GENCHEM 1ST QUARTER – SOLUTION: one particle completely
MATTER dissolves in another (solute and solvent)
> Matter – occupies space and has mass
> Mass – measure of quantity of matter
> Weight – created by the interaction of mass with
gravity
> Energy – capacity to move an object or to transfer
heat
− not matter
> 2 ways to classify matter: 1.) Chemical
Composition and 2.) Physical State
COMPOSITION OF MATTER (chemical)
> Pure Substance – same chemical composition
throughout
− cannot be separated by physical means
− can be observed
− not combined with any other substances
2 TYPES OF PURE SUBSTANCE
o Elements – cannot be broken down into
simpler substances even by a chemical
reaction
– building blocks of all matter
– 118 elements
– 83 of the elements can be found in natural
substances and in sufficient quantity to
isolate
– 2 main categories: metals and nonmetals
– metal can be distinguished from nonmetal
by: luster (shininess), ability to conduct heat
(thermal conductivity), and ability to conduct
electricity (electrical conductivity)
o Compounds – composed of 2 or more
elements combined in definite proportions
– has properties different from those of its
component elements
– can be chemically separated
> Mixture – consists of 2 or more elements or
compounds
− Possible to separate mixtures into their
component pure substances
− Can be physically separated (grinding,
dissolving, filtering)
− Chemical separation is not needed
2 TYPES OF MIXTURES
o Homogeneous Mixture – uniform
composition throughout
– most solutions: composed of compounds
dissolved in water
– often clear
– ALLOY: solid solution of 2 or more metals
(steel, yellow gold)
– SOL (solid with liquid) EMULSION (liq in
liq) FOAM (gas with liq)
o Heterogeneous Mixture – not uniform
throughout
– SUSPENSIONS: solid hangs suspended in
liquid (cloudy appearance) –> starch and
water
– MECHANICAL MIXTURE: particles do
not mix at all
– COLLOID: looks like homo (jello, milk,
blood) – substance microscopically dispersed
within another substance (mechanical
mixture)
REPRESENTATIONS OF MATTER
> Atom – smallest unit of an element
− Has the chemical properties of that element
> Molecule – made up of two or more atoms bound
together in a discrete arrangement
− Water molecule: 2 small hydrogen atoms
bound separately to a single larger oxygen
atom
− Can also be formed by the combination of
atoms of only one element
− Oxygen we breathe: molecules of 2 oxygen
atoms joined together
STATES OF MATTER (physical)
> Solid – fixed shape
− Cannot be compressed because its particles
are arranged in a tightly packed, highly
ordered structure that does not include much
free space
− Particles are fixed in place
− No volume change under pressure
> Liquid – shape of container (may or may not fill
it)
− Own volume
− Slight volume change under pressure
− Particles are free to move about until they
bump into one another
− Can be compressed lightly
> Gas – shape of container (fills it)
− Volume of container
− Large volume changes under pressure
− Particles are widely separated and move
independently
 − Easily compressed
− When cooled sufficiently, they become
liquids or solids
* Aqueous Solution (aq) – a solution in which a
substance is dissolved in water (salt and water
solution: NaCl(aq))
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
> Physical Properties – color, shape, texture,
shininess, and physical state of things
− Can observe or measure without changing the
composition of a substance
− Depends on the amount of substance
(extensive): mass, volume, weight
− Does not depend (intensive): density, color,
luster, odor, malleability, conductivity,
hardness, ductility, boiling point, melting point
o Mass – measure of quantity of matter
– weighing on a balance
– depends on the size of the object
o Volume – amount of space a substance
occupies
– depends on the size of the object
o Density – ratio of its mass to its volume
– does NOT depend on the size of the object
– unvarying property of a substance no
matter how much of it is present as long as its
TEMPERATURE and PRESSURE are
constant
– eg: density of liquid water would decrease
as the temp increases
o Temperature – measure of how hot or cold
– thermometer
– standard temp scales: Celsius scale and
Kelvin scale
– independent of object’s size
– boiling point: temp at which liquid changes
to gas
– melting point: solid to liquid
– no negative values in Kelvin scale
(absolute temperature scale)
– 0 point in Kelvin scale: lowest possible
temp observable in the universe
– absolute 0 = -273.15 degrees C
> Chemical Properties – what it is composed of and
what chemical changes it undergo
− Reactivity, flammability, toxicity, ability to
oxidize, heat of combustion
CHANGES IN MATTER (quantitative and
qualitative)
> Physical Change – changes physical properties of
a substance without changing its chemical
composition
− Eg: liquid water to water vapor (boiling or
vaporization) – physical state changes
− Separation of different substances in a
mixture
− A magnet divides magnetic materials from
nonmagnetic materials w/o changing their
identities
> Chemical Change – one or more substances are
converted into one or more new substances
− Tarnishing of pennies: some of the copper
and zinc metal atoms combine with oxygen,
forming compounds called metal oxides
METHODS OF SEPARATING COMPONENTS
OF A MIXTURE
> Separation Process – used to transform a mixture
into two or more distinct products
− Done by considering that different components
of the mixture may have different properties
such as:
o Size
o Density
o Solubility
o Electrical charge
o Boiling point
− Various processes can be employed to separate
the mixtures
− Often, two or more of these processes must be
used in combination to obtain the desired
separation
− Chemical process and mechanical process
− Mechanical processes are sometimes applied
> Example Separation Techniques for Mixtures
• Filtration – separation of solids from fluids
(liquids or gases) by interposing a medium
through which only the fluid can pass
• Distillation – for mixtures of liquids with
different boiling points
• Centrifugation and Cyclonic Separation –
separates based on density differences
• Chromatography – separated dissolved
substances by different interaction with (that
is, travel through) a material
• Drying – removes liquid from a solid by
vaporization
• Magnet Separation Technique – uses magnet
to separate iron particles from a mixture
 – chemical engineers use these separation
techniques to purify naturally found substances
or isolate them from other substances
> Crude Oil – complex mixture of carbon and
hydrogen (hydrocarbons)
− Exists as a liquid in Earth’s crust
− Chem engineers apply various distillation
methods to purify various hydrocarbons such
as natural gases, gasoline, diesel, jet fuel,
lubricating oils, asphalt, etc., from the raw o Centrifugation
crude oil
> 3 Things to Consider in Separation of Mixtures
• Mixture of Two Solids – all the mixtures
containing two solids can be separated by:
o Using suitable solvent

