearance due to the protruding cell processes
that join the cells via a structure called a desmosome.
composed of 8-10 layers of keratinocytes, formed as a
· Stratum granulosum
result of cell division in the stratum basale

layer of the epidermis superficial to the stratum spinosum

· has a grainy appearance due to further changes to the
keratinocytes as they are pushed from the stratum spinosum.
<
The cells (3-5 layers deep) become flatter, their cell membranes
thicken, and they generate large amounts of the proteins keratin
Stratum LUCIDUM
m layer of the epidermis between the stratum granulosum and
stratum corneum, found only in thick skin covering the palms,
soles of the feet, and digits
The keratinocytes that compose the stratum lucidum are dead
and flattened. These cells are densely packed with eleiden
⑭
ELEIDEN - a clear protein rich in lipids, derived from keratohyalin, which gives these
cells their transparent (i.e., lucid) appearance and provides a barrier to water.
 skin MELANOCYTE -

pigment cell

hair
glands
INVAGINATION
-
forms a pocket inward

- INNERMOST , SOFTER

OUTER ,
HARDENED BY
KERATIN

2 PHASES OF HAIR GROWTH

COATING
(MADEUPOnous)
> GROWTH PHASE
-

period of elongating
> RESTING PHASE CONTRACTION =
GOOSEBUMPS
-not elongating

SEBUM/O1L [producesoilforthehairtois

aKa ECCRINE SWEAT GLAND

-

watery with few salts

(armpit scalp etc )

.
-
most abundant in
, ,

thick sweat "sweat smell" palms & soles

I,

CHAIR FOLLICLE]
nails Skeletal System
I
Provides protection and support
I Allows body movements
I
Produces blood cells
I
Stores minerals and fats
I
Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints

CARTILAGE

FUNCTIONS:
⑭
Suort
-
BONES -

major supporting tissue of the body

-

can bear weight due to rigidity & strength

I
CARTILAGES -

provide firm yet flexible support within the nose, external

ear, thoracic cage, trachea
<
TRACHEA - main air passage
- made up of "c" - shaped cartilages

LIGAMENTS strong bands of fibrous connective tissue that attach & hold
[BONE BONE] bones together
⑭ Protection CATEGORIES OF BONES BASED ON SHAPE
-
BONES hard, rigid structure that enclose the organs it surround such as the skull (brain),
-

⑭ Long bones longer than they are wide CLONG NARROW)

-
&

vertebrae (spinal cord) and rib cage (heart, lungs, other organs of thorax)
bones of the upper & lower limbs
-

⑭ Movement Have epiphysis & diaphysis

-

·
TENDONS -

strong bands of connective tissue that attach skeletal muscles to bones

[MUSCLE-BONE] allow movement of appendages
-
JOINT OR ARTICULATION 2 or more bones come together allow movement
-

between bones

LIGAMENTS allow restricted movement between bones

·
-

Storage
-
CALCIUM & PHOSPHORUS -

minerals in the blood that are stored in the bones

-
ADIPOSE TISSUE stored in bone cavities such as yellow bone marrow
-

-
DIAPHYSIS / YELLOW BONE MARROW - located inside a long bone
⑭ Bld ce production
-
RED BONE MARROW contained at the cavities of the epiphysis produce blood cells
-

& platelets thru Hematopoiesis

EPIPHYSIS - located at the ends of a long bone ⑭
Short Bones as wide as they are long

.
-

HEMATOPOIESIS - production of blood cells -

bones of wrist & ankle

17
CARPALS [TARSALS]

EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX COMPONENT

EXTRACELLULAR - substance surrounding the cells (osteocytes)
I COLLAGEN
-
tough, ropelike protein; present in bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage
PROTEOGLYCAN
" large molecules consisting of polysaccharides attached to core proteins that
can attract & retain large amounts of water between their polysaccharide
-
makes cartilage smooth & resilient
excellent shock absorber
I MINERALS
CCALCIUM & PHOSPHATE)

present in bones in the form of calcium phosphate crystals called

hydroxyapatite giving (compression) weight-bearing strength
⑭ Flat Bones -

relatively thin, flattenedshape; some skull bones, ribs,

- long bone -

scapulae,
[SHOULDER BLADES]
sternum
[BREAST BONE] I DIAPHYSIS central shaft with medullary cavity containing yellow
-

bone marrow
⑭ MEDULLARY CAVITY - has a delicate membranous lining called the endosteum
(end- = “inside”; oste- = “bone”), where bone growth,
repair, and remodeling occur.

