Edexcel International Gcse Chemistry Student Book Second Edition Graham Hill Full Chapter

Edexcel International GCSE Chemistry
Student Book Second Edition Graham

Hill
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ISBN 978 151 040 5202

Contents
Contents
Getting the most from this book vi
Acknowledgments viii
Section 1 Principles of chemistry 1

1.1 Particles and solubility 2
1.2 Particles in motion 6
1.3 Atoms and molecules 9
1.4 Separating materials 12
1.5 Atomic structure 18
1.6 Atomic number and mass number 21
1.7 Isotopes 23
1.8 The arrangement of electrons 26
1.9 Measuring atoms 31
1.10 Patterns of elements 33
1.11 Modern Periodic Tables 36
1.12 The noble gases 39
Summary 42
Sample answers and expert’s comments 43
Exam-style questions 45
Extend and challenge 48
Principles of chemistry 2
1.13 Using relative atomic masses 50
1.14 Writing formulae 54
1.15 Particles in reaction – equations 58
1.16 Formulae and equations 61
1.17 Chemical bonding 67
1.18 Electricity in everyday life 72
1.19 Which substances conduct electricity? 75
1.20 Giant ionic structures 78
1.21 The structure of substances 81
1.22 Simple molecular substances 84
1.23 Diamond, graphite and fullerenes 88
1.24 The properties of metals 92
1.25 Investigating electrolysis 95
Summary 100
iii

Contents
Section 2 Inorganic Chemistry

2.1 Group 1 elements 108
2.2 Group 7 elements 110
2.3 Reactions of the halogens 113
2.4 Oxidation and reduction 116
2.5 The air 119
2.6 Oxygen 123
2.7 Carbon dioxide 126
2.8 The reactions of metals 129
2.9 Rusting 136
2.10 Raw materials to metals 138
2.11 Extracting iron from iron ore – a case study 141
2.12 Electrolysis – a case study 144
2.13 Extracting metals 146
2.14 Acids and their properties 150
2.15 Neutralisation 157
2.16 Bases and alkalis 160
2.17 Salts 163
2.18 Preparing soluble salts 167
2.19 Tests for ions, gases and water 171
Summary 176
Section 3 Physical Chemistry

3.1 Energy changes and enthalpy changes 189
3.2 Measuring enthalpy changes 193
3.3 Enthalpy changes and bonding 198
3.4 Studying reaction rates 201
3.5 Making reactions go faster 206
3.6 Temperature and reaction rates 209
3.7 Catalysts and reaction rates 213
3.8 Reversible reactions 216
3.9 Dynamic Equilibria 220
Summary 223
iv

Contents
Section 4 Organic Chemistry

4.1 Crude oil 231
4.2 How pure is our air? 234
4.3 Cracking - more petrol from crude oil 237
4.4 Alkanes 240
4.5 Alkenes 246
4.6 Alcohols 249
4.7 Carboxylic acids 252
4.8 Esters 255
4.9 Addition polymers 258
4.10 Condensation polymers 261
Summary 264
Periodic Table 273
Relative atomic masses 274
Index 275

Getting the most from this book

Welcome to the Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Chemistry Student Book. This
At the start of each Section you
book has been divided into four Sections, following the structure and order
will find the learning objectives
of the Edexcel Specification, which you can find on the Edexcel website for
for that Section.
reference. Section 1 has been divided into two parts to help you structure your
learning.
Each Section has been divided into a number of smaller Chapters to help you
manage your learning.
The following features have been included to help you get the most from
this book.
PRACTICAL
Practical boxes tell you whether

the practical work is required or
suggested by the exam board, and
include links to the specification.
emistry
Organic ch
Section 4
is
e of water
A molecul ensation
a polyester. e of a cond
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The typ linkage, an ugher than
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each ester is much to addition po
released at of polymer own than
This type er to breakd
polymer. ev en ha rd
and are
polymers, + H
O H
ESTIO NS
er STUDY QU
O them togeth
H + H ... joining
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molecule
of water
C—O—H
taken out
from betw
een
s ... n H—O—C—
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two large
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in block dia
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A condensat edioc acid
Figure 10.3 l and ethan
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.
red s of ethanedio rep res en ted by this ethanediol
nd be
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The reacti gle 2
ylic acids.
Expla
make a sin of di-carbox
needed to .
equation: cannot exist po lye ster c
ho w a
H H 3 Describe (HOO
O O + 2 n H 2O edioc acid
from ethan
C—C—O
H H C—C—O—
O C—O—H H H n
O
+ n H—O—C—
C—O—H H H
n H—O—C—
RESEARCH • CALCULATE ost chemica
ls. They
lyesters istant to m bottles
Uses of po bly stron g and are res
e us ed to m ake plastic
are incredi rics, and ar drinks and
beers.
Polyesters th es and fab ft
Try the activity before you start, and make hard
wear ing clo
including
bottled wa
ter s, so
ty of uses
for a varie
then have a look at it again once you
have completed the Section to see
if your responses are different before
MATHS TIP
and after learning more about that n is us
ed where
Remember unknown
the topics. nt to indicate an
we wa a number
at can have
number th th e case of
values. In
of possible very large
tion n is a
polymerisa
number.
MATHS TIP
Maths tips give you additional help

with the maths in the book so you can
avoid losing valuable marks in of polyeste
rs.
Some uses
Figure 10.4
the exam.
vi

EXAM TIP
Exam tips throughout the book will
guide you in your learning process. Summary Sample answers and expert’s
✓ I can describe how the mixture of hydrocarbons in
●
●
●
saturated
unsaturated
general formula
comments
1 Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon. The table below shows some information
crude oil is separated using fractional distillation, and ● displayed formula
about methane molecules.
can name the main fractions and state the number of ● isomerism
carbon atoms in each fraction ● functional group. Methane Ethane
molecular formula CH4
✓ I can describe the trend in boiling points and viscosity ✓ I know that alkanes are made from only carbon and displayed formula H
of the main fractions of crude oil hydrogen
● Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2.
H C H
● As the number of carbon atoms increases, the
● They have only single bonds. H
boiling point increases.
● They are fairly unreactive.
● As the number of carbon atoms increases, the dot and cross diagram of bonding H
viscosity increases.
✓ I know that alkenes are made from only carbon and H C H
✓ I know that fractional distillation of crude oil hydrogen

● Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n.
H
● They have at least one double carbon=carbon state at room temperature gas
as gasoline
● The process of cracking makes long-chain
bond.
● They are very reactive. a) Copy and complete the table to show the same information for ethane
hydrocarbons into alkenes and useful
as is shown for methane. (4)
shorter-chain hydrocarbons.
✓ I can draw displayed formulae for straight-chain b) What is a hydrocarbon? (1)
✓ I understand the complete and incomplete alkanes with up to six carbon atoms and name them
● These are named according to the longest straight c) Methane and ethane are part of a homologous series. What is a
combustion of carbon-based fuels
chain of carbon atoms, methane,(1C), ethane (2C), homologous series? (1)
● Incomplete combustion produces carbon
propane (3C), butane (4C), pentane (5C), and
STUDY QUESTIONS
monoxide. d) Methane burns to produce water vapour. Name the other three possible
● Inhalation of carbon monoxide is dangerous as it
hexane (6C). products of the combustion of methane, and state the conditions
prevents absorption of oxygen in the body. necessary for each product to be made. (3)
✓ I can draw displayed formulae for the alkenes ethene
and propene (Total for question = 9 marks)
✓ I know that nitrogen in the air at high
temperatures inside car engines can be
converted to nitrogen oxides ✓ I can describe the UV light-initiated substitution reac Student response Total 7/9 Expert comments and tips for success
tion of methane with bromine
At the end of each Chapter you will

● Nitrogen oxides as well sulfur oxides contribute a) Full marks. The formula is correct and so are the displayed
● I can write a balanced equation using displayed Ethane
to acid rain. formula and dot and cross diagram. The answer shows a clear
formulae. molecular formula C2H6 ✔ understanding of carbon’s need for four bonds, and hydrogen’s
✓ I know the products of complete and incomplete displayed formula one bond.
find Study Questions. Work through

H H
combustion of hydrocarbons ✓ I can describe the addition reaction of alkenes with
H— C—C—H ✔
● Complete combustion produces only water and
bromine
● The decolorisation of bromine water is a test for
H H
carbon dioxide.
alkenes.
these in class or on your own for

● Partial combustion produces water and carbon dot and cross diagram of H H
monoxide. bonding
● Incomplete combustion produces water and
✓ I can describe how ethanol can be manufactured, by: H C C H✔
carbon (soot). ● the reaction of ethene with steam
homework. Answers are available ● the fermentation of sugars such as glucose by yeast. H H
✓ I can explain the terms state at room temperature gas ✔
● homologous series ✓ I can describe how ethanol may be oxidised by:
air in combustion
online.
● hydrocarbon ●
b) A compound containing only carbon and hydrogen ✔ Correctly explains the elements present in a hydrocarbon.
● microbial oxidation
● potassium dichromate(VI).
At the end of each Section, Before you try the Exam-style

nic chemist
ry you will find a summary questions, look at the sample
ack. This m
eans checklist highlighting the key answers and expert’s
ers icrobial att
Biopolyest ry resistan
t to chem ical and m
esters. facts that you need to know comments to see how marks
are ve ned biopoly
Polyesters s have desig wn into
lem chemist th oxygen break do
biodegrade
. To overcom
e th is pr ob
olonged co
ntact wi
ass. This m
eans that and understand, and key skills are awarded and common
that on pr e, and biom bject to natural
polyesters
These are
id e, wa ter, sometim
carbon diox m the polyester is no
es methan
n- toxic an d can be su that you learnt in the Section. mistakes to avoid.
fro
the residue
esses.
decay proc
H H
O O
STIONS
H H C— O— C—C—O—
+ 2 n H 2O EXTEND AND CHALLENGE
C—
O C—O—H H H n
O
+ n H—O—C—
—C—C—
O—H H H
CH CH 2OH
iol(HOCH 2 2
). When you have completed all the
propaned g
d for makin
4
against an
ordinary po
ide
lyester threa
a person’s
body. Exam-style questions for the Section, try
tches ins
ediol.
in why me
thaned ioc acid
surgical sti
the extension activity.
acids. Expla
carboxylic
ot exist. n be made
polyester ca
ribe how a CCOOH) an
d
acid (HOO
ethanedioc
You will find Exam-style questions

at the end of each Section
covering the content of that
section and the different types of
questions you will find in an
examination.
ANSWERS
Answers for all questions and activities in this

book can be found online at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/igcsechemistry
vii

Acknowledgments
The Publisher would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright photographs:
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viii

1
Principles
of chemistry 1
Everything around us, everything we use, and even our bodies, depend
DISCUSS • PRESENT
on taking raw materials like this iron ore and transforming it into useful
1 Make a list of 20 items you have substances. The cars we ride in depend on the chemical processes that
used today. Separate them into turn the iron ore into steel.
two groups: those that are good
Why are some substances solids, others liquids and some gases?
conductors of electricity and those
that are poor conductors. Can What are the rules governing chemical reactions? How can we predict
you suggest why some materials what will happen in different reactions? How can we describe to other
conduct electricity and others people easily in a universal language what is happening when two
do not? substances react together?
2 Find out what a shorthand typist
used to do. Suggest what use To understand all of these we need to know the science of substances – the
‘shorthand’ might be in chemistry. principles of chemistry.
3 There are two methods for making
a chemical fertiliser. One method
By the end of this section you should:
turns 60% of the raw materials into
• be familiar with the states of matter
the fertiliser. The other method
converts 90% of the raw materials • know how to obtain pure substances
into the fertiliser, but uses four • understand the Periodic Table, what it is and how it is useful in chemistry
times as much energy. Suggest (this is on p. 273)
the economic and environmental • be able to describe the structure of an atom using information from the
advantages of each process. Periodic Table of elements
• be able to describe the electronic configuration of the first
20 elements of the Periodic Table
• be able to calculate the relative formula mass of a compound.