o Chromatography

o Sublimation

o Evaporation

o Using a magnet

o Distillation

• Mixture of Solid or Liquid

o Filtration

o Condensation

o Crystallization
• Mixture of Two Liquids
o Fractional Distillation – used in separation
of miscible liquid in the laboratory
– separate crude oil into fractions like
kerosene, petrol, diesel, etc.
– used to separate gases into the air
o Separating Funnel
> Fractional Distillation
• Large Hydrocarbons – high boiling points
• Bottled Refinery Gas – some of the smallest
molecules
– 1 and 4 carbons in length
– low boiling point (< 40°C)
– can be stored in bottles under high pressure
– propane and butane
• Petrol – 5-7 carbons in length
– vaporize at a low temperature and easily
ignited
– useful in the internal combustion engine of a
car
– 20-70°C
• Naphtha – not such a useful fuel but a valuable
source of organic molecules which can be
cracked to make more fuels or form alkenes
– alkenes can be turned into polymers and
polymers can make plastics
– 70-160°C
• Kerosene – 160-250°C
– important use as a fuel for jet engines in
aircraft and even in some rockets
– also called Paraffin in some parts of the
world
– common fuel burnt in Paraffin and kerosene
lamps used for lighting
• Diesel – 250-350°C
– common fuel in cars, vans, and lorries
– not as volatile as petrol
– instead of spark ignition like petrol, it ignites
under compression
• Residue – 300-370°C
– fuel oil used as a fuel in power stations and
ships, lubricating oil which sticks to surfaces
and reduces friction and protects from rust
– waxes, which along with the oils, can be
used for polishing surfaces
• Bitumen – > 370°C
– thick adhesive on roads either as the surface
finish or combined with stone chippings to
create a solid resistant material
– can be also used to cover roofs due to its
waterproofing properties
* All these are separated from the crude oil mixture
IONIC AND MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
> Democritus (4th century BC) – first proposed the
idea of an atom
− Lack of explanation/experiment
> Joseph Priestly and Antoine Laviosier –
established the period for the foundation of
chemistry by demonstrating the substances
combined to form new substances and later the Law
of Conservation of Mass was formulated
> Electrolyte – a substance that separates into ions
when dissolved in water
− Conduct electricity
> Nonelectrolyte – stays intact and does not
separate into ions
− Does not conduct electricity
> Dissociation or Ionization – process by which a
compound dissolves in water to produce ions
> Strong Electrolyte – dissociates extensively in
water and conducts electricity well
> Weak Electrolyte – dissociate only partially in
water and does not conduct electricity well
> Molecular Elements – atoms of the same element
> Molecule – composed of two or more atoms
bound together by a chemical bond, either ionic or
covalent
> Ion – charged atom or an atom with an
unbalanced electrostatic charge
> Polyatomic Ion – ion containing two or more
atoms
> Oxoanion – most common polyatomic ions are * If the charges to be exchanged are
anions that contain oxygen attached to some other numerically the SAME, such number are NO
element LONGER REFLECTED as subscripts
> Cation – positive ion (metal) * Subscript of 1 is NEVER WRITTEN
> Anion – negative ion (nonmetal) Na1+ O2-
> Number of protons = number of electrons (if atom Na2O
is neutral) Number of atoms: Sodium – 2; Oxygen – 1
* electron configuration: 1s22s22p63s1 Sodium Oxide
> Sodium atom: 1 valence electron Al3+ S2-
> Octet Configuration – needed for an atom to Al2S3
become an ion (8 valence electrons) Number of atoms: Aluminum – 2; Sulfur – 3
Aluminum Sulfide
FORMS OF COMPOUNDS BASED ON HOW Binary Molecular (2 nonmetals are bonded
ATOMS ARE BONDED TOGETHER together)
> Ionic Compound – consists of a cation and an * He, Kr, Ne, Xe, Ar, Rn: nonmetals that do
anion that makes it neutral not participate in in bonding because their
− Usually consists of ions from a metal with valence electrons (electrons in their outer
ions from a nonmetal electron shell) is 8 (corresponds to stability)
− Has a concept of transfer Prefix Number
− Consists of oppositely charged cations and Mono- 1
anions in proportions that give a net zero Di- 2
charge Tri- 3
> Molecular Compound (Covalent Compound) – Tetra- 4
consists of two or more different nonmetals held Penta- 5
together in a molecule Hexa- 6
− Not composed of ions Hepta- 7
− Has a concept of sharing Octa- 8
− Exists as a discrete unit of atoms held Nona- 9
together in a molecule Deca- 10
Suffix: -ide
FORMULA WRITING Formula Name
> Binary Ionic Compounds CO Carbon monoxide
− Consists of 2 elements CCl4 Carbon Tetrachloride
• Binary Ionic (metal and nonmetal bonded N2O4 Dinitrogen Tetroxide
together) SO3 Sulfur Trioxide
* Crisscross Method – way of writing the PF5 Phosphorus
formula of an ionic compound whereby the pentafluoride
numerical value of each of the ion charges is HCl Hydrogen chloride
crossed over to become the subscript of the HF Hydrogen fluoride
other ion (signs of the charges are dropped)
* Molecular Formula – shows the actual
Symbol of the first element with a positive
number of atoms present in a single
charge is a metal molecule
Symbol of the second element with a > Ternary Compounds
negative charge is a nonmetal
− Consists of 3 or more elements
Ca2+ P3-
− End its name with a suffix of -OUS or -IC
Calcium ion Phosphorus ion
− Crisscross method
Metallic ion Nonmetallic ion
Monoatomic Polyatomic Chemical
Ca3P2
cation anion formula
* Subscript – describes the number of atoms
Na1+ Co32- Na2CO3
of an element
NH41+ PO43- (NH4)3PO4
 NH41+ SO42- (NH4)2SO4
MOLE
> Mole (mol) – unit of measurement of the amount
of substance in the International System of Units
(SI)
− Contains 6.02214076 x 1023 particles
(whether atoms, molecules, ions, or
electrons): Avogadro’s number
− Scientists use this to refer to the quantities
that are at the magnitude of 602 sextillion
(molar quantity)
> October 23 – MOLE DAY (first celebrated on
1991)
− 6:02am to 6:02 pm
> Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro –
nadiscover yung mole nung 1811 but no one
believed him kasi purely hypothetical lng daw sabi
ng ibang scientists awts gegegege
− There was no clear difference between
atoms and molecules
− Nung late 1860, dun palang naprove na he
was correct: it helped lay the foundation for
the atomic theory
− Died in 1856
> Example
• Balloon of any gas at 0°C and 1 atmosphere
(pressure) = 602 sextillion gas particles or 6.02
x 1023 (gases take up a lot of space due to high
kinetic energy of gas particles)
• 18.01g of water in a glass (3 and ½ teaspoons)
= 602 sextillion molecules of water
> Atomic Mass – average mass of atoms of an
element in atomic mass units
> Molar Mass – mass per mole
− Describes the mass of a mole
> Percent Composition – amount of each element
present in a compound expressed in percent
− Compares the mass of one part or component
of substance to the mass of the whole
compound
> Empirical Formula – expresses the simplest ratios
of atoms in a compound
− Written with the smallest possible whole
number subscripts
− H2O & C3H8
> Molecular Formula – chemical formula that gives
the total number of atoms of each element in each
molecule of a substance
− H2O2 & C5H10
STOICHIOMETRY
> Stoichiometry
− Greek word “stoichion” (element) and
“metron” (measure)
> Limiting Reactant – reacts completely
− Limits the amount of the other reactant that
can react and limits the amount of product
that can form
> Chemical Equation – symbolic representation of a
chemical reaction
> Balanced Equation – the number of atoms of each
element is the same in the products as in the
reactants
> Why Chemical Reactions are Important
1. Chemical reactions are how new forms of
matter are made
2. Chemical reactions help us understand the
properties of matter
3. By observing chemical reactions, we are able
to understand and explain how the natural
world works
4. Exciting and entertaining chemical reactions
pique interest in science
5. Chemical reactions help us to solve crimes and
explain mysteries
6. By observing chemical reactions in outer
space, we are able to identify and describe
other planets
7. Fire, the most important discovery made by
human beings, is simply a chemical reaction
8. Without chemical reactions, nothing would
ever change
> Negative Effects of Chemical Reactions
• Air Pollution
– when fuel burns in machines and vehicles, it
releases carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxide (cause air pollution)
 – when wood is burned, it releases carbon RULES GOVERNING ELECTRON