I EPIPHYSIS two ends containing red bone marrow

-

I
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE thin layer covering of epiphyses
-

I EPIPHYSEAL OR GROWTH PLATE composed of cartilage & is the site of

-

growth in bone length

I EPIPHYSEAL LINE replaces epiphyseal plate when bone growth stops
-

I
PERIOSTEUM dense connective tissue that covers the outer surface
-

of a bone
I ENDOSTEUM thinner connective tissue that lines the surface of the
-

medullary cavity
I OSTEOBLASTS bone-forming cells
-

⑭ Iegular Bones vertebrae & facial bones

-

for bone formation, repair & remodeling of bone

-

found in periosteum &endosteum

T OSTEOCYTES bone cells -

osteoblasts that have become surrounded by matrix

I
OSTEOCLASTS bone-destroying cells
-

remove existing bone called bone reabsortion for repair

& remodelling

2 Types of Bones based on Histological Structure

M
COMPACT OR CORTICAL BONE
-

mostly solid matrix; located in diaphysis; consists of osteons/Haversian

Canal System
M
SPONGEY OR CANCELLOUS BONE
-

consists of a lacy network of bone with many small, marrow-filled

spaces; located in the epiphyses & lines the medullary cavity; consists of
trabeculae (beams)
 - trabeculae-
/
found in spongy bone
·
delicate interconnecting rods or plates of bone, resembling
beams of a building
/
add strength to a bone
-
marrow fill spaces between trabeculae
-
usually without blood vessels & central canals
Osteon or Haversian Canal System
[NAMED AFTER CLOPTON HAVER]
M
CENTRAL OR HAVERSIAN CANAL -

contain blood vessels

M
LAMELLAE concentric rings
-

M
LACUNAE location of osteocytes
-

M
OSTEOCYTES bone cells
-

M
CANALICULI connects osteocytes together by cell processes
m
 types of bone ossification bone remodeling
BONE OSSIFICATION - formation of bone by osteoblasts involves the removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and the

i
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce bone in connective tissue membranes occurs in all bones
process begins in areas called ossification centers where Responsible for:
trabeculae radiate out from bone growth
trabeculae may enlarge or be replaced by compact bone changes in bone shape
e.g. skull the adjustment of bone to stress
bone repair
calcium ion regulation in the body fluids

Bone repair

ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
Bone formation that occurs inside hyaline cartilage
process through which the base of the skull and most of
the remaining skeletal system develop
starts off with cartilage models having the general shape
of the bone
 -
division of bones
AXIAL APPENDICULAR
SKELETON (80) SKELETON (126)
I
BRAINCASE I PECTORAL GIRDLE
paired Unpaired -
Scapula I

c
Parietal 2 -
Frontal 1 ·
Clavicle 2

I
Temporal 2 -
Occipital 1 I PELVIC GIRDLE
-
Sphenoid 1 -
Coxal bone 2

-
Ethmoid 1 I
UPPER LIMB
I
FACE -
Humerus 2

paired Unpaired -
Ulna 2
-
Maxilla 2 -
Mandible 1
Radius 2
/

Zygomatic Vomer 1 Carpals

16

"
-

Palatine Metacarpals
-
#

: Nasal
Lacrimal I
Phalanges 28
-

LOWER LIMB
Features of bones -
Inferior nasal -
Femur 2
2
I FORAMEN -

hole in a bone concha ·

Tibia 2
T CANAL / MEATUS -

a hole that has elongated into a tunnellike passage T

AUDITORY OSSICLES -
Fibula 2
T FOSSA -

depression in a bone -
Malleus 2 (
Patella 2
I TUBERCLE / TUBEROSITY lump on a bone Incus e Tarsals 14
·
-
-

I PROCESS projection from a bone

- <
Stapes I
Metatarsals
10

T CONDYLE
smooth rounded end of bone where it forms an articulation
- I THORACIC CAGE Phalanges
eq

with another bone (24)

Ribs TRUE RIBS -2 Pass
FLOATING RIBS -
2 pairs

-
Sternum 1

I
HYOID 1
I
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
-
Cervical vertebrae -