1.1 Particles and solubility

How does the liquid get through the filter paper when filter coffee is
made? The coffee grains don’t get through the paper. Why is this?
When sugar is added to hot tea or coffee, it dissolves quickly. The sugar
seems to disappear. What happens to the sugar when it dissolves? Where
does the sugar go?
Figure 1.1 Everyday evidence for particles.
■■ Dissolving is evidence
Look at the photos in Figure 1.1 and try to answer the questions above. In
order to answer these questions, you will need to use the idea that:
All materials are made up of particles.
We can explain how the sugar dissolves and disappears using the idea of
particles. Both sugar and water are made up of very small particles. These
particles are much too small to see, even under a microscope. When sugar
dissolves, tiny particles break off each solid granule. These tiny invisible
sugar particles mix with the water particles in the liquid. The solution tastes
sweet even though you cannot see the sugar.
water particles magnified sugar particles mixed

millions of times sugar with water particles
PRACTICAL dissolves
on stirring
sugar
If possible, get some sugar and particles
magnified
stir it into a cup of warm water millions
(Figure 1.2). Watch the sugar of times
disappear as you stir the water.
Sugar dissolving is practical evidence sugar added to water sugar dissolved in water
for particles. Figure 1.2 Explaining what happens when sugar dissolves in water.
Do not eat or taste the sugar solution
if it has been made in the laboratory. The sugar is the substance that dissolves. We call a substance that dissolves
the solute. The water that the sugar dissolves in is called the solvent. The
mixture of dissolved sugar and water is called a solution.
2

REQUIRED PRACTICAL Solvents, solutes and solutions

Not all substances dissolve in water. Different masses of different substances
This experiment will enable you (solutes) dissolve in water. There is a maximum mass of a solute that can
to discover the maximum mass of dissolve in the solvent. When no more solute can dissolve in the solution we
salt that can dissolve in water at a say the solution is saturated.
specific temperature. Make sure eye
protection is worn for this experiment. Solubilities are often measured in g of solute per 100 g of solvent.
1. Measure 100 cm3 of water into a For many substances the temperature of the solvent affects the maximum
beaker. This will have a mass of mass of solute you can dissolve in 100 g of solution. Increasing the solvent’s
100 g. temperature usually increases the mass of solute that dissolves. If you repeat
2. Record the temperature of the the experiment above at five different temperatures you can plot a graph of
water. solubility in g per 100 g of solvent against temperature. Figure 1.3 shows a
3. Add 5 g of salt to the water graph for the solubility of sodium chloride (salt) at different temperatures.
and stir. Look to see if there is 40
any undissolved salt left in the
Solubility in g per 100 g of water
bottom of the beaker. 39

4. If all the salt has dissolved add
another 5 g of salt and stir again. 38
5. Keep adding 5 g of salt at a
time and stirring until there is 37
some undissolved salt left in the
bottom of the beaker. Make a 36
0 20 40 60 80 100
note of how many grams of salt Temperature in ˚C
you have added in total.
Figure 1.3 A graph of the solubility of sodium chloride at different temperatures.
When no more salt will dissolve in the
water you have a saturated solution.
Your experimental results will be the Solubility curves
solubility of salt in grams per 100 g
Not all graphs of solubility against temperature are linear relationships.
of water.
Often they are curves. Figure 1.4 shows solubility curves for four different
substances.
200
MATHS TIP 180
Solubility in g per 100 g of water
160 sodium nitrate

A straight line graph like the one in 140
Figure 1.3 shows a relationship of 120 copper sulfate
y = mx + c. It is a linear relationship 100
between two variables, x and y. This 80 ammonium chloride
means that the value on the vertical 60
or y-axis is always equal to the value 40 potassium chloride
on the horizontal x-axis multiplied by 20

a constant m plus another constant c. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Temperature in °C
Figure 1.4 Solubility curves for four substances.
The solubility of each of these substances can be found from the graph at
any temperature between 0 °C and 100 °C. If you need to know the mass of
sodium nitrate needed to make a saturated solution at 80°C you should:
n find the temperature you want on the horizontal x-axis, 80 °C
n look up the line at 80 °C until you find the curve for sodium nitrate
n look across at the y-axis to read off the mass needed to make a saturated
solution in 100 g of water. 3

Finding solubilities by evaporation

If you make a saturated solution of anhydrous sodium sulfate using
100 cm3 of water you can find out the mass of sodium sulfate dissolved by
heating the solution in an evaporating basin. Weigh the basin empty, add
the solution, heat and evaporate the water. When the basin is dry re-weigh
the basin. The difference between the two mass readings is the mass of
sodium sulfate dissolved in 100 g of water.
■■ How large are the particles of substances?

Anyone who cooks knows that a small amount of pepper, ginger or curry
powder will give food a really strong taste. Too much spice can spoil
the whole meal. This suggests that tiny particles in the spice can spread
throughout the whole meal.
Figure 1.5 shows an experiment that will help to give you some idea about
the size of particles.
1 Dissolve 1 g of dark purple potassium manganate(VII) crystals in 1000 cm3
SAFETY
of water.
Wear eye protection. 2 Take 100 cm3 of this solution and dilute it to 1000 cm3 with water.
3 Now take 100 cm3 of the once-diluted solution and dilute this to 1000 cm3
with more water.
4 Carry out further dilutions until you get a solution in which you can only
just see the pink colour. It is possible to make six dilutions before the pink
colour is so faint that it is only just noticeable.
remove
100 cm3 add to once-diluted
add to
solution
1g potassium
manganate(VII) 1000 cm3
900 cm3
water water
Figure 1.5 Estimating the size of particles in potassium manganate(VII). If you try this experiment,
wear eye protection.

When potassium manganate(VII) dissolves, its particles spread throughout

the water making a dark purple solution. When this solution is diluted, the
particles spread further apart.
This experiment shows that the tiny particles in only 1 g of potassium
manganate(VII) can colour 1 000 000 000 (one thousand million) cm3
of water. This suggests that there must be millions and millions of tiny
particles in only 1 g of potassium manganate(VII).
Similar experiments show that the particles in all substances are extremely
small. For example, there are more air particles in a tea cup than grains of
sand on a large beach.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 Krisnan and Christine were talking about dissolving 4 Use Figure 1.4 to help you answer these questions.
sugar in tea. Krisnan thought that the sugar would a) In what unit is solubility measured?
weigh less when it had dissolved because it would be b) Which substance’s solubility has a linear
floating in the tea. relationship?
a) What do you think happens to the mass of a c) Name a substance with a non-linear solubility graph.
substance when it dissolves? d) Calculate the solubility of sodium nitrate at 80 °C
b) Plan an experiment to test your suggestions in 5 Look back at Figure 1.5 and the experiment involved.
part (a). Suppose that 1 g of potassium manganate(VII) has
c) If possible, carry out your suggested experiment. a volume of cm3 and that there is one particle of
Explain your results. potassium manganate(VII) in every drop of the final
2 Get into groups of two or three. Use the idea of particles 1 000 000 000 cm3 of faint pink solution.
to discuss and explain what happens when: a) Estimate the number of drops in 1 cm3 of the faint
a) water in a kettle boils to produce steam pink solution.
b) you add water to a clay flower pot and the outside b) How many particles of potassium manganate(VII)
of the pot becomes wet are there in 1 000 000 000 cm3 of the faint pink
c) puddles disappear on a fine day solution?
d) tightly
STUDY tied balloons go down after some time.
QUESTIONS c) Calculate the volume of one particle of potassium
3 Explain the following terms: manganate(VII) in the crystal.
a) solute
b) solvent
c) solution
d) saturated
e) solubility
f) y = mx + c

1.2 Particles in motion

Fish and chips have a delicious smell. How does the smell get from the fish
and chips to your nose?
Figure 2.1 Fish and chips.
■■ Diffusion
The way that smells travel from their source suggests that particles, whether
from fish and chips or from perfume, move through the air. This movement
of particles is called diffusion.
Gases consist of tiny particles moving at high speeds. The particles collide
with each other and with the walls of their container. Sooner or later, gases
like those from the fish and chips will diffuse into all the space they can
find.
Diffusion also occurs in liquids, but it takes place much more slowly than in
gases (Figure 2.3). This means that liquid particles move around more slowly
than gas particles. Diffusion does not happen in solids.
two drops of
Figure 2.2 Why is it possible to smell the blackcurrant juice
perfume that someone is wearing from
several metres away?
water 1 day later
Figure 2.3 Demonstrating diffusion in a liquid.

6

1.2 Particles in motion
You can investigate diffusion in liquids using blackcurrant juice.

1 Add two drops of blackcurrant juice very carefully to a glass of water.
The juice colours a small part of the water purple.
2 Leave the glass in a safe place where it cannot be disturbed. The purple
juice moves away from the top of the water.
3 Check the glass again after one day. All the water is now a pale lilac colour.
articles in the purple juice have moved about and mixed with the
P
water p articles.
Do not drink the juice or its solution if it has been made in a laboratory.
Diffusion is very important in living things. It explains how the food you
eat gets into your bloodstream, where it is carried by your blood to different
parts of your body. After a meal, food passes into your stomach. Here, large
particles are broken down into smaller particles. These smaller particles can
diffuse through the walls of the intestines into the bloodstream.
Particle motion and temperature

As the temperature rises, particles have more energy and they move
about faster. This means that gases and liquids diffuse faster when the
temperature rises.
■■ The kinetic theory of matter

The idea that all substances contain incredibly small moving particles is
called the kinetic theory of matter. The word ‘kinetic’ comes from a Greek
word meaning moving.
The main points of the kinetic theory are:
n All matter is made up of tiny, invisible, moving particles. These particles
are atoms, molecules and ions.
n Particles of different substances have different sizes. Particles of elements,
like iron, copper and sulfur, are very small. Particles of compounds, like
petrol and sugar, are larger, but still very small.
n Small particles move faster than larger particles at the same temperature.
n As the temperature rises, the particles have more energy and move around
faster.
n In a solid, the particles are very close and arranged in a regular pattern.
They can only vibrate about fixed positions (Figure 2.4).
n In a liquid, the particles are not in a regular arrangement. They have more
Figure 2.4 Particles in a solid. energy and they can slide past each other (Figure 2.5).
n In a gas, the particles are far apart. They move very fast and randomly in
all the space they can find (Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.5 Particles in a liquid. Figure 2.6 Particles in a gas.

7

GAS ■■ Changes of state

The kinetic theory can be used to explain how a substance changes from one
bo
state to another. A summary of the different changes of state is shown in
ilin
ing
g
co
ing
Figure 2.7. These changes are usually caused by heating or cooling.

lim
or
nd
blim
ev
ub
en
ap
es
su
sin Melting and freezing
ora
e rs
tin
rev
g
When a solid is heated, its particles gain energy. The particles vibrate faster and
freezing faster until eventually they break away from their fixed positions. The particles
SOLID LIQUID begin to move around each other and the solid has melted to form a liquid.
melting
Figure 2.7 Changes of state. The temperature at which the solid melts is called the melting point.
The temperature at which a solid melts tells us how strongly its particles
are held together. Substances with high melting points have strong forces
of attraction between their particles. Substances with low melting points
have weak forces of attraction between their particles. Metals and alloys, like
iron and steel, have high melting points. This suggests that there are strong
forces of attraction between their particles. This is why metals can be used as
girders and supports.
Evaporating and boiling

The particles in a liquid can move around each other. Some particles near
the surface of the liquid may have enough energy to escape from the liquid
into the air. When this happens, the liquid evaporates to form a gas.
If the liquid is heated, its particles move faster. This gives more of them
sufficient energy to escape from the surface. So, evaporation increases as the
temperature of the liquid rises.
On further heating, the liquid particles are moving so rapidly that bubbles
of gas form inside the liquid.
The temperature at which a liquid boils is called its boiling point.
Boiling points tell us how strongly the particles are held together in liquids.
Volatile liquids, like petrol, evaporate easily and boil at low temperatures.
They have weak forces of attraction between their particles.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 What do you understand by the following terms: ii) you can smell hot, sizzling onion several metres
diffusion, kinetic theory, states of matter, melting point, away, but you have to be near cold onion to smell it;
boiling point? iii) liquids have a fixed size but not a fixed shape;
2 What happens to the particles of a liquid: iv) solid blocks of air freshener disappear without
i) as it cools down; leaving any solid;
ii) as it freezes? v) you can smell some cheeses even when they are
3 Use the kinetic theory to explain why: wrapped in clingfilm.
i) gases exert a pressure on the walls of their
container;

1.3 Atoms and molecules

In ancient times the Greeks thought that everything was made from just
four substances: earth, fire, air and water. The Greeks called these the four
‘elements’.
Chemists now know that none of these are elements – two are mixtures,
one a compound and fire is a chemical reaction taking place. We now
recognise 118 different elements, the simplest types of substances that all
other substances are made from. They are all listed in the Periodic Table.
The smallest particle of an element is an atom.
■■ What is an atom?
An atom is the smallest particle of an element. The word ‘atom’ comes from
a Greek word meaning ‘indivisible’ or ‘unsplittable’. At one time, scientists
thought that atoms could not be split. We now know that atoms can be
split. But, if an atom of one element is split, it becomes a different element.
Figure 3.1 This photo of a gold crystal was Copper contains only copper atoms and carbon contains only carbon atoms.
taken through an electron microscope. What
do you think the yellow blobs are? So far we have learnt that all substances and all materials are made of
particles. There are only three different particles in all substances – atoms,
molecules (see the next page) and ions. Ions are atoms or molecules that
are electrically charged. There is more about ions in Chapters 1.8, 1.14
and 1.17.
Electron microscopes can magnify objects more than a million times. In
1958, scientists in Russia identified individual atoms for the first time using
an electron microscope. The atoms they identified were those of barium and
oxygen. Figure 3.1 shows an electron microscope photo of a gold crystal. The
magnification is 40 000 000 times. Each yellow blob is an individual
gold atom.
■■ Representing atoms with symbols

The word ‘atom’ was first used by John Dalton in 1807 when he put
forward his ‘Atomic Theory of Matter’. Dalton suggested the name atom
for the smallest particle of an element and he also suggested a method
of representing atoms with symbols. Figure 3.3 shows some of Dalton’s
symbols. The modern symbols that we use for different elements are based
on Dalton’s suggestions.
Table 1 gives a list of the symbols for some of the common elements. (A
longer list of symbols appears on page 280). Notice that most elements have
Figure 3.2 John Dalton, who called the
two letters in their symbol. The first letter is always a capital, the second
smallest particle of an element an ‘atom’. He letter is always small. These symbols come from either the English name
was born in 1766 in the village of Eaglesfield (O for oxygen, C for carbon) or from the Latin name (Au for gold – Latin:
in Cumbria. His father was a weaver. For most aurum; Cu for copper – Latin: cuprum).
of his life, Dalton taught at the Presbyterian
College in Manchester.

Table 1 The modern symbols for some elements.

Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol
aluminium Al hydrogen H oxygen O
argon Ar iodine I phosphorus P
bromine Br iron Fe potassium K
calcium Ca krypton Kr silicon Si
carbon C lead Pb silver Ag
chlorine Cl magnesium Mg sodium Na
chromium Cr mercury Hg sulfur S
copper Cu neon Ne tin Sn
gold Au nickel Ni uranium U
helium He nitrogen N zinc Zn
■■ Compounds and atoms

Figure 3.3 Dalton’s symbols for some
common elements. A compound is a substance that contains atoms of two or more elements
combined together chemically.
Water contains both hydrogen and oxygen atoms combined together
chemically, and carbon dioxide contains both carbon and oxygen.
Compounds always contain atoms from more than one element.
Mixtures are different from compounds as the different substances are not
combined together chemically.
Pure substances have fixed melting and boiling points. Pure water melts
at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C. If ethanol is mixed with the water the liquid
freezes over a range of temperatures near to 0 °C, and boils over a range of
temperatures from around the boiling point of ethanol (78 °C) up to the
boiling point of water at 100 °C.
A substance that melts or boils over a range of temperatures will be a

mixture, not a pure compound or element.
■■ What is a molecule?
H O C A molecule is the smallest particle that can have a separate, independent
existence.
When atoms of the same element join together the result is a molecule of
O O C O an element. When atoms of different elements join together the result is a
H H
molecule of a compound.
Figure 3.4 Atoms of hydrogen, oxygen
and carbon above molecules of water and
For example, a molecule of water contains two atoms of hydrogen combined
carbon dioxide. with one atom of oxygen. A molecule of carbon dioxide contains one atom
of carbon combined with two atoms of oxygen (Figure 3.4).
10

Molecular formulae
The symbols for elements can also be used to represent molecules and
compounds. So, water is represented as H2O – two hydrogen atoms (H) and
one oxygen atom (O). Carbon dioxide is written as CO2 – one carbon atom
(C ) and two oxygen atoms (O).
‘H2O’ and ‘CO2’ are called molecular formulae or just formulae, for short.
Numbers are written after symbols as subscripts if there are two or more
atoms of the same element in a molecule.
A molecular formula shows the numbers of atoms of the different
elements in one molecule of a substance.
Some other diagrams of molecules and their chemical formulae are shown
in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5 Diagrams of three molecules and their formulae.

Some molecules are very simple, such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and water
O symbol O (H2O). Others are more complex, such as ethanol (C2H5OH). Others, such as
chlorophyll, are very complex (C51H72O4N4Mg).
an oxygen atom
Atoms and molecules of elements

O O formula O2 Almost all elements, for example iron (Fe), aluminium (Al) and copper (Cu),
can be represented simply by their symbols, because they contain single
an oxygen molecule
atoms. But, this is not the case with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen or chlorine.
Figure 3.6 An atom and a molecule of
These elements exist as molecules containing two atoms combined together.
oxygen.
So, oxygen is best represented as O2 and not O, hydrogen as H2 not H,
nitrogen as N2 and chlorine as Cl2 (Figure 3.6). These molecules of elements
containing two atoms are described as diatomic molecules.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 Find out about the life and work of John Dalton. Prepare a 4 Look at Dalton’s symbols for the elements in Figure 3.3.
short talk about Dalton for the rest of your class. a) What do we call ‘Azote’ and ‘Platina’ today?
2 How many atoms of the different elements are there in b) Six of the substances in Dalton’s list are compounds
one molecule of: and not elements. Pick out two of these compounds
i) methane (natural gas), CH4; and write their correct chemical names.
ii) sulfuric acid, H2SO4; c) Which one of Dalton’s symbols do you think is
iii) sugar, C12H22O11; the most appropriate? Why do you think it is
iv) chloroform, CHCl3? appropriate?
3 The formula for nitrogen is N2. What does this mean?
11

1.4 Separating materials How much money has been saved in the jar in Figure 4.1? It is hard to
count the money when it is all mixed up together. You need to separate
the mixture. If you did this by hand you would put coins of the same
value in piles of ten and count them up. Suggest how the coin-counting
machine separates the different coins.
Most naturally occurring materials are mixtures. Very often these mixtures
have to be separated before we can use the materials in them. The
methods that we choose to separate mixtures depend on the different
properties of the substances in them.
■■ Separating an insoluble solid from a liquid

Filtration
Usually, it’s easy to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid by filtering.
This method is used to make filter coffee by separating the residue (coffee
grains) from the filtrate (filter coffee). Notice how the equipment used to
make filter coffee in Figure 4.2 is similar to that which you would use for
filtration in the lab.
Figure 4.1 To find the value, the money
must be counted.
Clean water for our homes
filter funnel Filtration plays an important part in obtaining clean water for our homes.
filter bag
Figure 4.3 shows the main stages in the purification of our water supplies.
coffee grains 1 The water is first stored in a reservoir where most of the solid particles
(residue)
can settle out.
2 As the water is needed, it is filtered through clean sand and gravel which
trap smaller particles of mud and suspended solids (Figure 4.4).
3 After filtering, the water is treated with small amounts of chlorine to kill
filter coffee (filtrate)
harmful bacteria in the water.
4 The purified water is finally pumped to storage tanks and water towers
Figure 4.2 Filtering coffee. The filter bag is
from which it flows to our homes.
made of filter paper. It has tiny holes that let
the liquid through, but are too small for the Filtration is also used to separate beer from its sediment (yeast) before
solid coffee grains to pass through.
bottling. The beer is filtered by forcing it through filter cloths to catch the
sediment.
RESERVOIR FILTRATION CHLORINATION STORAGE water to

water from river, lake
to store water and to remove smaller to kill bacteria in tank or homes, schools,
or underground well
allow solids to settle particles water tower factories, etc.
Figure 4.3 Stages in the purification of our water supplies.
12

1.4 Separating materials
concrete
walls and
Centrifuging
floor Sometimes, solid particles in a liquid are so small that they can pass
fine sand through a filter paper, so filtration is useless. The tiny solid particles float
water
from coarse sand in the liquid as a suspension. In this case, the solid can be separated by
reservoir coarse gravel centrifuging. The mixture is poured into a tube and spun round very
pebbles
rapidly in a centrifuge. This forces the denser solid particles to the bottom
porous or
perforated of the tube and the liquid can be poured off easily. Centrifuging is used in
bricks hospitals to separate denser blood cells from blood plasma (liquid). It is also
used in dairies to separate milk from cream.
clean water outlet

Figure 4.4 Water for our homes, schools
■■ Separating a soluble solid from a solution
and workplaces is filtered through layers of Tap water is clean but not pure. It contains dissolved gases including oxygen
sand and gravel, which trap small particles. from the air and dissolved solids from the soil and river beds over which
it flowed. Tap water is a solution. Seawater (brine) is another example of a
solution. It contains salt and many other substances dissolved in water. You
can’t see the salt in clear seawater, but it must be there because you can taste
it. The salt has been broken up into tiny particles which are too small to be
seen even with a microscope. These particles are so small that they can pass
through the holes in filter paper during filtration.
The mixture of dissolved salt and water forms a solution.

The substance that dissolves is called the solute.
The liquid in which the solute dissolves is the solvent.
Solids, such as salt and sugar, which dissolve are described as soluble.
Solids, such as sand, which do not dissolve are insoluble.
The easiest way to obtain a soluble solid from its solution (such as the
salt in seawater) is by allowing the solvent, which is water in this case, to
evaporate.
Extracting salt from seawater

When seawater is left in a bowl, white salt is left behind as the water
evaporates. Next time you are at the seaside, look for white rings of salt
around the edges of rock pools.
The process during which a liquid turns to a vapour is called evaporation.
If the solvent evaporates slowly from a solution, the solute is often left
behind as large, well-shaped crystals.
Usually, evaporation is carried out more rapidly by boiling the solution. In
this case, the solute is left behind as small, poorly shaped crystals.
In some hot countries, salt is obtained from seawater on a large scale by
crystallisation. The sea is allowed to flood flat areas in shallow ponds called
salt pans. As the water evaporates, sea salt is left behind as white crystals.
Figure 4.5 Crystallisation is used to obtain
large quantities of sea salt from seawater in
hot countries.
13

PRACTICAL ■■ Separating a solvent from a solution

Sometimes, the part of a solution that you want is the liquid solvent and
It is very important to be able to
not the solute. In this case, distillation can be used to collect the solvent.
separate a pure substance from a
Distillation can be used to separate pure water from seawater (Figure 4.6).
mixture. Make sure you know these
When the seawater is boiled, water evaporates off as steam. The steam then
techniques and can use them.
passes into a water-cooled sloping tube called a condenser. Here the steam
turns back to water. This pure water is called the distillate.
The process during which vapour changes to liquid is called condensation.
Notice from the process of distillation in Figure 4.6 that:
distillation = evaporation + condensation
Distillation is an important process in:

n obtaining pure drinking water from seawater in parts of the Middle East
where fuel is cheap
n making ‘spirits’ such as whisky, gin and vodka from diluted
alcoholic solutions.
thermometer
condenser
distillation
flask
adapter
cooling
seawater water out
cooling
conical flask
heat water in
distillate
Figure 4.6 Separating pure water from seawater by distillation.
■■ Separating liquids which mix completely

If alcohol is added to water, the two liquids mix completely to form a single
layer. Liquids like these which mix completely are described as miscible.
Miscible liquids can be separated by a special form of distillation called
fractional distillation. The method works because the different liquids
have different boiling points. When the mixture is heated, different liquids
boil off at different temperatures as each one reaches its boiling point. The
Figure 4.7 Whisky is made by distilling a
liquid with the lowest boiling point is collected first, then the one with the
liquid called wort in large copper vessels. next lowest boiling point, and so on.
Wort is like weak beer. It is made by
Fractional distillation is important in separating the different fractions in
fermenting barley.
crude oil (Chapter 4.1). It can also be used to separate a mixture such as
14

ethanol and water. The apparatus shown in Figure 4.8 has a fractionating
column which allows the vapour to condense and re-vaporise several
times. When the vapour reaches the top of the fractionating column and
condenses the distillate is nearly pure ethanol. If the mixture was distilled
using a simple distillation apparatus, then the distillate would be a mixture
of ethanol and water.
thermometer
condenser
fractionating
column
ethanol
and water water conical flask
anti-bumping
granules
distillate
heat
Figure 4.8 Fractional distillation of ethanol.
■■ Separating similar substances

Chromatography can sometimes be used to separate very similar
substances. For example, it is used to separate dyes in ink, different sugars in
urine, and drugs in the blood.
Figure 4.10 shows how dyes in ink can be separated by chromatography.
A spot of ink is applied to a piece of chromatography paper. This is then
placed in a solvent. As the solvent moves up the paper, the dyes in the ink
spot separate. The dyes that dissolve more readily in the solvent will travel
further up the paper.
chromatography paper
folded over glass rod glass rod
paper clip
chromatography
solvent front
paper
As solvent
rises up the
Hang paper paper the
in solvent dyes separate
Figure 4.9 This scientist is using pencil and allow
line solvent to
chromatography to study new dyes.
soak up
small the paper start line for
spot of spots above
green solvent level
ink in beaker
small spot
of red ink solvent (water or large beaker
other liquids)
Figure 4.10 Separating the dyes in inks by chromatography. How many dyes are there in (i)
the green ink; (ii) the red ink?
15

This method was initially used to separate mixtures of coloured substances.

It was called chromatography from the Greek word ‘khroma’ meaning
colour.
Chromatography is also used to separate colourless substances. After the
solvent has soaked up the paper, it is dried and then sprayed with a locating
agent. The locating agent reacts with each of the colourless substances to
form a coloured product that can be seen.
Rf values and chromatograms

Figure 4.11 shows two chromatograms. They were made at different times,
but the results need to be interpreted together. You cannot just compare
the dots. Scientists discovered that if you use the same solvent and the
same type of paper, then the relative distance moved by the chemical when
compared to the solvent front (the distance moved up the paper by the
solvent) is always the same. They called this the Rf value. You can calculate it
using this equation:
distance moved by chemical
Rf =
distance moved by solvent front
The Rf value is always less than 1.

solvent
fronts
8.0 cm
4.8 cm
3.0 cm
1.8 cm
X A B C D E
Figure 4.11 Comparing two chromatograms. X has an Rf value of 4.8/8.0 = 0.6 and C has an
Rf value of 1.8/3.0 = 0.6. So X is the same substance as C.
16

STUDY QUESTIONS
1 What are the main stages in the purification of water for 7 Some students investigated the pigments used in six
our homes? different inks. They did some paper chromatography of
2 Your younger brother and sister are playing at cooking. the inks. The chromatogram shows their results.
They decide to mix sugar with sand. Fortunately, you have a
good chemistry set. Describe how you would separate dry
sand and sugar crystals from their mixture. Solvent front
3 You are given a yoghurt pot, some pebbles and some
sand.
a) Design a small-scale filtration plant which you could
use to clean muddy river water. Draw a diagram of
your design.
b) How could you check how well your model works?
4 How would you obtain dry, well-shaped crystals from a
solution of salt water?
5 How would you prepare a jug of filter coffee? In your
answer, use the words: solution, solvent, solute, dissolve,
soluble, insoluble, filtrate.
6 Whisky is obtained by distilling a solution made from
fermented grains such as barley. The solution contains
ethanol (boiling point 78 °C) and water (boiling point A B C D E F
100 °C).
a) Which liquid boils at the lower temperature: ethanol a) How many pigments were present in the six inks?
or water? b) Which of the inks A-F are identical? Explain
b) Which of these liquids evaporates more easily? your answer.
c) If beer is distilled, will the distillate contain a larger or c) Calculate the Rf value of the red pigment.
smaller percentage of ethanol?
d) Why is whisky more alcoholic than beer?
17