dioxide and carbon monoxide DISTRIBUTION
– chlorofluorocarbons (cause of ozone > Electron Configurations
depletion) • Determining the valency of an element
– results in acid rain, global warming, and • Showing the distribution of electron among
breathing diseases sublevels
• Water Pollution • Predicting the properties of a group of
– washing clothes with soap and detergent gets elements (elements with similar electron
the water polluted configurations tend to exhibit similar
– various chemicals released by industries in properties)
water and make it unusable • Interpreting atomic spectra
– water scarcity (reduces amount of usable > Shells – maximum number of electrons that can
water) be accommodated in a shell is based on the
– usage of polluted water can cause skin principal quantum number (n)
related diseases − Represented by the formula 2n2, where “n” is
• Land Pollution the shell number
– use of various pesticides and fertilizers Shell and Identity of No. of e- Maximum
– can become cause of cancer and respiratory ‘n’ value sublevels per sublevel number of
disease electrons (
– food items can also get adulterated 2n2)
> Examples of products of chemical reactions K, n = 1 1s 2 2 e-
• Energy that drives our vehicle L, n = 2 2s 2
• Detergents 2p 6
8 e-
• Various industries rely on chemical reactions M, n = 3 3s 2
for manufacturing goods 3p 6 18 e-
3d 10
Read pp 144, 145, 147, and 149 nalng for percent N, n = 4 4s 2
composition 4p 6
PP 159-161 for mole quantities hehehehe 4d 32 e-
10
4f 14
Gooooodluck!! All the love ♡♡♡
FILLING OF ATOMIC ORBITALS
– cheskahilary > Aufbau Principle
• “Aufbeen” meaning “build up” (German word)
GENCHEM 2ND QUARTER
• Dictates that electron will occupy the orbitals
THE MODERN MODEL OF THE ATOM
having lower energies before occupying higher
> Giant Lantern Festival History
energy orbitals
− Kapampangan locals/natives “Ligligan Parul”
• The energy of an orbital is calculated by the
− Annual festival held during Saturday before
sum of the principal and the azimuthal
Christmas
quantum numbers
− Century-old festival in the Philippines
• According to the principle, electrons are filled
− Started in the year 1904 in the following order:
− Old locals believed that the event was 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f,
inaugurated in 1904 but was initialized during 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…
the later years of 1908 > Pauli Exclusion Principle
> Orbital – three-dimensional region in space where • A maximum of two electrons, each having
the electron is likely to be found, not a circular opposite spins, can fit in an orbital
pathway
• “No two electrons in the same atom have the
> Principal Energy Level – orbitals of similar size
same values for all four quantum numbers”
 • Therefore, if the principal, azimuthal, and − Shells correspond to the principal quantum
magnetic numbers are the same for two numbers
electrons, they must have opposite spins − Closest shell to the nucleus is the first shell
> Hund’s Rule (n=1)
• Describes the order in which electrons are > Ground State – n=1
filled in all the orbitals belonging to a > Excited States – higher n states
subshell > In every transition made by the electron between
• Every orbital in a given subshell are singly energy levels or states, it may LOSE or GAIN
occupied by electrons before a second energy. To conserve energy, a photon with an
electron is filled in an orbital energy equal to this energy difference between the
• In order to maximize the total spin, the states will be emitted by the atom
electrons in the orbitals that only contain one
electron all have the same spin (or the same THE FOUR QUANTUM NUMBERS
values of the spin quantum number) > Principal Quantum Number (n) – main energy
levels in an atom
QUANTUM NUMBERS Main Energy Level 1 2 3 4 5 6
> Quantum Mechanics – science that deals with the n 1 2 3 4 5 6
processes that affect the behavior of matter and light > Azimuthal (or Angular) Quantum Number (l) –
in atomic and subatomic scales shape of the orbital (or sublevel) and the magnitude
− Describe the properties of molecules and of the orbital momentum
atoms, particularly protons, electrons, and sublevel s p d f g h
neutrons, and other particles l 0 1 2 3 4 5
− Include the interaction of matter with energy > Magnetic Quantum Number (m) – orientation of
such as electromagnetic radiation the electron cloud
> Quantum – state where electrons lose or gain − Based on the concept of Hund’s rule
energy
> Developments which led to the rise of quantum
mechanics
• Albert Einstein and Max Planck – proved
that light and matter behave both as a particle
and as a wave
• Max Planck – German theoretical physicist
– discovered that light and electromagnetic
waves are emitted in discrete packets of
energy called QUANTA (won Nobel Prize in
1918)
• Erwin Schrodinger – Austrian physicist
– applied his improved ideas of waved
mechanics to explain the properties of an atom
> Spin Quantum Number (s) – describes the spins
– ORBITAL: his specific wave function of the electron
(subshell or energy sublevel) to differentiate it
− Based on Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: 2
from Bohr’s orbit
electrons per orbital
• Werner Heisenberg – German physicist
− Opposite spins – 1 clockwise, the other
– Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: it is not
counterclockwise
possible to predict the position and
momentum of a particle at a given time. One − Spin of electron: represented by an arrow
can only consider the probability of finding * pointing upwards: clockwise spin
* pointing downwards: counterclockwise
an electron at a particular location
spin
> Orbital – spherical space around the nucleus
> Electron Shell or Energy Level – orbit taken by
electrons around the nucleus
 > Emission Line – appears in a spectrum if the
source emits specific wavelengths of radiation.
− occurs when an atom, element, or molecule in
an excited state returns to a configuration of
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ABSORPTION lower energy
AND EMISSION SPECTRA * every atom, element, and molecule has a
> Absorption Spectra – spectrum obtained by unique set of energy levels, the emitted photon has a
transmitting electromagnetic radiation through a discrete wavelength and an energy equal to the
substance difference between the initial and final energy levels
> Emission Spectra – spectrum of the − Usually seen as bright lines, or line of
electromagnetic radiation emitted by a substance increased intensity on a continuous spectrum
Property Absorption Emission (seen in galactic spectra where there is a
Energy Produced when Produced thermal continuum from the combined light of
Consumption atoms absorb when atoms all the stars, plus strong emission line features
energy release energy due to the most common elements)
Appearance Show dark lines Show colored > Photons – packet of radiation
or gaps lines − Emitted by an atom, ion, or molecule in an
Energy of An atom obtains Given when excited state
Atom a higher energy an excited − Energy is equal to the difference between the
level when an atom obtains a higher and lower energy level
absorption lower energy
spectrum is level THE BOHR ATOM
given by that > Bohr’s Proposal – each line in the spectrum has a
atom specific wavelength, frequency, and photon energy
Wavelength Account for Account for Results in emission of
wavelengths the Transition to the n = 3
infrared light
absorbed by a wavelengths Production of visible light
substance emitted by a Transition to the n =2
(see Chapter 7 p. 268)
substance Results in emission of
Transition to the n =1
ultraviolet light
LINE SPECTRA
> Objects at High Temperature – emit continuous
SPECTRAL LINE SERIES
spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
> Spectrum – sequence of colors which a visible
light separates into when it passes through a prism
> Continuous Spectrum – produced by sunlight or
light from an incandescent bulb
− Contains all the wavelengths of light in the
visible region
> White Light – light source that produces a
continuous spectrum LYMAN SERIES
> Line Spectrum – pattern of lines > When an electron jumps from any of the higher
> When an element is heated or given an electric states to the ground state or 1st state (n=1), the series
charge, the energy absorbed can be transformed into of spectral lines emitted lies in ultra-violet region
light energy. The light an element produces in this
way contains only specific colors. The light an BALMER SERIES
element produces in this way contain only specific
colors. The line spectrum for each element is
unique, so it can be used to identify the element.