Thoracic vertebrae 12

· Lumbar vertebrae 5

-
Sacrum 1
Coccyx 1 (tail bone)
-
(EAR CANAL)
SUPERIOR ORBITAL FISSURE
TUBERCULUM SELLAE

HYPOPHYSEAL FOSSA

DORSUMSELLA O LACERUM
 Muscul System
I Produces body movements
I Maintains posture
I Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons

FUNCTIONS:
Body Movement MUSCLE)
(SKELETAL
⑭

walking & running is due to contraction of skeletal muscles

⑭ Maintenance of posture [SKELETAL MUSCLE]
-
sitting or standing erect is due to skeletal muscles that constantly maintain tone
Respiration MUSCLE) 4 MAJOR FFUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
(SKELETAL
⑭

muscles of the thorax like diaphragm & intercostal rib muscles carry out breathing action OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE
I
DIAPHRAGM - is the most important muscle of respiration I CONTRACTILITY
ability to shorten with force
-

- separates the thoracic cavity (heart and lungs) from the abdominal I EXITABIILITY capacity to respond to stimulus from nerves
-

cavity (stomach, etc.)

I EXTENSIBILITY can be stretched to its normal resting length and beyond
-

DOME-SHAPED EXHALE (to give space for the lungs to expand)

T ELASTICITY
FLATTEN ·
INHALE ability to recoil to their original resting length after being
-

-
VENTILATION - breathing action
stretched
·
INSPIRATION/INHALATION
EXPIRATION/EXHALATION
Connective Tissue Coverings of a Skeletal Muscle
·

⑭ Production of body heat [SKELETAL MUSCLE] M

EPIMYSIUM / FASCIA connective tissue surrounding each skeletal
-

-
heat is given off as a by-product of the contraction of skeletal muscles and is needed in muscle
thermoregulation [eg. CONTINUOUS MOVING] M
PERIMYSIUM loose connective tissue surrounding a fascicle / fasciculus
-

⑭ Counication [SKELETAL MUSCLE] -

FASCICLE/FASCICULUS - muscle bundle composed of several muscle fibers
-
speaking, writing,gesturing, texting/typing & facialexpressions are due to skeletal M
ENDOMYSIUM surrounds each muscle fiber in a fascicle or fasciculus
-

muscle contraction
⑭
Constriction of organs and veels [SMOOTH MUSCLE] INVOLUNTARY
MOVEMENT

,
the contraction of smooth muscles in the walls of internal organs (PERISTALSIS/
PERISTALTIC MOVEMENT) help propel & mix food & water in the digestive tract,
propel secretions from organs, & regulate blood flow through blood vessels

⑭ Heartbeat / contraction of the heart [CARDIAC MUSCLE]

-
cardiac muscle contraction causes heartbeat & propel blood to all body parts
 STRUCTURE OF A MUSCLE FIBER / MUSCLE CELL M
M LINE where myosin myofilaments are anchored
-

M
SARCOLEMMA the cell membrane of a muscle fiber/muscle cell
-
-
Z DISK attachment site for actin myofilaments
M
SARCOPLASM cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
-

M
T OR TRANSVERSE TUBULES tubelike invaginations of the sarcolemma that
-

wrap around sarcomeres

M
SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM a highly organized smooth ER
-

contains a high concentration of calcium ions

needed for muscle contraction
M
MYOFIBRIL threadlike structure contained in the sarcoplasm
-

M
MYOFILAMENTS protein filaments in the form of actin and myosin
-

contained in each myofibril

M
SARCOMERE the basic structural and functional unit of a skeletal muscle
-

repeating units along a myofibril

-

extends from one Z disk to the next

M
I OR LIGHT BAND consists of only actin myofilaments
-

M
A OR DARK BAND the central region of each sarcomere where actin
-

and myosin overlaps

I BAND & A BAND striations to the muscles

M
H ZONE second light zone in the center of a sarcomere consisting
-

only of myosin myofilaments

 other ions

Actin Myofilament Resting Membrane Potential

Thin myofilament resembling two pearl strands twisted together with The charge difference as when the outside of the cell membrane is positively