1.5 Atomic structure

During the 19th century atoms were thought to be solid particles that were
all identical. At the end of the 19th century (1896), a scientist called J.J.
Thomson found evidence of a smaller particle. He called it an electron. The
electron was found to be negatively charged, and could be produced out of
neutral atoms. This led to the suggestion of the existence of a small positively
charged particle as part of the atom.
■■ Discovering atomic structure

In 1909 two scientists, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, discovered that
radioactive particles called alpha particles fired at thin sheets of gold
foil could travel straight through but were sometimes deflected. These
results were explained in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford, who suggested that
an atom had a small central positive nucleus that was very heavy, and a
cloud of negative electrons round it. Most of the atom was an
empty space!
The model was very successful in explaining atomic structure but there
was still one problem, the mass of an atom. Only for hydrogen did the
number of protons in the nucleus add up to the mass of the atom. This
problem was solved in 1932 when James Chadwick discovered a neutral
Figure 5.1 In the 19th century atoms were
thought to be like pool balls. particle, the neutron, with the same mass as a proton that was also in
the nucleus.
Most hydrogen atoms have one proton, no neutrons and one electron.
Since the mass of the electron is almost zero compared to the mass of the
proton and neutron, a hydrogen atom has a ‘relative mass’ of one unit (one
proton mass). Most helium atoms have two protons, two neutrons and two
electrons. The two protons and two neutrons give a helium atom a relative
mass of four units.
Figure 5.2 James Chadwick discovered neutrons in 1932 when he was working with
Rutherford in Cambridge. In 1935, he won a Nobel Prize for this achievement.
18

1.5 Atomic structure
Table 1 The relative masses of hydrogen and helium.

Hydrogen atom Helium atom
number of protons 1 2
number of neutrons 0 2
relative mass 1 4
■■ Protons, neutrons and electrons

Scientists now know that:
n all atoms are made up from three basic particles – protons, neutrons and
electrons
n the nuclei of atoms contain protons and neutrons
n the mass of a proton is almost the same as that of a neutron
n protons have a positive charge, but neutrons have no charge
n electrons move in the space around the nucleus, in ‘shells’
n the mass of an electron is negligible compared to that of a proton
n electrons have a negative charge
n the negative charge on an electron is equal in size, but opposite in sign, to
the positive charge on a proton
Figure 5.3 If the nucleus of an atom was
enlarged to the size of a pea and put on top n in any atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons
of a pyramid, the electrons furthest away n all atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons
would be on the sand below. n atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons.
The positions, relative masses and relative charges of protons, neutrons and
electrons are s ummarised in Table 2.
Table 2 Properties of the three sub-atomic particles.

Mass (relative to
Particle Position a proton) Charge
proton nucleus 1 +1
neutron nucleus 1 0
electron shells 1/1840 –1
Explaining elements
Different atoms have different numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons.
The hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms. It has one proton in the
nucleus, no neutrons and one electron (Figure 5.4). The next simplest atom
is that of helium, with two protons, two neutrons and two electrons. The
next, lithium, has three protons, four neutrons and three electrons. Heavier
atoms can have large numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons. For
example, atoms of uranium have 92 protons, 92 electrons and 143 neutrons.
Notice that hydrogen, the first element in the Periodic Table, has one
proton. Helium, the second element in the Periodic Table, has two protons.
Lithium, the third element in the Periodic Table has three protons and so
on. So, the position of an element in the Periodic Table tells us how many
protons it has. This is shown on all Periodic Tables as the atomic number,
or proton number.
19

EXAM TIP
Remember that atoms have equal —
numbers of protons and electrons,
the hydrogen atom
so that the positive charges (on (1p, 0n, 1e)
the protons) balance the negative
charges (on the electrons). +
+
the helium atom
(2p, 2n, 2e)
Figure 5.4 Protons, neutrons and electrons in a hydrogen atom and a helium atom
(⊕ = proton,  = neutron,− = electron).
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 What are the charges, relative masses and positions in 3 Oxygen is the eighth element in the Periodic
an atom of protons, neutrons and electrons? Table. How many protons and electrons are there
2 How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in in one:
one: a) O atom
a) H atom b) O2 molecule
b) N atom c) H2O molecule?
c) Li atom 4 Make a timeline of important dates, scientists, and facts in
d) Ar atom? the development of our ideas about atomic structure.
(Refer to a Periodic Table. There is one on page 273.)
20

1.6 Atomic number and mass number
1.6 Atomic number and

mass number
Atoms are like trousers. There are two numbers that must be used
to adequately describe each one. For atoms, these numbers are the
atomic number or proton number and the mass number. Like trouser
measurements, these numbers refer to different features of each atom,
in this case the number of protons (and electrons) in the atom and how
heavy the atom is. The atomic number (or number of protons) decides the
type of the atom; the mass number how much it weighs.
■■ Atomic number
Hydrogen atoms are the only atoms with one proton. Helium atoms are the
only atoms with two protons. Lithium atoms are the only atoms with three
protons, and so on. It is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
that decides which element it is.
Chemists refer to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom as the
atomic number. So, hydrogen has atomic number 1, helium has atomic
number 2, and so on.
atomic number = number of protons
Aluminium has 13 protons so its atomic number is 13. In the Periodic Table
the elements are arranged in order of atomic number, so aluminium is the
thirteenth element in the Periodic Table (there is more about the Periodic
Table in Chapter 1.11).
Figure 6.1 Two numbers can describe

Using the Periodic Table, we can find the atomic number of any element.
trousers – the waist measurement and the The sixth element in the Periodic Table has atomic number 6, the twentieth
length of the legs. element has atomic number 20, and so on.
MATHS TIP ■■ Mass number

Protons do not account for all the mass of an atom. Neutrons in the nucleus
mass number = number of protons + also contribute to the mass. Therefore, the mass of an atom depends on the
number of neutrons number of protons plus the number of neutrons. This number is called the
This can be rearranged to: mass number of the atom.
number of protons = mass number -
number of neutrons
How can it be re-arranged to work out mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
the number of neutrons?
Hydrogen atoms (with one proton and no neutrons) have a mass number of
1. Helium atoms (two protons and two neutrons) have a mass number of 4
and lithium atoms (three protons and four neutrons) have a mass number
of 7.
21

■■ Atomic symbols
We can write the symbol 73Li (Figure 6.2) to show the mass number and the
atomic number of a lithium atom. The mass number is written at the top
and to the left of the symbol. The atomic number is written at the bottom
and to the left. A sodium atom (11 protons and 12 neutrons) is written
as 23
11Na.
mass number
7
atomic number
3
Figure 6.2 The atomic symbol for lithium.
■■ Isotopes
If the mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons and
the number of neutrons in the nucleus, every relative atomic mass should
be a whole number. Looking at the Periodic Table, this is not true. Some
elements have relative atomic masses that are nowhere near whole numbers.
For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 and that of copper
is 63.5. At one time, chemists could not understand why the relative a tomic
masses of these elements were not close to whole numbers. In 1919,
F.W. Aston discovered the answer to this problem when he built the first
mass spectrometer.
Using his mass spectrometer, Aston could compare the masses of atoms.
He discovered that some elements had atoms with different masses.
When atoms of these elements were ionised and passed through the mass
spectrometer, the beam of ions separated into two or more paths. This
suggested that one element could have atoms with different masses.
Atoms of the same element with different masses are called isotopes.
Isotopes have the same number of protons, but different numbers of

neutrons. Each isotope has a relative mass close to a whole number, but the
mean (average) atomic mass for the mixture of isotopes is not always close
to a whole number. This is called the relative atomic mass.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 Explain the following terms: 3 a) What do 16, 8 and O mean with reference to the
i) atomic number; symbol, 168 O?
ii) mass number; b) How many protons, neutrons and electrons are
iii) isotope. there in one 2311Na atom?
2 a) What is the atomic number of fluorine? (Refer to a 4 Why do some elements have relative atomic masses
Periodic Table – see page 273.) which are not close to whole numbers?
b) How many protons, neutrons and electrons are
there in one fluorine atom of mass number 19?
22

1.7 Isotopes
1.7 Isotopes
The isotopes of some elements are radioactive. Some of them are
relatively harmless if used with care and are used in medical imaging as in
the photo of a pulmonary scan. They help doctors decide if a patient has
a disease such as cancer, where the tumour is, and the possible treatment
options. Some isotopes are also used in the treatment and cure of cancers
and other illnesses.
Figure 7.1 Some isotopes are radioactive. This can make them very useful. This patient has a
bone cancer, identified by the scan of the lungs.
■■ What is an isotope?
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses. All the
isotopes of one element have the same number of protons. Therefore,
they have the same atomic number. As isotopes have the same number of
protons, they must also have the same number of electrons. This gives them
the same chemical p roperties because chemical properties depend upon the
number of electrons in an atom.
Isotopes do, however, contain different numbers of neutrons. This
means that:
Isotopes have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Isotopes of neon
Neon has two isotopes (Figure 7.2). Each isotope has 10 protons and 10
electrons and therefore an atomic number of 10. But one of these isotopes
has 10 neutrons and the other has 12 neutrons. Their mass numbers are
therefore 20 and 22. They are sometimes called neon-20 and neon-22.
23

neon-20 neon-22
number of protons
20
10 Ne Ne 10
22
10
10
number of electrons 10 10
atomic number 10 10
number of neutrons 10 12
mass number 20 22
Figure 7.2 The two isotopes of neon.
These two isotopes of neon have the same chemical properties because
they have the same number of electrons. But they have different physical
properties because they have different masses. Samples of 10 20
Ne and 10
22
Ne have
different densities, different melting points and different boiling points.
Similarities and differences

We have mentioned the similarities and difference between the isotopes of
neon. All isotopes have the following similarities and differences:
Isotopes have the same: Isotopes have different:

n number of protons n numbers of neutrons
n number of electrons n mass numbers

n atomic number n physical properties.
n chemical properties.
■■ Relative atomic mass

MATHS TIP Most elements contain a mixture of isotopes. This explains why the relative
atomic masses of some elements are not whole numbers.
Relative Atomic Mass is really
a mean value. It is the arithmetic The relative atomic mass of an element is the mean (average) mass of
average of all isotopes of an element one atom, (taking account of its isotopes and their relative proportions),
using the percentage of each isotope 1
in a sample of the element. relative to of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
12
Look at the mass spectrometer trace for chlorine in Figure 7.3. This shows
that chlorine consists of two isotopes with mass numbers of 35 and 37.
These isotopes can be written as 17
35
Cl and 17
37
Cl.
If chlorine contained 100% 1735
Cl, its relative atomic mass would be 35. If it
contained 100% 17Cl, its relative atomic mass would be 37. A 50 : 50 mixture
37
of 17
35
Cl and 17
37
Cl would have a relative atomic mass of 36 (see Table 1).
24

1.7 Isotopes
Table 1 The relative atomic mass of chlorine for different mixtures of its isotopes.
Percentage of 35
17 Cl 100 75 50 25 0
Percentage of 37
17 Cl 0 25 50 75 100
Relative atomic mass 35 35.5 36 36.5 37
35
17 Cl
relative amounts of isotopes

37
17 Cl
33 34 35 36 37 38 39
relative mass of isotopes
Figure 7.3 A mass spectrometer trace for chlorine.
Figure 7.3 shows that naturally occurring chlorine contains three times as
much 17
35
Cl as 17
37
Cl, i.e. 75% to 25%. This gives a relative atomic mass of 35.5,
as shown in Table 1.
The relative atomic mass can be calculated as:
75% chlorine-35 + 25% chlorine-37
75 × 35 + 25 × 37
= 100 100
= 26.25 + 9.25
= 35.5
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 There are three isotopes of hydrogen with mass c) Neon in the air contains 90% of 2010 Ne and 10% of
numbers of 1, 2 and 3. (Naturally occurring hydrogen 10 Ne. What is the relative atomic mass of neon in
22
is almost 100% 11H.) How many protons, neutrons and the air?
electrons do each of the three isotopes have? 3 Discuss the following questions with two or three
2 Neon has two isotopes, with mass numbers of 20 others.
and 22. a) Why do isotopes have the same chemical
a) How do you think the boiling point of a sample of properties, but different physical properties?
10 Ne will compare with a sample of 10 Ne?
20 22
b) Why do samples of natural uranium from different
Explain your answer. parts of the world have slightly different relative
b) Suppose a sample of neon contains equal numbers atomic masses?
of the two isotopes. What is the relative atomic mass c) Why can chlorine form molecules of Cl2 with three
of neon in this sample? different relative molecular masses?
25

1.8 The arrangement

of electrons
Early ideas about the arrangement of electrons in the atom suggested
they orbited the nucleus like planets orbiting the Sun. These ideas were
quickly discovered to be too simple. The Danish scientist Niels Bohr
suggested that orbiting electrons were grouped together in layers or
shells. Each shell could only hold a limited number of electrons. The
arrangement of electrons in the shells of the atom is called the
electronic configuration.
Figure 8.1 Are atoms really like mini solar systems?
■■ Filling the shells