EMISSION LINE
> When an electron jumps from any of the higher • Fuel
states to the state with n=2 (2nd state), the series of
spectral lines emitted lies in visible region

PASCHEN SERIES
> When an electron jumps from any of the higher
states to the state with n=3, the series of spectral
lines emitted lies in near infra-red region

THE ORIGIN OF FLAME COLORS

> If you excite an atom or an ion by very strong
heating, electrons can be promoted from their
normal unexcited state into higher orbitals. As they
fall back down to lower levels (either in one go or in
several steps), energy is released as light. Each of
these jumps involves a specific amount of energy ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
being released as light energy, and each corresponds > Atmospheric Pressure – pressure exerted by the
to a particular wavelength (or frequency). As a atmosphere of earth
result of all these jumps, a spectrum of lines will be > Atmosphere – envelope of gases surrounding the
produced, some of which will be in the visible part earth or any other planet
of the spectrum. The color you see will be a − Extends up to 800km above the earth
combination of all these individual colors. > 9.8 Newton unit cm2 – air pressure exerted on our
ELEMENT FLAME COLOR body (the force within us balances the force pushing
Lithium red from outside)
Sodium strong, persistent orange − Pressure inside our body is same with outside
Potassium lilac (pink) so no net pressure on us
> Barometer – to measure atmospheric pressure
Rubidium red (red-violet)
− Mainly used in meteorology
Cesium blue/violet (see below)
> Bar – metric unit of pressure
Calcium orange-red − Exactly equal to 100 000 Pa
Strontium red − Approx. equal to the atmospheric pressure on
Barium pale green earth at sea level
Copper blue-green (often with white flashes) > The extremely low pressure of the partial vacuum
Lead gray-white inside the forces, the higher pressure of the air
> Flame Test – used to visually determine the outside again to crush it (air has pressure)
identity of an unknown metal of an ionic salt based
on the characteristic color the salt turns the flame of KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES
a Bunsen burner • All gases are made up of very tiny particles in
> Two Types of Burners constant random motion
• Bunsen Burner • The collision of the gas particles with each other
• Tirrill Burner or with the wall of the container is elastic, which
> Nonluminous Flame – color blue because of the means no energy is lost upon collision
oxygen available • The diameter of the gaseous particle is very
> Three Materials Needed to Create Flame (fire small compared to the distance between them
triangle) • The kinetic energy is directly proportional to the
• Oxygen absolute temperature
• Heat * all molecular motion ceases if the temp is
reduced to absolute zero
* lower ave kinetic energy = lower absolute
temp
 * higher ave kinetic energy = higher absolute
temp
PROPERTIES OF GASES
> No definite shape and volume
− Gas assume the shape and volume of the
container since the gaseous particles are in
constant random motion
> Low Density
− Small mass of gas can occupy large volume of
space
* low density is the ability of gases to easily
rise
> Gas Diffuses or Effuses
* All effusion are diffusion
• Diffusion – ability of gaseous particles to
scatter in wider space since the particles are
in constant random motion
– e.g.: aroma of food all over the kitchen
• Effusion – ability of gaseous particles to
pass through a small opening
– e.g: perfume coming out of the bottle
through a very small opening
> Gas is compressible and expandable
• Compression – very large mass can be
placed in a small container
– methane gas in an LPG tank
> Gas exerts pressure
− Pressure = force per unit area (P=F/A)
VARIABLES AFFECTING THE BEHAVIOR
OF GASES
> Temperature (kelvin)
− Degree of hotness or coldness of a substance
as measured by a thermometer or perceived by
touch
> Volume (liter)
− Amount of space an object occupies in three
dimensional units
> Pressure (kilopascals)
− Expressed in terms of the force per unit area (P
= F/A)
> Number of Particles or Mole (n)
− Amount of pure substance containing the same
number of chemical units as there are atoms in
exactly 12.0 grams of carbon – 12 (6.02 x
1023)
* amount of gas, volume, and temperature are
factors that affect gas pressure
GAS LAWS
> Robert Boyle’s Law – 1662
− Realized that gases had an interesting response
when he put them into containers and changed
their volume
− Squeezing a closed empty bottle: pressure
inside the bottle increases when the size of the
container decreases
− You can only crush the bottle so much until
the gases inside push back on your hand
(called inverse proportion) –> changes at the
same rate for every gas
− Allows chemists to predict the volume of any
gas at any given pressure because the
relationship is always the same
− When squeezed: the pressure increases as the
particles are pushed together
− Low volume means a high pressure because
the particles push back
> Jacques Charles Law – 1780
− Noticed a different relationship between gases
and their temperature
− Hot-air Balloon: when balloons are laid out,
they are flat. They use a giant flame to heat the
air inside. As the air is heated up, the balloon
begins to inflate as the gas volume increases
− The hotter the gas becomes, the larger the
volume
− Direct relationship: as the temperature
increases, the volume increases
− As the temp increases, gases move away from
one another and the volume increases as well
> Amedeo Avogadro’s Law – 1811
− Volume and amount in moles (n) are directly
proportional
− Pressure and temperature: constant
− V = (constant) • n
𝑉 𝑉
− 𝑛1 = 𝑛2
1 2
− Blowing balloons: the volume increases. As
you are blowing, you are forcing more and
more gas particles into the balloon. This
causes the balloon volume to increase
− As the number of particles of gas added to a
container are increased, the volume will
increase
− If you add gas to a closed container, that
container’s volume will expand
> Combined Gas Law
− Associates all temperature, pressure and
volume with a gas
 − Expresses the relationship between pressure,
volume, and temperature of a fixed amount of
gas
> Gay-Lussac’s Law
− Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac shares credit with
Guillame Amontons for establishing a gas law
describing the relationship between
temperature and pressure
− Temp and pressure are directly proportional
− Volume and amount of gas (constant)
− (P = kT) –> (P/T = k)
− Often used to compare two situations, a before
and an after:
P1/T1 = P2/T2
− When heated, gas particles move faster
− If in solid container with fixed volume: the
faster the gas particles move, the more times
per second they collide with the sides of the
container –> registers are increased pressure
− If cooled down: gas particles are moving more
slowly –> fewer collisions with the sides of the
container per second –> lower pressure
> Ideal Gas Law
− PV = nRT
− Ideal gas constant (R) = 8.31 (L kPa) / (mol K)
− The other units must match the value of the
constant, in order to cancel out
− The value of R could change, if other units of
measurement are used for the other values
(namely pressure changes)
> Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
− For a mixture of gases in a container
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯
− P1 : partial pressure or the contribution by that
gas
− Useful in calculating the pressure of gases
collected over water
GLOBAL WARMING
> For 2.5 million years, the earth’s climate has
fluctuated
> Greenhous Effect – greenhouse gases trap heat
near the earth
− Naturally occurring
− Begins with the sun and the energy it radiates
to the earth. The earth and atmosphere absorb
some of this energy while the rest is radiated
back into space. Naturally-occurring gases in
the atmosphere trap some of this energy and
reflected back, warming the earth
− Intensified by the extra greenhouse gases that
humans have released
> 1998 – warmest year in measured history (2005 is
second)
> Carbon dioxide and methane have hit their highest
levels in the past 420 000 years
> The extent of Arctic Sea Ice has declined about
10% in the last 30 years
> Prediction of scientists: temp will increase about 2
to 10ºF by the end of the century
> Forecasts (predictions)
• Rising sea levels
– can flood coastal areas
• Changes in weather patterns
– making hurricanes more frequent
• Severe droughts can become more common in
warm areas
• Species unable to adapt to the changing
conditions would face extinction
COVALENT BONDS
> Chemical Bond – force that holds atoms together
in a molecule or compound
> Intramolecular Forces – bonds that hold atoms
together in compounds
> Polarity – degree of transfer of bonding electrons
from one atom to another
> Three Main Types of Intramolecular Forces
• Ionic bonds (1 metal, 1 nonmetal)
• Covalent bonds (two nonmetals)
• Metallic bonds
> Covalent Bonds – stable
− The bonding atoms achieve noble gas
configuration by sharing electrons
− Sharing of valence electrons
− Covalent compounds often exist as gases or
liquids and have low melting and boiling
points
> Single Covalent Bond
> Double Covalent Bond
> Nonpolar Covalent Bond – if two atoms in a
covalent bond are identical, they have the exact
same electronegativity as each other
− Electrons are equally shared and charge is
evenly distributed over the two bonded atoms
− Hydrogen (diatomic molecule H2): two
hydrogen atoms pull equally on the shared pair
of electrons in the bond so there is no
directionality, or polarity of the bond > Lewis Structures for the Diatomic Elements
> Polar Covalent Bonds – H2O (polar molecule) • Single Covalent Bonds – consists of a pair of
− Oxygen: much more electronegative than electrons shared by two atoms
hydrogen so the electrons in the covalent – each atom has a half-filled orbital in the
bonds spend more time around the oxygen valence level, and the orbitals overlap to allow
than around the hydrogen the electron pair to be a part of both atoms
− Uneven sharing of electrons • Double and Triple Bonds – some combination
− Electrons tend to be found closer, on the of atoms do not have enough electrons to
average, to one of the atoms than the other satisfy the octet rule with a single bond
− Unequal sharing leads to the development of – double bond: sharing of two pairs of
partial charges on the two atoms electrons (require more energy to break than
> Electronegativity – developed by Linus Pauling in single bonds)
1930 – triple bond: sharing of three pairs of
− Ability of an atom to attract bonding electrons electrons (require more energy to break than
− If two atoms have the same electronegativity, double bonds)
the electrons are shared equally (nonpolar
covalent)
− The greater the difference in electronegativity,
the more ionic character the bond has, the
greater the partial ionic charges on the atoms, FORMULA
the more polar the bond > Boyle’s Law
* same electronegativity: nonpolar 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
* different electronegativity: polar > Charles’ Law
> Linus Pauling Bond Polarity Scale 𝑉1 𝑉2
=
Type of Bond Difference in 𝑇1 𝑇2
electronegativities 𝑉1 𝑇2 = 𝑉2 𝑇1
between bonding atoms > Gay-Lussac’s Law
Nonpolar Covalent < 0.4 𝑃1 𝑃2
=
Polar Covalent 0.4 – 1.7 𝑇1 𝑇2
Ionic > 1.7 > Combined Gas Law
> Octet Rule – tendency of an atom to achieve an 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
electron configuration having eight valence 𝑇1 𝑇2
electrons > Avogadro’s Law
> Lewis Symbols – convenient way to show valence 𝑉1 𝑉2
=
electrons involved in bonding 𝑛1 𝑛2
− Electron dot symbol > Ideal Gas Law
− An element with a noble-gas configuration is 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
surrounded by four pairs of dots representing 𝑔
• 𝑅𝑇
eight electrons, an octet 𝑃= 𝑀𝑊
𝑉
𝑔𝑅𝑇
𝑃=
𝑉𝑀𝑊
 𝑔 𝑅𝑇 Saturated Hydrocarbon – have single bonds
𝑃= •
𝑉 𝑀𝑊 between carbon atoms
𝐷𝑅𝑇 o Give a clean flame on burning
𝑃=
𝑀𝑊
𝑀𝑊𝑃 Octane – knocking occurs when a fuel burns
𝐷= unevenly in your engine’s cylinders
𝑅𝑇
𝐷𝑅𝑇 o The octane number of gasoline is a measure
𝑀𝑊 = of its resistance to knock
𝑃
𝑔𝑅𝑇
𝑀𝑊 = Menthol - is used medicinally in ointments, cough
𝑉𝑃
𝑀𝑊𝑃 drops, and nasal inhalers. It is also used as flavoring
𝑇= in foods, cigarettes, liqueurs, cosmetics, and
𝐷𝑅
𝑃𝑉𝑀𝑊 perfumes.
𝑇= o Peppermint – (Mentha piperita) is a natural
𝑔𝑅
𝐿 • 𝑎𝑡𝑚 source of menthol.
𝑅 = 0.0821
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 Aspirin - Acetylsalicylic acid
𝐿 • 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 o has been shown to be helpful when used
𝑅 = 62.4
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 daily to lower the risk of heart attack, clot-
> Kinetic Energy
related strokes and other blood flow
1
𝐾𝐸𝑎𝑣 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑎𝑣 )2 problems in patients who have
2
> Pressure cardiovascular disease or who have already
1 atm = 101, 325 Pa had a heart attack or stroke
= 760 mm Hg Amphetamine – is a central nervous stimulant
= 760 torr o Its use results in an increase in certain types
= 14.7 lb/in2 of brain activity, resulting in a feeling of
higher energy, focus, confidence, and in a
3RD QUARTER GENCHEM REVIEWER
dose-dependent manner, can elicit a
Organic Compounds – must contain carbon
o Contains carbon and hydrogen rewarding euphoria.
o Sometimes contain nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, Retinal – also known as retinaldehyde
or phosphorus with carbon o Allows certain microorganisms to convert
light into metabolic energy.
Inorganic Compounds – may or may not contain
carbon Formaldehyde – when dissolved in water it is called
o Sometimes contains sodium, oxygen, or formalin, which is commonly used as an industrial
calcium, but without carbon disinfectant, and as a preservative in funeral homes
and medical labs
-both contained in living organisms