.....
M

molecules of: charged than the inside of cell membrane develops for 2 reasons:
Troponin attached at specific intervals and provide ·
The concentration of K inside is higher than the outside
calcium binding sites on the actin
M
Tropomyosin Filaments located along the groove between
the twisted strands of actin DEPOLARIZATION the inside of the cell becomes more positively charged
-

Expose attachment sites on actin when Ca is REPOLARIZATION changing back to the resting membrane potential
-

bound to troponin and cover attachment M

ACTION POTENTIAL the rapid depolarization and repolarization of the
sites when Ca is not bound to troponin cell membrane resulting to muscle contraction

Myosin Myofilament
I Thick myofilaments resemble bundles of minute golf clubs
I
Its heads can bind to the exposed attachment sites on the actin myofilaments
MOTOR NEURON muscle contraction
nerve cell where action potential travels along in a skeletal muscle fiber Occurs as actin and myosin myofilaments slide past one another, causing

ii
the sarcomeres to shorten.
NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION / SYNAPSE Many sarcomeres joined end to end form myofibrils.
point of contact of a motor neuron with a skeletal muscle Shortening of the sarcomeres causes myofibrils to shorten.
located near the center of a muscle fiber Shortening of myofibrils causes the entire muscle to shorten.
composed of:
presynaptic terminal
synaptic cleft
postsynaptic membrane
synaptic vesicles

ACETYLCHOLINE
neurotransmitters found in synaptic vesicles

MOTOR UNIT
made up of one motor neuron innervating to several skeletal muscle fibers
 Criteria of Muscle Nomenclature
I SHAPE
.
ex DELTOID -

large triangular shaped

,
(from Greek letter destal
I ANATOMICAL LOCATION
ex .
FRONTALIS -

muscle located on top of the frontal bone of the skull

I SIZE
ex. GLUTEUS MAXIMUS -

largest

GLUTEUS MEDIUS -

medium

GLUTEUS MINIMUS -

smallest

I LENGTH
ex .

BREVIS -

short

LONGUS -

long
I POSITION RELATIVE TO MIDLINE
ex .

LATERALIS -

to the outside/away from the midline

MEDIALIS -

toward the midline

I DIRECTION OF MUSCLE FIBERS & FASCICLES

ex .
RECTUS -

straight

OBLIQUE -

at an angle
TRANSVERSE -

Horizontal

I NUMBER OF MUSCLES IN A GROUP

ex
. QUADRICEPS -

group of 4
I NUMBER OF ORIGIN
ex .

BICEPS BRACHIl-bi = 2

TRICEPS -

tri =
B

I LOCATION OF ATTACHMENTS [ORIGIN IS NAMED FIRST]

ex .
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOLD -

Sternum & clavicle are 2 origins then mastoid is insertion

I ACTION
ex .
FLEXORS -

decrease angle at joint

EXTENSORS -

increase angle at joint

ABDUCTORS -

more bone away from midline

LEVATORS -

move bone towards midline

MUSCLE TWITCH
-

the contraction of a muscle fiber in response to a stimulus

M
Lag phase time between the application of a stimulus and
-

beginning of contraction
M
Contraction phase time of contraction
-

M
Relaxation phase time during which the muscle relaxes
-
 Cdiovascul System
I transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body Functions of the Heart
I plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature I Generating blood pressure
I consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels I Routing blood
I Ensuring one-way blood flow
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN ANIMALS I Regulating blood supply
M
Circulatory system transports nutrients, wastes and gases
-
I Pumps blood to all parts of the body
M
Respiratory system for exchange and transport of gases
-

M
Excretory system transports wastes to organs of excretion, which
-

Heart
move them out of the body I Main propulsive organ of the body
M
Digestive system -

process and transports nutrients I Develops in an embryo four weeks after fertilization
I
Beats around 2.5 B times without interruption within the average
TRANSPORT IN SIMPLE ANIMALS I human life span
I Sponges & Cnidarians I Beats 72X/min.
-

gas exchange happens between water in environment & circulating I Pumps 5.5 liters blood/min.
body fluid in the organism I Composed of involuntary, striated cardiac muscles
T Roundworms
-