The first shell is nearest the nucleus. The electrons in it are strongly
attracted to the nucleus. It can hold only two electrons. When the first shell
contains two electrons, it is full (Figure 8.3).
Figure 8.2 Filling shells with electrons is like

filling shelves in a shop. The lowest shells
(shelves) are filled first. Each shell (shelf ) only
nucleus containing
holds a limited number of electrons (items). protons
first shell (layer) which

can hold 2 electrons
second shell (layer) which

can hold 8 electrons
Figure 8.3 A model for the arrangement of electrons in the first and second shells.
26

1.8 The arrangement of electrons
As the atomic number increases, when the first shell is full, the second
shell starts to fill. This shell is further from the nucleus and the electrons
in it have more energy. The second shell can hold a maximum of
eight electrons.
For larger atoms again, once the second shell is full, the third shell starts
filling. This shell is further from the nucleus again.
■■ Electronic configurations of elements

Figure 8.4 shows the first 20 elements, in Periodic Table order. The atomic
number of each element is written below its symbol, and the electronic
configuration is shown below that. When the first shell is full at helium,
further electrons go into the second shell. So the electronic configuration of
lithium is 2, 1; beryllium is 2, 2; boron is 2, 3; etc. When the second shell is
full at neon, electrons start to fill the third shell, and so on.
Electronic configuration helps us to explain why elements in the same group
(columns in the Periodic Table) have similar properties.
Period 1 H He
atomic no. 1 2
electronic
configuration 1 2
Period 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
atomic no. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
electronic
configuration 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
atomic no. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
electronic
configuration 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 2, 8, 4 2, 8, 5 2, 8, 6 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
Period 4 K Ca
atomic no. 19 20
electronic
configuration 2, 8, 8, 1 2, 8, 8, 2
Figure 8.4 The electronic configurations of the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table.
27

Group 1: the alkali metals

the alkali metals
Look at Figure 8.5. Notice that atoms of the alkali metals lithium, sodium
and potassium have one electron in the outer shell. Alkali metals can lose
lithium
this outer electron very easily to form ions with one positive charge
Li (Li+, Na+, K+).
2, 1 n They are very reactive because they lose their single outer electron so easily.
sodium
n They form ions with a charge of 1+, so the formulae of their compounds
are similar.
Na As the atomic number of the alkali metals increases, the outer electron is
2, 8, 1 further from the positive nucleus. This means that the electron is held less
strongly by protons in the nucleus. So, the electron is lost more readily and
potassium
this explains why the alkali metals become more reactive as their atomic
K number increases.
2, 8, 8, 1
Figure 8.5 Electronic configurations of the
Group 7: the halogens
first three alkali metals. All halogen atoms, such as fluorine and chlorine, have seven electrons in
their outer shell (Figure 8.6). By gaining one electron, they form negative
ions (F-, Cl-).
Halogens have similar properties to one another because they have the same
the halogens number of electrons in their outer shell.
fluorine
n They are reactive because they easily gain one electron.
They form ions with a charge of 1–, so the formulae of their compounds
F
n
are similar.
2, 7 As the atomic number of the halogens increases, the outer shell is further
from the nucleus. This means that an electron is attracted less readily
chlorine
into the outer shell. So, halogens get less reactive as their atomic number
Cl increases.
2, 8, 7 Elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have similar properties
Figure 8.6 Electronic configurations of two because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shell.
halogens.
28

1.8 The arrangement of electrons
Figure 8.7 Chlorine is the most useful and most common halogen. It is added in very small
quantities to water in swimming pools to kill bacteria and other micro-organisms.
Group number and outer electrons

We have seen that all Group 1 elements have one electron in the outer shell,
and all Group 7 elements have seven electrons in the outer shell. This is the
case for all main group elements. You can therefore deduce the number of
outer electrons in a main group element from the group to which it belongs.
So, for example, all the elements in Group 1 have one electron in the outer
shell; all the elements in Group 2, including magnesium and calcium,
have two electrons in their outer shell; all elements in Group 3 have three
electrons in the outer shell, and so on.
■■ Atoms, ions and the Periodic Table

Look at Table 1. This shows the electronic configurations of the atoms and
ions of elements in Period 3 of the Periodic Table.
Table 1 Electronic configurations of the atoms and ions of elements in Period 3.

Group ➤ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Elements in Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
EXAM TIP Electronic
2, 8, 1 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 2, 8, 4 2, 8, 5 2, 8, 6 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
c onfiguration
Ions are atoms that have gained
or lost one or more electrons. The No. of electrons in
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
outer shell
charge on the ion is 1+, 2+ or 3+ if
the atom has lost 1, 2 or 3 electrons. Common ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ – – S2- Cl- –
It is 1-, 2- or 3- if the atom has Electronic
2, 8 2, 8 2, 8 – – 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8 –
gained 1, 2 or 3 electrons. c onfiguration of ion
29

n Table 1 shows that for any element the group number is always the same
as the number of outer electrons. Silicon in Group 4 has four outer
electrons, sulfur in group 6 has six outer electrons.
n The elements in Groups 1, 2 and 3, for example sodium, magnesium
and aluminium, have only 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer shell. These
elements at the beginning of the period lose electrons to form positive
ions (Na+, Mg2+, Al3+). Their ions have an electronic configuration the
same as the previous noble gas.
n The element sulfur in Group 6 gains two electrons and chlorine in Group
7 gains one electron.
n The elements in Groups 4 and 5 do not form ions but make bonds by
sharing electrons.
n The atoms of the elements in Group 0, for example argon, do not easily
lose or gain electrons. These elements, at the end of a period, do not
usually form compounds.
Figure 8.8 Electric light bulbs are filled with argon or krypton. These inert gases are so
unreactive that the metal filament can be above 1000 °C without reacting with them.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 Why are the noble gases so unreactive? 3 Write the electronic configuration for:
2 a) Write down the electronic configurations of a) Li
magnesium and calcium. b) Li+
b) How many electrons are there in the outer shell of c) O
an atom of an element in Group 2? d) O2–.
c) What charge will ions of Group 2 elements have?
30

1.9 Measuring atoms
1.9 Measuring atoms

Atoms are so small it can be really difficult to understand their size. It’s
also difficult to measure them using simple apparatus. There are lots of
problems to be overcome, such as how do you know when you have an
atom? There have been some clever ideas about how to measure the size
of atoms easily; today we use very expensive equipment to do this.
USA
UK
New York New York to London = 4500 km

an atom London
a marble 1500 km
Figure 9.1 If atoms were magnified to the size of marbles, on the same scale a marble would have a diameter of about 1500 km – this is one-
third the distance between New York and London.
■■ How small are atoms?

Experiments with thin films of oil on water show that olive oil particles
are about 1/10 000 000 cm thick. But olive oil particles are large molecules
containing more than 50 atoms. If we estimate that one molecule of olive oil
is about 10 atoms thick, how big is a single atom?
PRACTICAL
Electron microscope photos and X-ray diffraction studies suggest that
Using a drop of cooking oil is a clever atoms are about one hundred millionth (1/100 000 000) of a centimetre in
method to try to estimate the size of diameter. So, if you put 100 million of them in a straight line, they would
an atom or molecule. Try to think of still only measure one centimetre. It’s very difficult to imagine anything
some sources of error in obtaining a as small as this, but Figure 9.1 should give you some idea. If atoms were
thin layer of oil one molecule deep on magnified to the size of marbles then, on the same scale, marbles would
the water. have a diameter of 1500 km – one-third of the distance between New York
and London.
How small is small?

Figure 9.2 will also help you to appreciate just how small atoms are. It shows
a step-by-step decrease in size from 1 cm to 1/100 000 000 cm. Each object is
100 times smaller than the one before it. The dice on the left is about
1 cm wide. In the next picture, the grain of sand is about 1/100 cm across.
The bacterium in the middle is 100 times smaller again – about 1/10 000
(10-4) cm from end to end. In the next picture, the molecule of haemoglobin
is 100 times smaller than this – about 1/1 000 000 (10-6) cm in diameter.
31

dice grain of sand bacterium molecule of atom

haemoglobin
1 cm 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm
100 10 000 1 000 000 100 000 000
Figure 9.2 Step-by-step to the size of atoms.
Finally, in the right-hand picture, the atom is one-hundredth of the size of

the haemoglobin molecule – about 1/100 000 000 (10-8) cm in diameter.
Table 1 The relative atomic masses of a few ■■ How heavy are atoms?
elements.
The relative masses which scientists use for different atoms are called
Relative
Element Symbol atomic mass
relative atomic masses.
carbon C 12 The element carbon is the standard for relative atomic masses. Carbon-12
hydrogen H 1 atoms are given a relative mass of exactly 12.
chlorine Cl 35.5
magnesium Mg 24 A few relative atomic masses are listed in Table 1. Other relative atomic
masses are given on page 274.
oxygen O 16
iron Fe 56 The symbol for relative atomic mass is Ar. So, we can write Ar (C) = 12,
copper Cu 63.5 Ar (Mg) = 24, or simply C = 12, Mg = 24, etc.
gold Au 197
EXAM TIP
The values of relative atomic masses
have no units because they are
relative.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 The radius of a potassium atom is 2/100 000 000 cm. d) Which element has atoms that, on average, are four
How many potassium atoms can be arranged next to times as heavy as oxygen?
each other to make a line 1 cm long? 3 Put the following in order of size from the largest to the
2 Use the relative atomic masses on page 274 to answer smallest:
the following questions. a bacterium, the thickness of a human hair, a molecule
a) Which element has the lightest atoms? of sugar (which contains about 50 atoms), a smoke
b) Which element has the next lightest atoms? particle, a copper atom, a fine dust particle.
c) On average how many times heavier are silicon
atoms than nitrogen atoms?
32

1.10 Patterns of elements

A shuffled deck of playing cards has absolutely no order or pattern. That is
why card games are games of chance. Each card contains three pieces of
information: colour, number and suit. You can sort the cards in a variety of
ways that will allow you to predict the next card in the deck.
At the start of the 19th century the chemical elements were just like
a deck of shuffled playing cards, except no one knew which pieces of
information were important, some of the information was not accurate
and some of the cards were missing. The question was how to bring order
and a useful pattern to the elements.
Figure 10.1 There are many ways to organise a deck of playing cards. Which one would you
choose, and why?
■■ Early attempts at classifying the elements

As soon as chemists understood that elements were the simplest substances
they began to classify them. One of the most useful ways of classifying
elements is as metals and non-metals, but it is not easy to classify some
elements this way.
Take, for example, silicon. It has a high melting and boiling point like
metals, but a low density like non-metals. It conducts electricity better than
non-metals, but not as well as metals. Elements with some properties like
metals and other properties like non-metals are called metalloids.
By the mid-19th century, chemists realised that it was impossible to classify
all elements neatly as metals and non-metals. They began to look for
patterns in the properties of smaller groups of elements.
33

■■ Newlands’ octaves
In 1864, John Newlands, an English chemist, arranged all the known elements
in order of their relative atomic masses. He found that one element often
had properties like those of the element seven places in front of it in his list.
Newlands called this the ‘law of octaves’. He said that ‘the eighth element is a
kind of repetition of the first, like the eighth note of an octave in music’.
Figure 10.2 shows the first three of Newlands’ octaves. Notice that similar
elements sometimes occur seven places on and in the same column. For
example, the second column contains lithium, sodium and potassium.
H Li Be B C N O The regular periodic repetition of elements with similar properties led

to the name Periodic Table.
F Na Mg Al Si P S
Unfortunately, Newlands’ classification grouped together some elements
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
which were very different. For example, iron (Fe) was placed in the same
family as oxygen (O) and sulfur (S). Because of this, Newlands was ridiculed.
Figure 10.2 Newlands’ octaves. His ideas were criticised and rejected.
■■ Mendeléev’s Periodic Table

In spite of the criticism of Newlands’ ideas, chemists carried on searching
for a pattern linking the properties and relative atomic masses of the
elements.
In 1869, the Russian chemist, Dmitri Mendeléev, produced new ideas to
support the theory that Newlands had suggested five years earlier.
Figure 10.4 shows part of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table. Notice that elements
with similar properties, such as lithium, sodium and potassium, fall in the
same vertical column. Which other pairs or trios of similar elements appear
in the same vertical column of Mendeléev’s table?
GROUP
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Figure 10.3 Dmitri Mendeléev (1834–1907) Period 1 H

was the first chemist to successfully arrange
the elements into a pattern linking their
Period 2 Li Be B C N O F
properties and relative atomic masses.
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
K Ca Ti V Cr Mn
Period 4 Fe Co Ni
Cu Zn As Se Br
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo
Period 5 Ru Rh Pd
Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I
Figure 10.4 Part of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.
34

In Mendeléev’s (and our modern) Periodic Table:
n The vertical columns of similar elements (i.e. the chemical families)

are called groups.
n The horizontal rows are called periods.
Mendeléev was more successful than Newlands because of three brilliant

steps he took with his Periodic Table.
n He left gaps in his table so that similar elements were in the same
vertical group. Four of these gaps are shown as asterisks in Figure 10.4.
n He suggested that elements would be discovered to fill the gaps.
n He predicted the properties of the missing elements from the properties
of elements above and below them in his table.
Why Mendeléev’s Periodic Table was successful