Unsaturated Hydrocarbon – have 2 or more multiple

bonds between carbon atoms
o They give yellow flame with a lot of black
smoke on burning
 Aldehyde -al
Ketone -one
Alcohol -ol
Amine -amine
Alkene -ene
Alkyne -yne
Alkane -ane
Ether Ether
Alkyl Halide ---

VESPR THEORY
Linear – don’t consider bond type when finding
molecular geometry
-steric number, the number of things attached to the
central atom
Formulas of the Hydrocarbon *Lone pair – unbounded electron pairs
o Alkanes = CnH2n+2 -steric number of 2 and no lone pairs
o Alkenes = CnH2n Trigonal Planar – steric number of 3
o Alkynes = CnH2n-2 -no lone pair bonded to the central atom
Bent – steric number of 3 with 2 atoms and 1 lone
pair
STEPS
Prefix # of carbon atoms
1. Draw the Lewis structure
Meth- 1
2. Find the steric number and count the atoms
Eth- 2
and lone pairs on the central atom
Prop- 3
But- 4 3. Remember or look up the molecular
Pent- 5 geometry
Hex- 6 Tetrahedral – steric number of 4
Hept- 7 Trigonal Pyramidal – steric number of 4, 3 atoms
Oct- 8 and 1 lone pair
Non- 9 Bent (bond angle 109.5 degrees) – steric no. of 4, 2
Dec- 10 atoms and 2 lone pairs
Trigonal Bipyramidal and Octahedral
Alkanes See-saw
FUNCTION GROUPS
- Groups of atoms that give characteristic
properties to the compounds in which they
are present
Combustion – a spontaneous reaction of
hydrocarbon (fuel) and oxygen at a high
temperature that produces carbon dioxide and water
- Prime source of energy
- Fewer resources to harness energy
- Greatly contributes to the emission pf
carbon dioxide

Class Suffix Name Hydrolysis – a splitting of a substance as it reacts

with water
Carboxylic Acid -oic acid
- One type of hydrolysis is the formation of
Ester -oate
soap
Saponification – soap molecules surround the
grease forming clusters of lipid molecules called
micelles
- a base-promoted hydrolysis of ester linkages
present in fats and oils
- Salt is a derivative of a fatty acid. It contains
a carboxylate group, that is considered
hydrophilic and a long hydrocarbon chain
that is hydrophobic
Addition Reactions – are reactions wherein 2 or
more molecules combine to form a larger molecule

Polymerization

Polymerization – a process of reacting monomer

molecules together in a chemical reaction to form
polymer chains of three-dimensional networks
- Accomplished through condensation
reactions
Pacific Garbage Patch – is a collection of marine
debris in the North Pacific Ocean. Marine debris is
litter that ends up in oceans, seas, and other large
bodies of water.
Classes of Plastics