uses body fluids for circulation. Accomplished by moving the body Size, form, location of the HEART
against fluids that are directly in contact with tissues & organs I Shaped like a blunt cone w/ apex as rounded point and base as the flat part
I As big as a clenched fist
2 Types of Circulation I
Located in the thoracic cavity between two pleural cavities that
M
OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM [ex .
INSECTS OTHER
,
ARTHROPODS] surround the lungs & is surrounded by its own pericardial cavity
-

the circulatiry system does not pass through enclosed tubes, instead, it is I Forms the midline partition called mediastinum together w/ trachea,
pumped by the heart in a network of channels and cavities (hemocoels) esophagus & associated structures
throughout the body
-
respiration also happens in the hemocoels
⑭
HEMOCOELS - blood flowing within cavities in a body (no blood vessels)
M
CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM [ex . EARTHWORMS
,
VERTEBRATES]

the blood or circulating fluid passes within blood vessels that transport blood
away from and back to the heart
 Anatomy of the heart 4 heart chambers

PC
EONGENDONATE
E

PERICARDIUM OR PERICARDIAL SAC M

RIGHT & LEFT ATRIA -

receive blood from veins

(RECEIVING CHAMBERS)
-

surrounds the heart and anchors it within the mediastinum -

act as reservoirs of blood

-

forms the pericardial sac before entering the ventricles

2 LAYERS OF PERICARDIUM -
RA - recieves blood fr superior vena cava, inferior vena cava & coronary sinus
> FIBROUS PERICARDIUM (though ,
outer layer) -
LA - recieves blood thru the 4 pulmonary veins
SEROUS PERICARDIUM (thin ,
inner layer
PARIETAL PERICARDIUM (lines the fibrous pericardium ( M
RIGHT AND LEFT VENTRICLES -

major pumping chambers

·
PERICARDIAL CAVITY (filled with fluid) (DISCHARGING CHAMBERS) -

ejects blood into the arteries

VISCERAL PERICARDIUM /EPICARDIUM (covers heart surface) -
RV - pumps blood to the pulmonary trunk
/
LV - pumps blood to the aorta; with thicker walls, contracts forcefully, generates
greater blood pressure than RV

M
CORONARY SULCUS separates atria from ventricles
-

M
INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM divides the ventricles
-

LUNGS

arteries
M
PULMONARY TRUNK splits into R & L (1) -

((n)
M
PULMONARY ARTERIES arise from RV and carry blood to the lungs
-

M
AORTA arising from LV and carries blood to all body parts
-

L LARGEST ARTERY

6 large veins that carry blood to the heart

BLOOD FROM UPPER PARTS OF THE BODY FROM LOWER PARTS OF THE BODY
~ BLOOD
M
SUPERIOR VENA CAVA & INFERIOR VENA CAVA >
-
2 LARGEST VEINS

carry blood from the body to the right atrium

-

U
4 PULMONARY VEINS carry blood from lungs to LA
-
 heart valves
M
ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) VALVES prevents backflow (between atrium & ventricle)
-
TRICUSPID VALVE - between RA & RV
-
BICUSPID / MITRAL VALVE - betwee LA & LV
M
AORTIC & PULMONARY SEMILUNAR (SL) VALVES
-

valves in the aorta and pulmonary trunk respectively

-

each valve has 3 pocketlike semilunar cusps

⑭
CARDIAC SKELETON – plate of fibrous connective tissue consisting of
fibrous rings around the AV & semilunar valves

2 types of blood circulation

M
PULMONARY LOOP/CIRCUIT
-
carries the deoxygenated blood to from the right chambers
of the heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen and return to the
left chambers of the heart
M
SYSTEMIC LOOP/CIRCUIT
-
carries the oxygenated blood from the left chambers of the
heart to the different tissues of the body
·
delivers the needed oxygen for cellular respiration and also
collects wastes from respiration e.g. coronary and renal
circulation
 Functions of Peripheral Circulation
-
Carry blood
-
Exchange nutrients, waste products, gases
-
Transport
-
Regulate blood pressure
-
Direct blood flow

blood vessels
Serve as ‘highways’ through which blood is circulated in the body
M
ARTERIES thick-walled, allows passage of oxygenated blood away from
heart (except the pulmonary artery)
M
VEINS thin-walled, carry non-oxygenated blood to the heart (except
pulmonary vein)
M
CAPILLARIES thinnest, having one layer of cells are sites through which
materials between blood & cells diffuse