Initially, Mendeléev’s Periodic Table was nothing more than a curiosity.
But it encouraged chemists to search for further patterns and look for
more elements. Within 15 years of Mendeléev’s predictions, three of the
missing elements in his table had been discovered. They were named
scandium, gallium and germanium, and their properties were very similar
to Mendeléev’s predictions.
The success of Mendeléev’s predictions showed that his ideas were probably
correct and this sparked off even more research. His Periodic Table was
quickly accepted as an important summary of the properties of elements.
STUDY QUESTIONS
1 Explain the following terms in relation to the Periodic a) What is the name for this element?
Table: periodic properties, group, period. b) Use a data book to find the properties of the
2 In 1871 Mendeléev made the following predictions for element and check Mendeléev’s predictions.
the missing element in Period 4 below silicon. c) How accurate were Mendeléev’s predictions?
• Grey metal with density 5.5 g / cm3. 3 Look at Figure 10.2.
• Relative atomic mass = mean (average) of relative a) Why did Newlands use the word ‘octaves’?
28 + 119
atomic masses of Si and Sn = 2 = 73.5 b) How does the order of elements in Newlands’ first
• Melting point higher than that of tin – perhaps three octaves compare with the order of elements in
800 °C. Mendeléev’s table?
• Formula of oxide will be XO2 with a density of c) Suggest the name of an element discovered
4.7 g / cm3. between 1864 and 1869.
This element was discovered in 1886. 4 Why was Mendeléev more successful than Newlands?
35

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southern limits. From arid tracts of country they are naturally absent,
and also, which is more curious, from certain districts of North America.
In the tropics these animals seem to be on the whole less abundant
than in more temperate climates. But this deficiency of individuals is
counterbalanced by the greater variety of generic and specific types.
From tropical Africa, little explored as it has been from this point of
view, no less than thirty genera, including about ninety species, have
been recorded; whereas in Great Britain only four genera and
seventeen species occur, and in all probability but few remain to be
discovered. The vertical range of these Annelids is also considerable.
Several species have been met with in Europe and elsewhere at an
altitude of 10,000 feet.
For the bulk of the species the term earthworm is an accurate

description of their habitat. But there are not a few which occasionally
or habitually prefer other localities. The genus Allurus is equally at
home in soil or in water; I have taken it in the fast-flowing river Plym in
Devonshire. The genus Acanthodrilus includes a few species which
have at present only been met with in water; A. schmardae comes from
fresh water in Queensland, A. stagnalis from ponds in South America;
A. dalei is like Allurus in that it is to be found both on land and in
streams and ponds. The Enchytraeidae are just as amphibious;
Criodrilus and Sparganophilus appear to be purely aquatic. A more
curious locality for a creature that is so characteristically terrestrial is
the margin of the sea. For a long time a species belonging to a peculiar
genus Pontodrilus has been known from the shores of the
Mediterranean in the neighbourhood of Nice. It lives there among
seaweed above high-water mark, but it must at least occasionally be
splashed by the waves. Another species of the same genus occurs on
the coast of Brazil and some of the West Indian islands; Pontoscolex
corethrurus and Diachaeta littoralis were described by Schmarda[420]
from the shores of Jamaica. The former species is one of the most
widely distributed of earthworms, and, except in this particular part of
the world, has been always taken on the land far from the sea. There
are also partly marine forms among the Tubificidae; Clitellio arenarius is
common on our coasts.
While there are several kinds of earthworms that are thus met with in
fresh water, others will live for some time submerged in water. Perrier
found by experiment that various species could undergo with impunity a
prolonged immersion in water, and I confirmed his experiments myself
with a common species of Allolobophora. A correspondent of "Nature"
stated that a certain number of species (not particularised) of
earthworms in Ceylon could suffer with impunity the effects of sea-
water. The importance of this fact will be again dealt with in considering
the geographical distribution of the group.
Among the aquatic genera of Oligochaeta we do not as a rule meet with

amphibious species. The Enchytraeidae however, as already
mentioned, are an exception; so too appears to be the genus
Phreoryctes, which in its structure is to some extent intermediate
between the earthworms and the aquatic families.
Terrestrial and Aquatic Forms.—There are many obvious structural

peculiarities which would prevent the normally aquatic worms from
being thoroughly at home on dry land. The gills of Branchiura and the
other gilled species would be injured, in all probability, by friction with
the earth; the delicate and long chaetae of Naids and Tubifex are also
most unsuited for progression through dry soil; and it is to be noted that
those Oligochaeta, which, belonging to aquatic groups, are yet found
away from water, have chaetae of the simple sigmoid pattern which
characterises the earthworms.
There are other peculiarities found only in the aquatic species which
have not so obvious a relation to their habitat. In no genus that is
mainly aquatic in habit are the ova small and nearly unprovided with
yolk as in Lumbricus; the ova of aquatic forms are invariably large and
filled with abundant yolk.
The more delicate organisation of the aquatic Oligochaeta is not so

hard to understand. The comparatively unresisting nature of the
medium in which they live, water or fine mud, does not necessitate so
strong a development of the layers of the body-wall as is essential to
the earth-living forms, which have also thick septa in the anterior
region, to protect the organs of reproduction as the strong muscular
contractions of the body force the worm's way through the dense soil.
With the weak structure of the integument are perhaps also correlated
the simplicity of other organs of the body in the aquatic Oligochaeta.
With thin body-walls, through which gases can diffuse with great ease,
there would seem to be less need for the development of a system of
integumental blood capillaries. These are indeed for the most part
absent in the aquatic forms, being only faintly developed in a few, an
example possibly of degeneration.
Earthworms and the Soil.—Darwin has explained the enormous

effects which these soft-bodied and small creatures have had upon the
superficial structure of the earth. Their castings, brought up to the
surface, are blown about by the wind when dry, and are thus spread
over the ground in a fine layer. It has been calculated that in the space
of an acre .2 of an inch in thickness of earth is annually brought to the
surface. It is clear therefore that in a long period of years there would
be a very large effect produced. On the sides of a hill this matter
brought up from below would tend to roll down the slopes when dry, and
would increase the débris carried away to the sea by streams and
rivers, so that continents formerly deposited under the sea may owe no
small proportion of their size to the continued work of earthworms in
past ages.
Darwin has also pointed out the benefits to the agriculturist which
accrue from the industry of these Annelids. The soil is thoroughly mixed
and submitted to the action of the atmosphere. The secretions of the
worms themselves cannot but have a good effect upon its fertility, while
the burrows open up the deeper-lying layers to the rain. Mr. Alvan
Millson,[421] in detailing the labours of the remarkable Yoruba worm
(Siphonogaster millsoni Beddard), hints that they may serve as a check
upon the fatal malaria of the west coast of Africa. By their incessant
burrowings and ejecting of the undigested remains of their food many
poisonous germs may be brought up from below, where they flourish in
the absence of sunlight and oxygen, and submitted to the purifying
influence of sun and air.
Phosphorescence.—Phosphorescence has been observed in several
species of Oligochaeta. The most noteworthy instance of recent times
is the discovery by Giard of the small worm which he called Photodrilus
phosphoreus at Wimereux. During damp weather it was sufficient to
disturb the gravel upon the walks of a certain garden to excite the
luminosity of these Annelids. In all probability this species is identical
with one whose luminosity had been noticed some years before (in
1837) by Dugès, and named by him Lumbricus phosphoreus.
According to Giard, the light is produced by a series of glands in the
anterior region of the body debouching upon the exterior. This same
worm has since been found in other localities, where it has been shown
to be phosphorescent, by Moniez[422] and by Matzdorf[423]. It is
remarkable that in some other cases the luminosity, though it exists, is
very rarely seen. The exceedingly common Brandling (Allolobophora
foetida) of dunghills has been observed on occasions to emit a
phosphorescent light. This observation is due to Professor Vejdovsky,
[424] and was made "upon a warm July night of 1881." He thinks that
the seat of the light is in the secretion of the glandular cells of the
epidermis, for when this and other worms are handled the
phosphorescence clings to the fingers, as of course does the mucous
secretion voided by the glands.
Phosphorescence has been observed also in some other families of

Oligochaetes. The late Professor Allen Harker noticed a small worm in
marshy ground in Northumberland which emitted a distinct light, and
which was subsequently identified as a member of the family
Enchytraeidae.
Geographical Distribution.[425]—In the succeeding pages some of the

details of the geographical range of the Oligochaeta will be found. The
present section deals with a few generalities, which appear to result
from an examination of the facts.
As to the aquatic genera but little is known at present with regard to

their range; they have not been widely collected in extra-European
countries. What little is known points to the conclusion that while many
parts of the world have their peculiar genera (such as Hesperodrilus in
South America, Phreodrilus and Pelodrilus in New Zealand), some of
the common European species are widely distributed. I have, for
example, received Henlea ventriculosa from Kirghiz Tartary, and from
New Zealand; and a New Zealand Tubifex appeared to me to be
indistinguishable from the common T. rivulorum of our rivers and ponds.
It is possible that these and similar instances may, at least in some
cases, be due to accidental importation at the hands of man, a matter
into which we shall enter later. But the aquatic genera have, many of
them, facilities for extending their range in a natural fashion, which are
greater than those possessed by earthworms. It has been pointed out
that the chaetae of the aquatic Oligochaeta are generally hooked at the
extremity and bifid, which would give them a greater chance of holding
on to the feet or feathers of aquatic birds; I am not myself disposed to
lay much stress on the possibilities of migration by these means, since
the tender bodies of the small worms would be liable to be soon dried
up by wind while in the act of migration. More likely in every way is a
migration when enclosed in the cocoon. The cocoons being small, and
often deposited at the edges of ponds frequented by aquatic birds,
there would be many chances of their being carried away with tolerable
frequency; moreover, as Dr. Michaelsen has pointed out, the cocoons
of some species, particularly among the Enchytraeidae, contain a large
number of embryos; so that when such a cocoon reached a foreign
shore there would be a better chance of the species establishing itself
there. I have referred elsewhere[426] to the singular habit of forming a
temporary cyst which characterises one species of the genus
Aeolosoma; this would perhaps tend to facilitate its transference in the
way indicated from one spot to another.
Earthworms, on the other hand, have not such easy means of travelling
from country to country; the assistance which the cocoons in all
probability give to the smaller aquatic Oligochaeta cannot be held to be
of much importance in facilitating the migrations of the earthworms. In
the first place, the animals themselves are of greater bulk, and their
cocoons are naturally larger, and thus less easy of transportation.
Secondly, they are deposited as a rule upon dry land, where the
chances of their sticking to the feet of birds would be less; and thirdly,
they are often deposited deep in the ground, which is a further bar to
their being taken up. Another possible method by which earthworms
could cross the sea is by the help of floating tree-trunks; it is, however,
the case with many species that they are fatally injured by the contact
of salt water. There are, it is true, a few species, such as Pontodrilus of
the Mediterranean coast, which habitually live within reach of the
waves; but with the majority any such passage across the sea seems to
be impossible.[427] On the other hand, rivers and lakes are not a barrier
to the dispersal of the group. There are a few species, such as Allurus
tetragonurus, which live indifferently on land and in fresh water; and
even some habitually terrestrial species can be kept in water for many
weeks with impunity. A desert, on the other hand, is a complete barrier;
the animals are absolutely dependent upon moisture, and though in dry
weather the worms of tropical countries bury themselves deep in the
soil, and even make temporary cysts by the aid of their mucous
secretions, this would be of no avail except in countries where there
were at least occasional spells of wet weather.
The range of the existing genera and species is quite in keeping with
the suggestions and facts already put forward. But in considering them
we must first of all eliminate the direct influence of man. Every one who
studies this group of animals knows perfectly well that importations of
plants frequently contain accidentally-included earthworms; and there
are other ways in which the transference of species from one country to
another could be effected by man. There are various considerations
which enable us to form a fair opinion as to the probability of a given
species being really indigenous or imported. Oceanic islands afford one
test. There are species of earthworms known from a good many, but
with a few exceptions they are the same species as those which occur
on the nearest mainland; in those cases where it is supposed that the
animal inhabitants have reached an oceanic island by natural means of
transit, it is a rule that the species are different, and even the genera
are frequently different. That the bulk of them are the same seems to
argue either frequent natural communication with the mainland or a
great stability on the part of the species themselves. It is more probable
that the identity is in this case to be ascribed to accidental transference.
Another argument comes from the distribution of the family