Biomolecules
Carbohydrates – are composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen and have the general formula Cn(H2O)m.
- Simple Carbohydrate include a group that
has a sweet taste, the sugars, which include
glucose, fructose, and sucrose
- Monosaccharides have just one five- or six-
membered sugar ring, as in glucose, or blood
sugar (C6H12O6).
- Disaccharides contains two sugar groups,
include common table sugar, sucrose
(C12H22O11). Sucrose consists of glucose
unit bonded by a glycosidic linkage (-O-) to
a fructose unit, with the loss of one water
molecule
- Complex carbohydrates, Polysaccharides
are long-chain polymers of monosaccharide
units. Also include starch, the storage food
in plants and fruits; glycogen, the storage
food in animals; and cellulose, which serves
as an important structural component in
plants
Proteins – are very complex substances of high
molar mass (about 15,000 to several million g/mol)
composed of various combinations of 20 different
amino acids.
- Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins, which are small molecules that
contain both the amine, -NH2 and -CO2H
groups are both attached to the same carbon.
- If the - NH2 groups is attached one carbon
away from the -CO2H group, it is called a
beta amino acid; if it is two carbons away, it
is a gamma acid
- Peptide bond – links one amino acid to
another and has the feature -C—N-
- Dipeptide – two amino acids react to form a
peptide, this feature is common to an amino
acid, so a dipeptide can react with another
amino acid
- Tripeptide – the reaction of a dipeptide with
a third amino acid
- Polypeptide – when many amino acids link
together, a polymer is formed, has a molar
mass greater than 5000 g/mol is called
protein.
Nucleic Acids – group of biomolecules that carry
genetic information and regulate the synthesis of
protein cells
- Found in both the nucleus and the
cytoplasm—in other words, everywhere
except the cell membrane
- 2 Classes of nucleic – Deoxyribonucleic
acid and Ribonucleic acid
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) occurs in the
cell nucleus and has a molar mass of 106 to
109 g/mol
- Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is found in the
cytoplasm and has a molar mass of 25,000 to
106 g/mol
- Nucleotides – biological polymers that
consists of bonded monomer units
- Is made up of a sugar molecule to which is
bonded both a phosphate group and an
organic, nitrogen-containing base.
- The ‘R’ in RNA comes from the sugar
ribose present in this nucleic acid, and the
nucleotide in RNA is called a
ribonucleotide.
- The ‘D’ in DNA comes from the sugar
deoxyribose, and the nucleotide in DNA is
called a deoxyribonucleotide
Lipids – are a class of biochemical substances in
cells that are soluble in nonpolar solvents.
- Consists of nonpolar molecules smaller than
those of complex carbohydrates or proteins
- In addition to oils, thy include fats, waxes
long-chain carboxylic acids, steroids,
phospholipids, glycolipids.
- Triglycerides, ester of glycerol with long-
chain carboxylic acids or fatty acids
- If the fatty acid is saturated (containing no
carbon-carbon double bonds), the
triglyceride is a solid, or fat
- If the fatty acid is highly unsaturated, with
many carbon-carbon double bonds, the
triglyceride is a liquid or oil
Solutions
- is a homogeneous mixture with uniform
composition throughout.
- Can be solids , liquids, or gases.
Solute – substance being dissolve (usually present
in the lesser amount)
Solvent – doing the dissolving (usually present in
the greater amount)
Aqueous Solution – a solution in which the solvent calcium chloride is used, what is the mass of
is water the solution?
Electrolyte solutions – contain solute that 6. If 18 ml of methanol is used to make an
dissociates or ionizes in a solvent, producing ions. aqueous solution that is 15% methanol by
Nonelectrolyte substances – retain their molecular
structure when dissolved; does not dissociate into volume, how many milliliters of solution is
ions. produced?
Strong electrolyte – a solute that dissociates 7. How many grams of ethyl alcohol are
completely into ions in aqueous solution contained in 200.0 L of a 70% ethyl alcohol
Weal electrolyte – dissociates only partially into solution having a density of 0,791 g/ml?
ions. 8. If a wine is 12% by volume, how many
Concentration of Solution
milliliters of ethanol and of the other
o Percent by Mass
o Percent by Volume component are present in a bottle of wine
o Mole Fraction containing 750 ml?
o Molality 9. How much is the volume of alcohol in a
o Molarity bottle of alcoholic beverage that is 80 proof?

10. How many milliliters of 15.0 M NH3

aqueous solution would be used to prepare
200 ml of 3.00 M NH3 solution? How should
the solution be prepared?
11. What volume of a 3.00 M KI stock solution
Percent by Mass would you use to make 0.300 L of a 1.25 M
KI solution?
12. How many milliliters of a 5.0 M H2SO4
stock solution would you need to prepare
100,0 ml of 0.25 M H2SO4 solution?
13. What will be the final concentration of the
solution indicated that will result from the
CHEMISTRY / PROBLEM SETS /
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS following dilutions?
SY 2020 -2021 a. 14.0 mL of a 4.20 M Na2CO3 solution is
1. According to lab procedure, you stir 25.0 g diluted to 86.0 mL
of MgCl2 into 550 ml water. What is the b. 450. mL of a 1.22 M HCl solution is
diluted to 1.26 liters
percent by mass of MgCl2 in the solution?
14. To what volume should the indicated
2. How many grams of LiCl are in 275 g of a solution be diluted to produce a solution of
15% aqueous solution of LiCl? the desired concentration?
3. You need to make a large quantity of a 5% a. 12.0 mL of a 0.64 M KCl solution to
solution of HCl. What volume of 5% produce a 0.19 M solution.
solution can be made from this volume of b. 84.2 mL of a 4.60 M KMnO4 solution to
HCl? produce a 1.42 M solution.
4. Calculate the percent by volume of a
14. What is the molarity of an aqueous solution
solution created by adding 75 ml of acetic
containing 40.0 g of glucose (C6H12O6) in
acid to 725 ml of water.
1.5 L?
5. The percent by mass of calcium chloride in a
15. Calculate the molarity of 1600 ml of a
solution is found to be 2.65%. If 50.0 g of
solution containing 1.55 g of dissolved KBr.
 16. What is the molarity of a bleach solution
containing 9.5 g of NaOCl per liter bleach?
17. In the lab, a student adds 4.5 g of NaCl to
100.0 g of water. Calculate the molality of
the solution.
18. What is the molality of a solution containing
10.0 g of Na2SO4 dissolved in 1000.0 g of
water?
Factors that affect Solubility
Structure – when an ionic compound dissolves in
water, the dissociated ions are strongly attracted to
the polar water molecules, helping in the solution
process.
- However, nonpolar solutes are usually
insoluble in water and other polar solvents
and polar solutes are usually insoluble in
nonpolar solvents.
- Polar solvents dissolve polar or ionic
solutes, while nonpolar solvents dissolve
nonpolar solutes.
Temperature – affects the solubility of most
substances in water
- Most ionic compounds are more soluble at
higher temperatures, but gases are less
soluble as temperature increases.
Pressure – an increase in pressure increases the
number of gas particles immediately above the
solution, increasing the chance that some will
dissolve.
Saturated solution – contains the maximum
concentration of dissolved solute.
Unsaturated solution – contains less than the
maximum possible amount of solute
- Are the most common types of solutions we
encounter in the environment and work with
in the laboratory.
Supersaturated solution – much less common is a
solution that contains more than the expected
maximum amount solute
- Usually obtained by preparing a saturated
solution at a high temperature
Percent by Mass – is calculated by dividing the
solute mass by the mass of solution and multiplying
by 100%
Percent by Volume – is calculated by dividing the
solute volume by the solution volume and
multiplying by 100%
Mass/Volume Percent – is a concentration unit that
is similar to the percents of mass and volume
- Is calculated by dividing the solute mass by
the volume of solution and multiplying by
100%
Molarity – (M) is one of the most commonly
used expressions of concentration in the
laboratory
Molality – (m) is a concentration unit that uses
moles of solute and mass of solvent does not change
temperature.
- Is the concentration expressed as moles of
solute per kilogram of solvent
Colligative Properties – do not depend on the
identity of the solute—only on the number of solute
particles present
- Are proportional to the number of solute
particles present in the solution
- Vary only with the number of solute
particles (molecules or ions) present in a
specific quantity of solvent
- Osmotic Pressure – osmosis is a process in
which solvent particles diffuse through a
barrier that does not allow passage of solute
particles
- Semipermeable membrane – allows the
passage of some substances but not others
- Osmotic Pressure – to prevent water from
passing through to the more concentrated
side of a membrane—pressure can be
exerted on the solution
- Volatile solutes – readily form a gas
- Nonvolatile solutes – don’t readily form a
gas
- Boiling Point Elevation – is related
quantitively to the molality of the solute
particles present in the solution
- Freezing Point Depression – is the
temperature at which the liquid and solid
states of substances are at equilibrium
hii sana makatulong hehe goodluck sainyo
PAPASA TAYO – 11STEM B36
THERMODYNAMICS
(pp. 234-247)
 KEY CONCEPTS – p. 247
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
• Energy can be converted or transferred, but it
cannot be created or destroyed
• We use energy, we are not using it up (it is only
being converted)
• Energy is transformed into other forms such as
heat but its amount remains the same
EFFICIENCY
• Measure of the amount of useful work that is
achieved from an energy conversion
• No conversion is totally efficient
• The process of conversion always generates
some heat that is lost even before useful work
can be done
EXOTHERMIC REACTION
• A reaction that releases energy
ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
• A reaction that absorbs energy from the
surroundings
REACTION PROFILES
• Describe the overall energy changes that
accompany exothermic and endothermic
reactions
• Exothermic Reactions
- The reactants contain more energy than the
products (reactants > product)
- The difference is the energy released during
the reaction
- downhill
• Endothermic Reactions
- The reactants contain less energy than the
products (reactants < product)
- The difference is the energy absorbed
during the reaction
- uphill
HEAT (q)
• Energy that is transferred between two objects
because of a difference in their temperatures
• Thermal equilibrium – two objects that are in
contact become equal in temperature
UNITS OF ENERGY
• Joules (J) [(kg*m2)/s] or calories (cal with
lowercase c)
• One calorie is the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1°C
(1C,1g,1°C)
• calorie (small c) used in chemistry is not the
same with Calorie (capital c) used by
nutritionists
• Calorie in food = a kilocalorie (kcal) or 1000 cal
SPECIFIC HEAT (C)
• The amount of heat that must be added to 1g of
a substance to raise its temperature by 1°C
• Expressed in units of joules per gram per degree
Celsius [J/(g°C)] or calories per gram per degree
Celsius [cal/(g°C)]
• The amount of heat absorbed by a substance
when it increases in temperature = the amount
of heat released when it cools back down to the
same temperature
• The amount of heat transferred to or from a
substance is related to the specific heat and the
change or difference in temperature
• Can’t measure heat directly; there is no heat-
measuring device
• Can measure the initial and final temperatures of
an object and can calculate heat from the
specific heat, mass, and temperature change
• Calorimetry – measurement of heat transfer
using a calorimeter
• Calorimeter – insulated container used in
calorimetry
HEAT CHANGES IN CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
• Can be expressed in units kilojoules per gram
(kJ/g) or kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol)
• Per mole – increases with the number of carbon
atoms in the molecular formula
• Per gram – relatively constant for compounds
that only contain only carbon and hydrogen
REACTION RATES AND CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM
(pp. 484-519)
KEY CONCEPTS – pp. 518-519
REACTION RATE
• Rate of reaction
• A measure of how fast a reaction occurs
• Can determine reaction rate by measuring the
change in concentration of a reactant or product
during a measured time interval
CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF
REACTION
1. Temperature
- Higher temperature = faster reaction
- Average kinetic energy increases =
temperature increases
- Increase in kinetic energy = increase in
reaction rate:
o Increases the collision rate –
molecules move faster at higher
temperature = collide frequently
o Increases the fraction of effective
collisions – more of the reactant
molecules attain the required
activation energy
- For a typical reaction, the rate approx.
doubles for every 10°C increase in
temperature
2. Reactant Concentration
- Increase in concentration = increase in
reaction rate
- Increase in concentration = increase in
number of reactants per unit volume =
molecules are closer together = increase in
number of collisions per unit time
- However, the fraction of effective collisions
remains the same, because temp. and kinetic
energy are constant
3. Surface Area
- If a reactant is solid, increase in surface area
= increase in reaction rate
- Increase in surface area = increase the
number of atoms exposed = increase in
collisions
4. Catalyst
- Presence of catalyst = increases rate reaction
- Examples of catalysts
o Enzymes – speeds us countless chemical
reactions that are necessary to sustain
life
o Catalase – speeds decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and
water
COLLISION THEORY
• States that in order for a reaction to occur,
reactant molecules must collide in the proper
orientation and with sufficient energy
ACTIVATION ENERGY (Ea)
• Minimum amount of energy needed to
overcome an energy barrier
• Reactants must overcome before they can
change to products
• Energy is required to break bond in reactants
before the reactants can be converted into
products
ACTIVATED COMPLEX
• Formed when reactant molecules collide with
proper orientation and sufficient energy
• A short-lived, unstable, high-energy chemical
species that must be achieved before products
can form
• Designated by a chemical formula in brackets
with a superscript double dagger (‡)
• Reactions with large activation energies tend to
be slow
- Relatively small fraction of reactants has
sufficient energy for an effective collision
• Reactions with small activation energies tend to
be fast
- Large fraction of reactants has sufficient
energy for an effective collision
CATALYST
• Alters the pathway in which a reaction occurs
without itself being consumed in the reaction
• Lowers the activation energy for a reaction
• Remains unchanged after the reaction
• The new reaction pathway is a lower-energy
pathway with lower activation energy
- In this way, a catalyst increases the rate of a
reaction
- With lower activation energy, a greater
fraction of reactants can achieve the new
minimum energy requirement, and the
reaction rate increases
ENZYME
• A molecule that catalyzes specific reactions
within living organisms
• Without enzymes, life-sustaining chemical
processes would be so slow that they would not
occur at the relatively low temperatures of plant
and animal cells
• About 25,000 enzymes catalyzes all the • Ratio of the equilibrium concentrations of the
processes necessary for the proper functioning products to the equilibrium concentrations to of
of the human body the reactants
• Most enzymes are large protein molecules with
molar masses between 12,000 and 40,000 g/mol Exponents in the Expression
• Active sites – intricate three-dimensional • Coefficients in the balanced equation
structures of enzymes that contain one or more
depressions, or holes Equilibrium Constant Expression
• Substrate – the shape of an active site is unique • Corresponds to a generic reaction and its
to an enzyme and allows it to interact with only equation aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
one specific kind of reactant molecule, its
substrate
Value of the Position of
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM Equilibrium Constant Equilibrium
• There is no change in the concentrations of Keq
reactants and products Keq >> 1 Lies to the right.
• Many chemical reactions do not go to Products favored.
completion, instead they reach a state of Keq << 1 Lies to the left.
equilibrium Reactants favored.
• Established when a single reaction occurs in Keq = 1 Lies in the middle.
which reactants are converted to products, and Similar amounts of
these products are converted back to reactants reactants and products.
by the reverse process at an equal rate
• The rates of the forward and reverse reactions HOMOGENEOUS EQUILIBRIUM
are equal • An equilibrium in which reactants and products
• There is no net change in the concentrations of are in the same physical state
reactants and products
• Reactants that reach a state of equilibrium are HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIUM
reversible reactions • An equilibrium which involves more than one
• True equilibrium exists in a closed system, physical state
where neither reactants nor products can enter or
leave By convention, chemists omit pure liquids and
solids from the equilibrium constant expression for
THE EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT all equilibria. Only gases and dissolved substances
EXPRESSION are included in the equilibrium constant expression.
• When a reaction reaches equilibrium, amounts
of reactants and products may be about equal LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
• However, one or the other predominates: either • States that if a system at equilibrium is
a large amount of reactants and small amount of disrupted, it shifts to establish a new equilibrium
products or vice versa
• Concentration or reactants is large relative to the CONCENTRATION
concentration of products = reactants favored Add reactant Shift right
• Concentration of products is large relative to the Add product Shift left
concentration of reactants = products favored Remove reactant Shift right
Remove product Shift left
[𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑 *add = opposite side
𝐾𝑒𝑞 = *remove = same side
[𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏
VOLUME AND PRESSURE
Keq (Equilibrium Constant)
 Relative Increase Decrease ARRHENIUS MODELS OF ACIDS AND
# of Volume/Decreas Volume/Increas BASES
Gaseous e Pressure e Pressure • Late 1800s
Molecule • Svante Arrhenius
s in - Swedish doctoral student
Balanced - Proposed a definition of acids and bases
Eq. based on his experiments with electrolytes
Reactants Shift right Shift left - Earned the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry –
< he insisted that the H+(aq) and OH- (aq) ions
Products are important in acid-base behavior
Reactants Shift left Shift right • Compounds were forming positive and negative
> ions in solution
Products • Proposed that acids and bases produce specific
Reactants No shift No shift types of ions that other compounds do not
= • An acid in aqueous solution produces hydrogen
Products ions, H+ (acid – positive)
*increase volume/decrease pressure = the side with - Proton with extremely small radius
greater number of moles - Has a vert concentrated positive charge
*decrease volume/increase pressure = the side with - Unlikely to exist in aqueous solution
lesser number of moles - Associated with surrounding water
molecules (most commonly four)
TEMPERATURE - Also presented as the hydronium ion, H30+
Type of Increase Decrease (aq)
Reaction Temperature Temperature • A base produces hydroxide ions, OH- (base –
Endothermic Shift right Shift left negative)
Reaction Keq increases Keq decreases - Limitation to the Arrhenius model: assumes
Exothermic Shift left Shift right that all bases contain OH- ions (but some do
Reaction Keq decreases Keq increases not)
*Endothermic reaction = heat is added on the left - Salts (ionic compounds)
(reactant) side o have basic properties to neutralize acids
*Exothermic reaction = heat is added on the right o example of salts that are bases: metal
(product side oxides, carbonates, and fluorides
*increase temperature = opposite side where heat - Ammonia, NH3
was added • Molecular compounds that contain no –
*decrease temperature = same side where heat was OH group but contain basic properties
added • Explains how acids and bases neutralize each
other
CATALYST
• No shift BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY
• Acid – any substance that can donate H+ ion to
another substance
ACIDS AND BASES • Base – any substance that can accept an H+ ion
(pp. 529-560) to another substance
KEY CONCEPTS – p. 561
• Conjugate acid – the product that forms as a
result of gaining an H+ ion, has one more H+
ACIDS BASES
• Conjugate base – the product that forms as a
Taste sour Taste bitter
result of losing an H+ ion, has one less H+ and a
Corrosive to metals Have a slippery feel decrease in charge of 1
Litmus – blue to red Litmus – red to blue
• Conjugate acid-base pair – acid reactant and
the conjugate acid-base product, base reactant
 and the conjugate acid product (this is what you
call the said pairs) Type of Relative [H3O+] [OH- Kw
Solution Concentrations ]
AMPHOTERIC SUBSTANCE + -
Neutral [H3O ] = [OH ] = 1.0 x = 1.0 1.0
• A substance that can either act as an acid or a 10-7 M x 10- x
7
base in a particular reaction M 10-
• Water – the most common amphoteric 14