Lumbricidae. This family forms the bulk of the earthworms of the
European and North American continents. But they are also found all
over the world. With one or two exceptions, such as Allolobophora
moebii, from Madeira, the extra-north-temperate species are identical
with those found within that region. Now, if the migration had been by
natural means there would surely in the lapse of time been some
differentiation of species. Furthermore, Dr. Michaelsen has pointed out
that in South America the presumably European forms (i.e. Lumbricus
and Allolobophora) are found upon the coast and in cultivated ground; it
is inland that the presumably indigenous species are met with. This
again looks very like accidental transference.
A mapping of the world in regions indicative of the distribution of

earthworms produces a result which is slightly different from the
accepted division. North America, Europe, and Northern Asia so far as
is known agree in having as their distinctive earthworms the family
Lumbricidae, which is very nearly the only one represented in these
parts of the world. The majority of the species are common to the two
continents; there cannot, in fact, be a separation of Nearctic and
Palaearctic; we must accept the Holarctic region of Professor Newton.
The Ethiopian region, on the other hand, is quite as it is in other groups,
being bounded to the north by the desert of Sahara. The Neotropical
region is quite distinct, and includes Central as well as South America,
and the West Indian islands, even the Bermudas. It is, however, a
question whether the more southern portions of the continent should
not be cut off from the rest and joined with New Zealand, to form an
Antarctic region. In these two countries, and also in Kerguelen and
Marion Islands, the prevailing genera are Acanthodrilus and
Microscolex. In America Acanthodrilus is found nowhere but in the
more southern regions of the southern continent, as well as in the
Falklands and South Georgia. New Zealand is characterised by other
genera of Acanthodrilids besides Acanthodrilus itself; but the bulk of the
species belong to the latter genus. Acanthodrilus also occurs (three
species only) in Queensland and at the Cape of Good Hope.
Microscolex is rather more widely dispersed, being found in other parts
of America and in Europe, the island of Madeira (? accidentally
imported); but it is undoubtedly chiefly concentrated in South America
and in New Zealand. Apart from New Zealand, which, as already said,
can only be doubtfully referred to the Australian region, the latter
appears to form one with the Oriental region (to which, on account of its
Perichaetidae, Japan should be added) of other writers. There is, so far
as earthworms are concerned, no "Wallace's line" at all. The
characteristic genera Perichaeta and Megascolex range from one
extremity of the Indo-Australian region to the other. It is true that
Cryptodrilus and Megascolides are limited to Australia itself (with the
apparent exception of a species or two in America, for I can hardly
separate Argilophilus of Eisen from Megascolides); but they are not at
all well-defined genera, and indeed the generic distinctions of the whole
family Cryptodrilidae are not in a satisfactory condition.
Classification.—The Oligochaeta do not shade into the Polychaeta so

imperceptibly as might be inferred from the current schemes of
classification. Apart from minor points, which are not universally
characteristic of the two groups, though never found except in one or
the other, the Oligochaeta are to be defined by the complicated
reproductive system; although in a few undoubted Polychaets there is a
faint approach to this in the specialisation of some of the nephridia as
sperm-receptacles and even as sperm-ducts. But nowhere among the
Polychaeta are there the diversified sperm-ducts and oviducts,
spermathecae and sperm-sacs, that are universal among the
Oligochaeta. Moreover, no Polychaet has a clitellum, which is so
distinctive of the Oligochaeta, and of their near allies the Leeches. Dr.
Eisig has compared the glandular modification of the integument at the
mouths of the sperm-ducts in the Capitellidae to the beginnings of a
clitellum. This may be the case, but it is, in my opinion, more
comparable to the similar glandular spots at the male pores in
earthworms. The reproductive glands in the Oligochaeta (save for a few
apparently abnormal cases) are restricted to at most two pairs of each,
which occur in the same individual; the Polychaeta being dioecious.
There is, in short, no form known which cannot be definitely referred to
either the Polychaeta or the Oligochaeta, excepting perhaps
Ctenodrilus, the anatomy of whose reproductive organs is at present
unknown.
It is a difficult task to classify the different families of the Oligochaeta;

and to enter into the historical aspect of the matter would take too much
space. I am myself disposed to divide them first of all into two main
groups, for which I use Dr. Benham's[428] names of Microdrili and
Megadrili.
The Microdrili are, as a rule, small and aquatic in habit; they have
short sperm-ducts which open on to the exterior in the segment which
immediately follows that which contains the internal aperture; the
clitellum is only one cell thick; the egg-sacs are large; the epoch of
sexual maturity is at a fixed period. This group, to my thinking, includes
the Moniligastridae; although Professor Bourne has denied my
statement with regard to the clitellum, and in this case it is not so easy
to decide their systematic position.
The Megadrili are characterised by the precisely opposite characters.

The sperm-ducts are longer; the clitellum is composed of many layers
of cells; the egg-sacs are rudimentary; sexual maturity appears to be
more or less continuous.
There is, however, a substantial agreement about the families which I

here adopt, which may be fairly taken to express our present
knowledge of the Order. For fuller details the reader is referred to my
Monograph of the Order Oligochaeta.[429]
Fig. 195.—Aeolosoma hemprichii dividing transversely, × 30. (After

Lankester.)
I. Microdrili.
Fam. 1. Aphaneura.[430]—This name was originally given to the present
family by Vejdovsky; the family contains a single genus, Aeolosoma, of
which there are some seven species. The name is taken from, perhaps,
the most important though not the most salient characteristic of the
worms. The central nervous system appears in all of them to be
reduced to the cerebral ganglia, which, moreover, retain the embryonic
connexion with the epidermis. The worms of the genus are fairly
common in fresh waters of this country, and they have been also met
with in North and South America, and in Egypt, India, America, and
tropical Africa. They are all small, generally minute (1 to 2 mm. long),
and have a transparent body variously ornamented by brightly-coloured
oil globules secreted by the epidermis. These are reddish brown in A.
quaternarium, bright green in A. variegatum and A. headleyi, in the
latter even with a tinge of blue. In the largest species of the genus, A.
tenebrarum they are olive green. In A. niveum the spots are colourless,
and A. variegatum has colourless droplets mixed with the bright green
ones. Fig. 195 shows very well the general appearance of the species
of this genus. The body has less fixed outlines than in most worms, and
the movement of the creatures is not unsuggestive of a Planarian. As
the under side of the prostomium is ciliated, and as the movements of
these cilia conduce towards the general movement of the body, the
resemblance is intelligible. One species of Aeolosoma, at any rate, has
a curious habit which is unique in the Order. At certain times, for some
reason at present unknown, the worm secretes a chitinous capsule,
inside which it moves about with considerable freedom; these capsules
when first observed were mistaken for the cocoons of the worms; they
are really homologous with the viscid secretion which the common
earthworm throws off when in too dry soil, and with which it lines the
chamber excavated in the earth in which it is lying. The worms of this
genus multiply by fission; sexual reproduction has been but rarely
observed.
Fam. 2. Enchytraeidae.[431]—This family consists at present of rather

over fifty well-characterised species, which are distributed into eleven
genera. It is common in this country and in Europe generally; it has
been met with in Spitzbergen and the extreme north; it occurs in the
American continent from the north to the extreme south; it is also an
inhabitant of New Zealand. The worms of this family are nearly always
of small size, sometimes minute; they never exceed an inch or so in
length, and that is a rare occurrence. They are equally at home in water
and in soil, some species being common to the two media; a few are
marine or littoral in habit, while others are parasitic in vegetable tissues.
Like most earthworms, and unlike the majority of aquatic worms, the
chaetae are without a bifid termination; the body-wall, too, is
comparatively thick. The perivisceral fluid is often (as in certain Naids)
loaded with elliptical or rounded corpuscles. Resemblances to
earthworms rather than to the aquatic families of Oligochaeta are
suggested by the long distance which separates the spermathecae
from the male pores (segments 5 and 12), and by the paired or
unpaired glands that have been already compared to the calciferous
glands so universally present among earthworms. On the other hand,
the male ducts are confined, as in the lower Oligochaeta, to two
segments, upon one of which the internal, upon the other the external
orifice is situated, and the oviduct is reduced to a simple pore, as in
Naids; but this may be merely a matter of convergence by
degeneration. Perhaps the most remarkable genus in the family is
Anachaeta, which has no chaetae, but in their place a large cell
projecting into the body-cavity, which appears to represent the
formative cell of the chaeta. The integument of this genus contains true
chlorophyll, according to Vejdovsky.
A singular character, found, however, also in Rhynchelmis and Sutroa

among the Lumbriculidae, is the opening of the spermathecae into the
alimentary canal. This was originally discovered by Dr. Michaelsen, but
has been abundantly confirmed.
Stercutus is a singular genus which was originally found in manure, and

has the peculiarity that the alimentary canal is often aborted; this
degeneration seems to bear some relation to the food and conditions of
life.
Fam. 3. Discodrilidae.[432]—This family consists of small parasitic forms

which were at one time assigned to the Hirudinea; there seems,
however, to be no doubt that they are rightly included in the present
Order. Branchiobdella is found upon the gills of the Crayfish, Astacus
fluviatilis; the American Bdellodrilus upon Cambarus. The chief reason
for the former inclusion of these worms among the leeches was due to
the absence of chaetae and to the presence of chitinous jaws and of
suckers; apart from these structures there is nothing whatever leech-
like about the worms. Bdellodrilus has two pairs of testes in segments 5
and 6; there are two pairs of sperm-ducts, all opening, however, by a
common "atrium" on the sixth segment; on the fifth open a pair of
spermathecae, likewise by a common pore. The ovaries are in segment
7, and the ova escape by a pair of pores apparently like the single pore
of the Enchytraeidae. The entire worm consists of only eleven
segments.
Fam. 4. Phreoryctidae.[433]—This family contains only two genera,

Phreoryctes and Pelodrilus. The former is widely spread, occurring in
Europe, North America, and New Zealand. Pelodrilus is limited to New
Zealand. Most species of Phreoryctes are distinguished by their
extraordinary length and thinness, and there is frequently a tendency to
the disappearance of the chaetae. The most important anatomical fact
about Phreoryctes (at any rate P. smithii) is that there are two pairs of
ovaries as well as two pairs of testes, and that the ducts of all are
simple and very much alike. This seems to argue the low position of the
family in the series.
Fam. 5. Naidomorpha.[434]—This family contains eight or nine genera,

perhaps more; they are all of them aquatic and of small size, and they
multiply by fission as well as sexually. The most noticeable peculiarity of
the family is the "cephalisation" which occurs in the head segments. In
some genera, in Pristina for example, there is no such cephalisation to
be observed; but in others the dorsal bundles of chaetae commence a
few segments farther back than the ventral, the segment where they
commence being different and characteristic in the various genera.
Thus in Dero the first four segments are without dorsal chaetae, and in
Nais the first five are in this condition. There is thus a kind of "head"
formed, whence the expression "cephalisation." Dero, Nais, and
Pristina are commonly to be met with in ponds, lakes, etc., in this
country. Bohemilla is rarer, and is to be distinguished by the remarkable
serrated chaetae of the dorsal bundles. Of Dero and Nais there are a
considerable number of different species; indeed it is usual perhaps to
regard as distributable among three genera, Nais, Stylaria, and Slavina,
the species which I am disposed to place in one genus, Nais. Stylaria is
defined on this view by its extremely long prostomium, which has given
rise to both its popular and technical names. "Die gezungelte Naide"
was the term applied by one of its earliest investigators, and the name
Stylaria proboscidea signifies the same peculiarity. But as the same
inordinately long "proboscis" occurs in the South American Pristina
proboscidea, belonging to a genus of which the other member does not
possess so well developed a prostomium, it seems too variable a
character upon which to differentiate a genus. Chaetogaster and
Amphichaeta have been placed by some systematists in a separate
family. The first named contains four species which are fairly common.
It is one of those worms in which the chaetae are not exactly related to
the segmentation of other organs, which moreover sometimes show an
independence in their segmentation; thus there are more nerve ganglia
in the anterior segments of the body than there are septa.
Fam. 6. Tubificidae.—The worms belonging to this family are of small

size, and are all inhabitants of fresh or salt water, or the margins of
pools and the sea. They differ from the last family in that asexual
reproduction never occurs, and that the reproductive organs are
situated rather farther back in the body. The male pores are upon
segment 11, and the oviduct-pores upon the following segment. This
family differs from the Lumbriculidae in the fact that there are only a
single pair of sperm-ducts.
The earliest known Tubificid was the common Tubifex rivulorum, so

widely dispersed in this country and elsewhere; but with it was at first
confounded the somewhat similar genus Limnodrilus, which only differs
in that the chaetae are all of the cleft variety, and never capilliform, as in
Tubifex. The genera are mainly distinguished by the characters of the
chaetae and of the male ducts. At the base of the series perhaps lies
Ilyodrilus, which has many points in common with the Naids. The form
of the terminal chamber into which the sperm-duct opens has the same
simplicity as in that group, and the intestine is surrounded with a
network of blood-vessels as in the Naids, a structure which is otherwise
wanting in the Tubificidae. The development of the ova also is upon a
plan which is met with in the Naids. The atrium (see p. 361) becomes
more complicated in other Tubificidae. The extremity also is as a rule
modified into a retractile penis. The discrete "prostate," of which we
have already spoken, marks out a considerable number of genera,
such as Tubifex, Limnodrilus, Spirosperma, Hemitubifex. In the marine
Clitellio there is no such structure at all, and it is also wanting in the
South American Hesperodrilus. In Branchiura there is a complete
prostatic investment of the atrium, and in Telmatodrilus a large number
of separate aggregations forming as many distinct prostates.
Vermiculus, a genus consisting of but one species, found by Mr.
Goodrich on the sea-shore in the neighbourhood of Plymouth, is
remarkable for the unpaired character of the generative organs, a
peculiarity which is shared by Stolc's genus Bothrioneuron. The gills
upon the posterior segments of Branchiura sowerbyi and Hesperodrilus
branchiatus have been already noticed above (p. 352). A very aberrant
genus, perhaps not rightly referable to this family, is Phreodrilus,[435]
from New Zealand, first collected in water from a subterranean spring. It
differs from all other Tubificids except Hesperodrilus in that the
spermathecae lie behind the male pores, a state of affairs which is met
with in the Lumbriculidae. Another singularity of structure concerns the
sperm-duct, which is wrapped in a thin-walled sac, which has every
appearance of being simply the outer muscular wall of the duct. Within
this are the complicated coils of the duct, and also a quantity of free
spermatozoa, whose mode of ingress is difficult to understand. Many of
the Tubificidae live in tubes fabricated by themselves, whence the tail
end protrudes. The integument in more than one species is vascular.
This integumental blood system, universal among the earthworms,
appears to be restricted to the present group among the Limicolae of
Claparède.
Fam. 7. Lumbriculidae.[436]—This family is not a large one, and is

nearly limited in range to Europe and North America; indeed, if we omit
the doubtful Alluroides, entirely to the Palaearctic region. There are only
fourteen species, which are referred to eight genera. A number of
dubious forms, as is the case with other families, may possibly
ultimately swell this list. The type genus of the family, viz. Lumbriculus,
upon which Bonnet made his experiments in section and subsequent
regeneration, has only within the last year been thoroughly explored
anatomically. But all the other genera are well known. The
Lumbriculidae are of small or moderate size, and all of them aquatic in
habitat. There are three characters which are nearly or quite universal
in the genera of the family. In all of them the chaetae are only eight to
each segment, arranged in couples, and are either cleft at the extremity
or simple. As a rule which has but two exceptions, the genera
Alluroides and Lumbriculus, there are two pairs of sperm-ducts, which,
however, communicate with the exterior through a single terminal
chamber on each side of the body.
The dorsal blood-vessel has in the Lumbriculidae a series of contractile

and blind appendages, which were at first mistaken for caeca of the
intestine itself. There are two genera of this family in North America,
which are not very different anatomically from their European
representatives. The genera described by Eisen are Sutroa[437] and
Eclipidrilus.[438] The latter lives in cold torrents at a great height in the
mountains of the Sierra Nevada of California.
Fam. 8. Moniligastridae.—This family, terrestrial in habit, is probably