substance Acidic [H3O+] > [OH-] > 1.0 x < 1.0 1.0
10-7 M x 10- x
7
STRONG ACID OR STRONG BASE M 10-
• An acid or base that is a strong electrolyte 14

• Completely ionizes or dissociates in water Basic [H3O+] < [OH-] < 1.0 x > 1.0 1.0
10-7 M x 10- x
7
WEAK ACID OR WEAK BASE M 10-
14
• An acid or a base that is a weak electrolyte
• Only partially ionizes in water
FORMULAS
ACID IONIZATION CONSTANT (Ka) Ion-product 𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻3 𝑂+ ][𝑂𝐻− ]
• Describes the equilibrium that forms when an constant of
acid reacts with water water (Kw)
• The larger the Ka value, the stronger the acid Calculating [OH- 𝐾𝑤
[𝑂𝐻 − ] =
] [𝐻3 𝑂+ ]
POLYPROTIC ACIDS 1 𝑥 10−14
=
• An acid that contains more than one acidic [𝐻3 𝑂 + ]
hydrogen atom and which can donate more than Calculating 𝐾𝑤
one H+ ion [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] =
[H3O+] [𝑂𝐻− ]
1 𝑥 10−14
ACIDIC, BASIC, AND NEUTRAL =
[𝑂𝐻 − ]
SOLUTIONS
• All aqueous solutions have some H3O+ (and OH- THE pH SCALE
ions) in solution
• pH of solutions – tells about the acidity or
• It is the relative amounts of these ions that make basicity of a substance
the difference
• the pH and pOH of a solution total 14.00
• Acidic Solution – the H3O+ ion concentration is
• At 25°C, (pH)
greater than the OH- ion concentration (H3O+ >
- Acidic solutions – <7 (less than 7)
OH-)
- Basic solutions – >7 (greater than 7)
• Basic Solution – the OH- ion concentration is
- Neutral solutions – =7 (equal to 7)
greater than the H3O+ ion concentration (OH- >
• The pH of a solution can be measured through a:
H3O+)
- pH meter – accurate to within hundredths of
• Neutral Solution – neither acidic nor basic, has
a pH unit
equal concentrations of H3O+ and OH- ions
- pH indicators – less accurate but more
• Self-ionization convenient
- the process in which water reacts with itself
• Indicators – brightly colored organic dyes that
- an equilibrium process
are weak acids and bases
- K = [H3O+][OH-]
- They form an equilibrium with their
- H20 is a liquid so it is not included in the
conjugate bases or conjugate acids
equilibrium constant
- The color of the indicator depends on
- Ion-product constant of water (Kw)
whether the dye is in its acidic or basic form
o equilibrium constant
o at 25°C, Kw has a value of 1.0 x 10-14
Calculating pH 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻3 𝑂+ ]
o Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14
 Calculating [𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = 10−𝑝𝐻
hydronium ion
concentration
Calculating pOH 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝑂𝐻 −]
Calculating hydroxide [𝑂𝐻− ] = 10−𝑝𝑂𝐻
ion concentration
BUFFER (BUFFER SYSTEM)
• Combination of a weak acid and its conjugate
base (or a weak base and its conjugate acid) in
about equal concentrations
• Help to prevent large changes in pH by reacting
with small amounts of added acid or base
• Bicarbonate buffer system – regulates pH in the
human bloodstream
OXIDATION-REDUCTION
REACTIONS/ELECTROCHEMISTRY
(pp. 570-604)
KEY CONCEPTS – p.605
Many oxidation-reduction reactions are exothermic
– combustion of methane
THREE PERSPECTIVES
1. Some take place spontaneously, but they are
undesirable. Metals corrode through such reactions.
2. Some occur spontaneously and are desirable,
such as reactions in batteries.
3. Some do not occur spontaneously, but are
desirable. Obtaining aluminum metal from
aluminum ores is an example.
OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION
(REDOX REACTION)
• Reaction in which electrons are transferred
• Oxidation and reduction go hand in hand
• An oxidation-reduction occurs if one or more
elements changes its oxidation number
OXIDATION
• the process of losing one or more electrons
• used to describe reactions that from oxygen
compounds
REDUCTION
• the process of gaining one or more electrons
• described reactions in which a compound lost
oxygen
“LEO says GER” – Loss of Electrons in
Oxidation. Gain of Electrons is Reduction.
“Oil Rig” – Oxidation is Loss; Reduction is Gain
Charge of zero – elements are in their natural states
– neutral
Increase in charge – a loss of electrons (oxidation)
Decrease in charge – a gain of electrons (reduction)
No change in charge – neither oxidized nor reduced
Gaining electrons reduces the charge of an atom
or ion.
REDUCING AGENT
• a reactant that contains the element that is
oxidized
• causes the reduction of an element in another
reactant because it provides the electrons for
reduction
OXIDIZING AGENT
• the reactant that contains that is reduced
• causes the oxidation of an element in another
reactant because it accepts the electrons from
what is being oxidized
OXIDATION NUMBER (OXIDATION STATE)
• a charge assigned to the atoms in any compound
• in the separate compartments of a voltaic cell
BATTERIES
• A series of connected voltaic cells that provides
a portable source of electrical power
• All redox reactions that occur without outside
intervention release energy
• Voltaic or Galvanic Cell
- A device that sets up a spontaneous
chemical reaction to produce electricity
- Operational parts of a battery
• Half-Reaction
- Representing either the oxidation or the
reduction that occurs in the separate
components of a voltaic cell
• Half-Cell
- Each compartment in a half-reaction
- Oxidation occurs in one half-cell; reduction
occurs in the other
• Electrode
- A solid material that conducts electricity
must be present to provide a site for each
half-reaction
 - Commonly a metal immersed in an
electrolyte solution containing a salt of the
same metal
• Anode
- Electrode at which oxidation occurs
• Cathode
- Electrode at which reduction occurs
• Salt Bridge
- Allows ions to flow so charge balance is
maintained

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
• Study of the relationship between chemical
reactions and electrical work
• Study of batteries and other voltaic cells
• Reactions in which chemistry drives the flow of
electrons
- These reactions are spontaneous
- Can be used to generate electricity
• Reactions driven by electricity
- These electrolytic reactions are not
spontaneous
- Need a continuous energy source to proceed

SPONTANEOUS
• Reactions that occur in batteries
• A chemical reaction is spontaneous if it occurs
by itself without intervention
• It does not need an outside source of energy to
progress

ELECTROLYTIC CELLS
• Electrochemical cell through which electric
current is passed to cause a non-spontaneous
oxidation-reduction reaction to occur
• The process is called as electrolysis

CORROSION
• An oxidation-reduction reaction
• Slow deterioration of metal in contact with the
environment