Oriental in range; but I have described a single species from the
Bahamas which may possibly be referable to the category of
accidentally introduced specimens. Our knowledge of this family is
conveniently summed up in Professor Bourne's paper[439] upon the
genus Moniligaster. There are some eighteen species, which range in
size from an inch or so in length (M. bahamensis) to about two feet; this
last measurement is that of the huge M. grandis, of which, together with
many others, Professor Bourne gives coloured drawings. There is a
second genus, Desmogaster, which is mainly characterised by the
doubling of the reproductive organs. This was described by Rosa from
Burmah. The family is noteworthy on account of the fact that every
species belonging to it has at least four distinct gizzards, sometimes
more; but as this multiplication of the gizzards has been also found in
Heliodrilus among the Eudrilidae, and indeed elsewhere, it is insufficient
to define the family. More characteristic is the fact that the sperm-ducts
open on to the next segment to, or even the same segment as, that
which contains their funnels; consequently the apertures of the oviducts
are behind instead of in front of them. These pores are also situated in
a very anterior position, the male pores being upon the tenth segment
or between the tenth and eleventh, and the oviducal pores upon the
following one. In these features the family presents resemblance to the
aquatic Oligochaeta, from which, however, its stoutly-built gizzards, and
vascular nephridia differentiate it.
II. Megadrili.
Fam. 9. Perichaetidae.[440]—The Perichaetidae comprise a larger

number of species than any other family of earthworms; but it is a
matter of considerable difficulty to divide the family satisfactorily into
genera. The family as a whole may be defined as having numerous
chaetae in most of the segments of the body.
There is no other definition which will distinguish this family from the
next two families, and even this definition is not absolutely distinctive.
There are Acanthodrilids which have a large number of chaetae in each
segment. The only difference is that in this case—in the genus
Plagiochaeta—the chaetae are implanted in twos; this is not the case in
the Perichaetidae. In all Perichaetidae that are known the sperm-ducts
open in common with the ducts of the spermiducal glands; they
generally open into them at some distance from the common external
pore. In Megascolex, Perichaeta, and Pleionogaster the nephridia are
of the diffuse type so widely spread among these worms, and the
spermiducal glands are lobate. Megascolex differs from the others in
the fact that in addition to the small scattered nephridia there are a pair
of large nephridia in each segment, and the chaetae do not form
absolutely continuous circles, but are interrupted above and below.
Pleionogaster has more than one gizzard but otherwise agrees with
Perichaeta; it is confined to the East. Perichaeta is tropical and occurs
—no doubt introduced—in Europe and America. Megascolex is Old
World only, and, like Perichaeta, Australian as well as Oriental. But
whereas Perichaeta is rare in the Australian region, Megascolex is
common there. Perionyx and Diporochaeta are the other genera which
it is possible to recognise. Both of them have paired nephridia, and
neither of them have intestinal caeca, a peculiarity which they both
share with Megascolex and Pleionogaster. Perionyx principally differs
from Diporochaeta in that the spermiducal glands are lobate, whereas
in the latter they are as in the Acanthodrilidae. Perionyx is Oriental;
Diporochaeta occurs in Australia and New Zealand.
Fig. 196.—Perichaeta everetti F. E. B. × 1. sp, Spermathecal pores; cl,

clitellum; ♀, female pore; ♂, male pore.
A very distinctive feature of Perichaeta—perhaps only of the genus

sensu stricto—is its exceeding activity. The first specimens ever noticed
in this country, or at least of whose existence printed notice was taken,
were exhibited by the late Dr. Baird of the British Museum, at a meeting
of the Zoological Society. He remarked in that communication upon the
agile fashion in which these tropical Annelids will spring off a table
when touched or in any way interfered with. Numerous other observers
have seen the same manifestations, and the name of "eel-worm" has
been given to these Perichaeta by gardeners. It is worth putting on
record here that in a species of Acanthodrilus (A. capensis) the same
irritable behaviour is visible. When a Perichaeta moves it helps itself
greatly by extending, or rather protruding, the buccal cavity, which
serves as a sucker, and grips the ground in front until the rest of the
body is brought forward. It is possibly on account of this extra facility for
movement that the genus can climb trees with such ease. A species of
Perichaeta has been recorded by Mr. Willey upon an epiphyte of a
palm, and Dr. Benham has found that it is a new species, to which the
name of Perichaeta willeyi has been given. The Lumbricid genus (if it
be admitted as a genus), Dendrobaena, was so named on account of a
similar habit of climbing trees. Very singular in its habit is the not
inaptly-named Perichaeta musica of Java. It is a monster of its kind,
several feet in length, and during the night makes "a sharp interrupted
sound," apparently by the friction of the chaetae against stones. The
species figured (p. 381) is, as are a few others, remarkable for the
presence of twelve or seventeen spermathecae in segments 6 and 7.
Fam. 10. Cryptodrilidae.[441]—This family is one of the largest of the
Oligochaeta; there are rather over 120 different species, which can be
arranged in at least sixteen genera. They are found in most parts of the
world, but abound principally in the tropics. Australia may be
considered to be the headquarters of the family, which form its principal
earthworm-inhabitants. Peculiar to this continent, or at least mainly
confined to it, are the genera Megascolides, Cryptodrilus,
Fletcherodrilus, Trinephrus, and Digaster. Microscolex, though
occurring in many parts of the world, is characteristic of the more
southern regions of South America and of New Zealand. Tropical Africa
has the genera Nannodrilus and Millsonia limited to itself, and has
besides nearly all the species of the genus Gordiodrilus. This family is
one which it is exceedingly difficult to define and to split up into different
genera. It shades almost imperceptibly into the Perichaetidae on the
one hand, and is very hard to differentiate from the Acanthodrilidae on
the other. A Cryptodrilid, like any member of the genus Cryptodrilus,
with complete circles of chaetae would be a Perichaetid; and as there
are species of Perichaeta in which the anterior segments have only a
few chaetae in each segment, it is perhaps wrong to separate the two
families at all. Apart from the chaetae, there is no peculiarity in the
organisation of the family Perichaetidae that is not also met with in the
Cryptodrilidae. Even the highly characteristic intestinal caeca so
distinctive of the genus Perichaeta itself, as contrasted with
Megascolex and the other genera, occur, though more numerously, in
the African Millsonia, where there are forty or fifty pairs of them. A fairly
common feature in the family is the presence of two, or even three,
pairs of gizzards, a character which is also met with in the genus
Benhamia among the Acanthodrilidae, and occurs also in some other
families. The names Digaster, Didymogaster, Perissogaster, and
Dichogaster have been founded upon this character. The excretory
organs may be paired (in Trinephrus there are three pairs to each
segment) or of the diffuse kind. The male pores are usually upon the
eighteenth segment, but not unfrequently upon the seventeenth, and
are often armed with long and ornamented chaetae. Spermiducal
glands are invariably present, and may be lobate or tubular. There are
two groups of small-sized genera, which in their simplicity of
organisation stand at the base of the series; but it is very possible that
the simplification is rather due to degeneration than to primitive
position. One of these groups includes the semi-marine genus
Pontodrilus (with which I include the phosphorescent Photodrilus) and
Microscolex. In these forms the gizzard has disappeared, or is
represented by a rudimentary structure, and the male pores are upon
the seventeenth segment. In the other group are the genera
Ocnerodrilus,[442] Gordiodrilus,[443] and Nannodrilus, which are of even
smaller size, and have in the same way the male pores upon the
seventeenth segment. The species of this group are often aquatic, and
there is not only no gizzard (in most of the species), but the calciferous
glands have been reduced to a single pair, which lie in the ninth
segment. The latter character is also found in the Acanthodrilid Kerria,
which has been associated with the above named. Gordiodrilus has the
peculiarity that there are, as in Acanthodrilids, two pairs of tubular
spermiducal glands.
Fam. 11. Acanthodrilidae.[444]—This family is only with difficulty to be

distinguished from the last. The following definition applies to all the
members of the family with one exception, and does not apply to any
Cryptodrilid with, so far as is known, one exception only. There are two
pairs of spermiducal glands, opening upon the segments in front of and
behind that which bears the apertures of the sperm-ducts.
The one exception to this definition is the species Acanthodrilus

monocystis, which I formerly placed in a distinct genus, Neodrilus.
Microscolex modestus is the exception among the Cryptodrilidae; in
that worm the male pores are upon the segment which follows that
upon which the spermiducal glands open. The Acanthodrilidae show a
considerable range of structural variation. This enables them to be
separated into several well-marked genera. The type genus
Acanthodrilus has a pair of nephridia in each segment. It contains thirty-
five species, which are all from the southern hemisphere. These
species show but little variation among themselves. Benhamia is a
genus that differs from Acanthodrilus in the fact that the nephridia are of
the complex type, so often met with in earthworms with many external
pores. The segment that bears the male pores is entirely without any
traces of the ventral chaetae. Here again there are a large number of
species which are nearly confined to the continent of Africa. Dr.
Michaelsen is indeed of opinion that the few species found in the East
Indies and America are accidental importations. I have proposed to
separate some of the New Zealand Acanthodrilids into a distinct genus,
Octochaetus, which is somewhat intermediate between Acanthodrilus
and Benhamia. They have multiple nephridia, but only a single gizzard.
Plagiochaeta of Benham, from New Zealand, is in any case clearly a
distinct form. It is mainly to be distinguished by the numerous chaetae
in each segment. Trigaster Benham, is West Indian. Deinodrilus (New
Zealand) has twelve chaetae in each segment. Diplocardia, from North
America, has the male pores on segments 18, 19, 20.
Fam. 12. Eudrilidae.[445]—This is perhaps the most remarkable family

of terrestrial Oligochaeta. Its distribution is no less curious than its
structure. Up to the present it is not known outside tropical Africa, with
the exception of the genus Eudrilus itself, which is almost world-wide in
range. As, however, but one species of Eudrilus is found out of Africa,
and as that species is so common in gatherings from various tropical
countries, it seems to be an instance of a species with large capacities
for accidental transference from country to country. The type genus,
Eudrilus, has been known since 1871, when it was originally described
by M. Perrier.[446] Since that date nineteen other genera have been
described from Africa by Dr. Michaelsen, Dr. Rosa, and myself. The
most salient external character of the group, not universal but general,
is the unpaired male and female orifices. The orifices are commonly
very conspicuous (see Fig. 197).

Edexcel International Gcse Chemistry Student Book Second Edition Graham Hill Full Chapter

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Edexcel International GCSE Chemistry

Student Book Second Edition Graham

● Add, edit and synchronise notes across two devices

● Access their personal copy on the move

The Acknowledgments are listed on page viii.

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Section 1 Principles of chemistry 1

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Section 2 Inorganic Chemistry

Section 3 Physical Chemistry

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Section 4 Organic Chemistry

Periodic Table 273

Relative atomic masses 274

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Getting the most from this book

Practical boxes tell you whether

Maths tips give you additional help

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✓ I know that fractional distillation of crude oil hydrogen

At the end of each Chapter you will

find Study Questions. Work through

these in class or on your own for

At the end of each Section, Before you try the Exam-style

You will find Exam-style questions

Answers for all questions and activities in this

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1.1 Particles and solubility

Figure 1.1 Everyday evidence for particles.

All materials are made up of particles.

water particles magnified sugar particles mixed

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REQUIRED PRACTICAL Solvents, solutes and solutions

bottom of the beaker. 39

160 sodium nitrate

on the horizontal x-axis multiplied by 20

Figure 1.4 Solubility curves for four substances.

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Finding solubilities by evaporation

■■ How large are the particles of substances?

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When potassium manganate(VII) dissolves, its particles spread throughout

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1.2 Particles in motion

Figure 2.1 Fish and chips.

water 1 day later

Figure 2.3 Demonstrating diffusion in a liquid.

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You can investigate diffusion in liquids using blackcurrant juice.

Particle motion and temperature

■■ The kinetic theory of matter

Figure 2.5 Particles in a liquid. Figure 2.6 Particles in a gas.

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GAS ■■ Changes of state

Figure 2.7. These changes are usually caused by heating or cooling.

sin Melting and freezing

Evaporating and boiling

The temperature at which a liquid boils is called its boiling point.

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1.3 Atoms and molecules

■■ Representing atoms with symbols

Section 1 Principles of chemistry 1

■■ Separating an insoluble solid from a liquid

■■ Electronic configurations of elements